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78-510: William Floyd Collins (July 20, 1887 – c. February 13, 1925) was an American cave explorer , principally in a region of Kentucky that houses hundreds of miles of interconnected caves , today a part of Mammoth Cave National Park , the longest known cave system in the world. During the early 20th century, in an era known as the Kentucky Cave Wars , spelunkers and property owners entered into bitter competition to exploit

156-544: A bluff on the Collins farm, Floyd noticed cool air coming from a hole in the ground. Upon widening the hole, he was able to drop down into a cavity that was part of a passage blocked by breakdown. In December 1917, after further excavation of the breakdown, Floyd discovered the sinkhole entrance to what he would later name "Great Crystal Cave." Lee Collins deeded Floyd a half interest in the cave, and they immediately decided to commercialize it. After tremendous preparation by

234-604: A cave in 1934) can be directly associated to the exploration of the Dent de Crolles cave system. In 1941, American cavers organized themselves into the National Speleological Society (NSS) to advance the exploration, conservation, study and understanding of caves in the United States. American caver Bill Cuddington , known as "Vertical Bill", further developed the single-rope technique (SRT) in

312-463: A circus-like atmosphere. The Sand Cave rescue attempt grew to become the third-biggest media event between the world wars. (The biggest media events of that time both involved Charles Lindbergh —the trans-Atlantic flight and his son's kidnapping—and Lindbergh actually had a minor role in the Sand Cave rescue, too, having been hired to fly photographic negatives from the scene for a newspaper.) Since

390-456: A disregard for safety. Many caving skills overlap with those involved in canyoning and mine and urban exploration . Caving is often undertaken for the enjoyment of the outdoor activity or for physical exercise, as well as original exploration, similar to mountaineering or diving . Physical or biological science is also an important goal for some cavers, while others are engaged in cave photography. Virgin cave systems comprise some of

468-442: A dissolution of existing features. Pollution is also of concern. Since water that flows through a cave eventually comes out in streams and rivers, any pollution may ultimately end up in someone's drinking water, and can even seriously affect the surface environment, as well. Even minor pollution such as dropping organic material can have a dramatic effect on the cave biota. Cave-dwelling species are also very fragile, and often,

546-503: A flexible metal ladder . In addition to the equipment already described, cavers frequently carry packs containing first-aid kits, emergency equipment, and food. Containers for securely transporting urine are also commonly carried. On longer trips, containers for securely transporting feces out of the cave are carried. During very long trips, it may be necessary to camp in the cave – some cavers have stayed underground for many days, or in particularly extreme cases, for weeks at

624-499: A group for companionship or to provide emergency help if needed. Some however consider the assistance cavers give each other as a typical team sport activity. The term potholing refers to the act of exploring potholes , a word originating in the north of England for predominantly vertical caves . Clay Perry , an American caver of the 1940s, wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout New England . This group referred to themselves as spelunkers ,

702-400: A large grotto chamber , though its existence was never verified. He worked on creating a more practical entrance to the grotto for several hours a day and weeks on end in order to make it more accessible to tourists. On January 30, 1925, after several hours of work, his gas lamp began to dim. He attempted to leave the passage quickly, before losing all light to the chamber, but became trapped in

780-525: A particular species found in a cave may live within that cave alone, and be found nowhere else in the world, such as Alabama cave shrimp . Cave-dwelling species are accustomed to a near-constant climate of temperature and humidity, and any disturbance can be disruptive to the species' life cycles. Though cave wildlife may not always be immediately visible, it is typically nonetheless present in most caves. Bats are one such fragile species of cave-dwelling animal. Bats which hibernate are most vulnerable during

858-534: A pristine floor of sand or silt which may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave. Such deposits may easily be spoiled forever by a single misplaced step. Active formations such as flowstone can be similarly marred with a muddy footprint or handprint, and ancient human artifacts, such as fiber products, may even crumble to dust under all but the most gentle touch. In 1988, concerned that cave resources were becoming increasingly damaged through unregulated use, Congress enacted

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936-424: A rock collapse in the cave closed the entrance passageway, stranding him inside, except for voice contact, for another 10 days. Collins died of thirst and hunger , compounded by exposure through hypothermia after being isolated for a total of 14 days, three days before a rescue shaft reached his position. Collins' body was recovered two months later. Although Collins was unknown publicly for most of his lifetime,

1014-472: A rustic porch, or a rocky overhang. Inside, they are decorated as a temple or with fountains, stalactites , and imitation gems and shells (sometimes made in ceramic); herms and mermaids, mythological subjects suited to the space; and naiads , or river gods whose urns spilled water into pools. Damp grottoes were cool places to retreat from the Italian sun, but they also became fashionable in the cool drizzle of

1092-401: A shaft straight down to reach the chamber behind Collins. Collins survived for more than a week while rescue efforts were organized. The cave drew air inward, meaning no mechanical equipment could be used to dig into the cave, as it was feared that the fumes would suffocate Collins in the process. A 55-foot (17 m) shaft would have to be dug downwards with nothing but pickaxes and shovels. It

1170-454: A small cave on the neighbor's property. On January 30, 1925, while working to enlarge the small passage in Sand Cave, Collins became trapped in a narrow crawlway 55 feet (17 m) below ground. The rescue operation to save him became a national media sensation and one of the first major news stories to be reported using the new technology of broadcast radio . After four days, during which rescuers were able to bring water and food to Collins,

1248-429: A small passage on his way out. Collins accidentally knocked over his lamp, putting out the light, leading to misplacement of his foot on what seemed to be a stable wall of the cave. The passage shifted, and he was caught by a 26.5-pound (12.0 kg) rock that fell from the cave ceiling, pinning his left leg; additionally, torrents of loose gravel fell and completely buried his body. He was trapped 150 feet (46 m) from

1326-582: A team of 15 men three days to remove the casket and tombstone from the cave. The story is referenced in the 1951 film Ace in the Hole starring Kirk Douglas. Author Sharyn McCrumb wrote about this event in "The Devil Amongst the Lawyers." Collins' life and death inspired the musical Floyd Collins by Adam Guettel and Tina Landau , as well as one film documentary, several books, a museum and many short songs. In 2006, actor Billy Bob Thornton optioned

1404-711: A term derived from the Latin spēlunca ("cave, cavern, den"). This is regarded as the first use of the word in the Americas . Throughout the 1950s, spelunking was the general term used for exploring caves in US English . It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US. In the 1960s, the terms spelunking and spelunker began to be considered déclassé among experienced enthusiasts. In 1985, Steve Knutson – editor of

1482-424: A time. This is particularly the case when exploring or mapping extensive cave systems, where it would be impractical to retrace the route back to the surface regularly. Such long trips necessitate the cavers carrying provisions, sleeping, and cooking equipment. Caves can be dangerous places; hypothermia, falling , flooding , falling rocks and physical exhaustion are the main risks. Rescuing people from underground

1560-476: Is also related by a historical accident to the word grotesque . In the late 15th century, Romans accidentally unearthed Nero 's Domus Aurea on the Palatine Hill , a series of rooms, decorated with designs of garlands, slender architectural framework, foliage, and animals. The rooms had sunk underground over time. The Romans who discovered this historical monument found it very strange, partly because it

1638-400: Is difficult and time-consuming, and requires special skills, training, and equipment. Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers (often other long-time cavers who have participated in specialized courses, as normal rescue staff are not sufficiently experienced in cave environments), who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue. This said, caving

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1716-492: Is dug out under a rock or between two boulders, where subterranean air currents keep the room cool. Often a grotto had a second floor with another one or two rooms for the fermentation cask and tools of the vintage. In front of the grotto were a table and benches of stone, where the farmers could rest and refresh themselves. The popularity of artificial grottoes introduced the Mannerist style to Italian and French gardens of

1794-413: Is not necessarily a high-risk sport (especially if it does not involve difficult climbs or diving). As in all physical sports, knowing one's limitations is key. Caving in warmer climates carries the risk of contracting histoplasmosis , a fungal infection that is contracted from bird or bat droppings. It can cause pneumonia and can disseminate in the body to cause continued infections. In many parts of

1872-434: Is used, to provide some abrasion protection while remaining as cool as possible. Wetsuits may be worn if the cave is particularly wet or involves stream passages. On the feet boots are worn – hiking-style boots in drier caves, or rubber boots (such as wellies ) often with neoprene socks ("wetsocks") in wetter caves. Knee -pads (and sometimes elbow -pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls. Depending on

1950-511: The Dent de Crolles cave system near Grenoble , which became the deepest explored system in the world (-658m) at that time. The lack of available equipment during the war forced Pierre Chevalier and the rest of the team to develop their own equipment, leading to technical innovation. The scaling-pole (1940), nylon ropes (1942), use of explosives in caves (1947) and mechanical rope-ascenders (Henri Brenot's "monkeys", first used by Chevalier and Brenot in

2028-610: The Federal Cave Resources Protection Act , giving land management agencies in the United States expanded authority to manage cave conservation on public land. Cavers in many countries have created organizations for the administration and oversight of caving activities within their nations. The oldest of these is the French Federation of Speleology (originally Société de spéléologie) founded by Édouard-Alfred Martel in 1895, which produced

2106-426: The National Speleological Society (NSS) publication American Caving Accidents  – made the following distinction: …Note that (in this case) the term 'spelunker' denotes someone untrained and unknowledgeable in current exploration techniques, and 'caver' is for those who are. This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and T-shirts displayed by some cavers: "Cavers rescue spelunkers". Nevertheless, outside

2184-432: The rappel rack and the evolution of mechanical ascension systems extended the practice and safety of vertical exploration to a wider range of cavers. Hard hats are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. The caver's primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free. Electric LED lights are most common. Many cavers carry two or more sources of light – one as primary and

2262-474: The surveying and mapping of caves and the formal publication of their efforts. These are usually published freely and publicly, especially in the UK and other European countries, although in the US they are generally more private. Although caving is sometimes categorized as an " extreme sport ," cavers do not commonly use this terminology and typically dislike the term being used in reference to caving, as it implies

2340-599: The Île-de-France . In the Kuskovo Estate, there is the Grotto Pavilion, built between 1755 and 1761. Grottoes could also serve as baths; an example of this is at the Palazzo del Te , in the 'Casino della Grotta', where a small suite of intimate rooms is laid out around a grotto and loggetta (covered balcony). Courtiers once bathed in the small cascade that splashed over the pebbles and shells encrusted in

2418-821: The 1890s, Balch was introduced to the caves of the Mendip Hills . One of the oldest established caving clubs, Yorkshire Ramblers' Club , was founded in 1892. Caving as a specialized pursuit was pioneered by Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938), who first achieved the descent and exploration of the Gouffre de Padirac , in France, as early as 1889 and the first complete descent of a 110-metre wet vertical shaft at Gaping Gill in 1895. He developed his own techniques based on ropes and metallic ladders. Martel visited Kentucky and notably Mammoth Cave National Park in October 1912. In

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2496-725: The 1920s famous US caver Floyd Collins made important explorations in the area and in the 1930s, as caving became increasingly popular, small exploration teams both in the Alps and in the karstic high plateaus of southwest France ( Causses and Pyrenees ) transformed cave exploration into both a scientific and recreational activity. Robert de Joly , Guy de Lavaur and Norbert Casteret were prominent figures of that time, surveying mostly caves in Southwest France. During World War II , an alpine team composed of Pierre Chevalier , Fernand Petzl , Charles Petit-Didier and others explored

2574-567: The Louisville Fire Department, and family friend Johnnie Gerald crossed the boundary in the coming days. Homer brought Floyd food and liquids to retain his energy, and many ideas were thought up by locals and tourists alike as techniques to get Floyd out of the cave. On February 2, 1925, a plan was devised to hoist Collins from the cave using a harness, rope, and the strength of multiple men. This attempt failed and it injured Collins, pulling his torso directly upwards and against

2652-908: The Speleological Society of the District of Columbia on May 6, 1939). An international speleological congress was proposed at a meeting in Valence-sur-Rhone, France in 1949 and first held in 1953 in Paris. The International Union of Speleology (UIS) was founded in 1965. Grotto A grotto ( grot ) is a natural or artificial cave used by humans in both modern times and antiquity, and historically or prehistorically. Naturally occurring grottoes are often small caves near water that are usually flooded or often flooded at high tide . Sometimes, artificial grottoes are used as garden features . The Grotta Azzurra at Capri and

2730-489: The age of six in search of Native American artifacts to sell to tourists at the Mammoth Cave Hotel. In 1910 Floyd discovered his first cave, Donkey's Cave, on the Collins farm. In 1912, Edmund Turner, a geologist , hired Floyd to show him caves of the region. Consequently, Turner and Floyd assisted with the discovery of Dossey's Dome Cave in 1912 and Great Onyx Cave in 1915. In September 1917, while climbing up

2808-481: The bounty of caves for commercial profit from tourists, who paid to see the caves. In 1917 and 1918, Collins discovered and commercialized Great Crystal Cave in the Flint Ridge Cave System , but the cave was remote and visitors were few. Collins had an ambition to find another cave he could open to the public closer to the main roads, and entered into an agreement with a neighbor to open up Sand Cave,

2886-426: The cave being visited; in addition to the total absence of light beyond the entrance, negotiating pitches , squeezes, and water hazards can be difficult. Cave diving is a distinct, and more hazardous, sub-speciality undertaken by a small minority of technically proficient cavers. In an area of overlap between recreational pursuit and scientific study, the most devoted and serious-minded cavers become accomplished at

2964-467: The caving community, "spelunking" and "spelunkers" predominately remain neutral terms referring to the practice and practitioners, without any respect to skill level. In the mid-nineteenth century, John Birkbeck explored potholes in England, notably Gaping Gill in 1842 and Alum Pot in 1847–8, returning there in the 1870s. In the mid-1880s, Herbert E. Balch began exploring Wookey Hole Caves and in

3042-470: The ceiling of rock above him. Rescuers ultimately decided the best way to get him out was to dig out each rock that surrounded him and leverage the large rock off his foot. Eventually, an electric light was run down the passage to provide him lighting and some warmth. Due to the attention the disaster gained, hundreds of inexperienced cave explorers and tourists stood outside the mouth of the cave. The cool winter air caused them to light campfires that disrupted

3120-598: The city, made to look natural. At the great Roman sanctuary of Praeneste south of Rome, the oldest portion of the primitive sanctuary was situated on the second lowest terrace, in a grotto in the natural rock where a spring developed into a well. According to tradition, Praeneste's sacred spring had a native nymph , who was honored in a grotto-like watery nymphaeum . In Ticino , the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland, grottoes were places where wine and food were stored and preserved. They were built by exploiting

3198-451: The country and abroad, and the rescue attempts were followed by regular news bulletins on the new medium of broadcast radio (the first broadcast radio station KDKA having been established in 1920). Shortly after the media arrived, the publicity drew crowds of tourists to the site, at one point numbering in the tens of thousands. Collins' neighbors sold hamburgers for 25 cents. Other vendors set up stands to sell food and souvenirs, creating

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3276-550: The death of his mother, Floyd's father remarried to Serilda Jane "Miss Jane" ( née Tapscott), who was the widow of a caver who died in 1915. Miss Jane died in 1926, just a year after Floyd, after which Lee remarried for a third time. Floyd Collins was born on the Collins family farm, located approximately 4 miles (6.4 km) east of Mammoth Cave near the Green River in Kentucky . Floyd began entering caves by himself at

3354-516: The entire family, the transformed show cave was opened to tourists in April 1918. However, the cave attracted a low number of tourists due to its remote location. Collins hoped to find either another entrance to the Mammoth Cave or an unknown cave along the road to Mammoth Cave in order to draw more visitors and reap greater profits. He made an agreement with three farmers who owned land closer to

3432-471: The entrance. Neighbors began to worry for Floyd the next day, and sought out to find him. Though none of them were brave enough to take on the smaller passages it took to reach Collins, they were able to get close enough to communicate with him and learn he was trapped. His younger brother Homer was soon phoned to the scene, and was the only person able to make it through the small passages to get to Floyd before reporter Skeets Miller, Lieutenant Robert Burdon of

3510-444: The environment of the cave being explored, and the local culture. In cold caves, the caver may wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a fleece ("furry") suit or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., cordura ) or waterproof (e.g., PVC ) material. Lighter clothing may be worn in warm caves, particularly if the cave is dry, and in tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing

3588-641: The fame he gained from the rescue efforts and his death resulted in him being memorialized on his tombstone as the "Greatest Cave Explorer Ever Known". William Floyd Collins was born on July 20, 1887, the son of Leonidas "Lee" Collins (1858–1936) and Martha Jane ( née Burnett) (1862–1915). The Collins family had already suffered hardship prior to Floyd's death in 1925, as his mother Martha died from tuberculosis in 1915, and his older brother James Collins had died in 1922 from Typhoid fever . Floyd's siblings included Homer Collins (1902–1969), Nellie Collins (1900–1970), and Marshal (1897–1981), Anna, and Andy Collins. After

3666-410: The film rights to Trapped! The Story of Floyd Collins and a screenplay was adapted by Thornton's writing partner, Tom Epperson . However, Thornton's option expired and the film rights were acquired by producer Peter R. J. Deyell in 2011. Fiddlin' John Carson and Vernon Dalhart recorded "The Death of Floyd Collins" in 1925. Caving The challenges involved in caving vary according to

3744-478: The first periodical journal in speleology, Spelunca . The first University-based speleological institute in the world was founded in 1920 in Cluj-Napoca , Romania, by Emil Racovita , a Romanian biologist, zoologist, speleologist and explorer of Antarctica. The British Speleological Association was established in 1935 and the National Speleological Society in the US was founded in 1941 (originally formed as

3822-631: The floor and walls. Grottoes have also served as chapels , or at Villa Farnese at Caprarola, a little theater designed in the grotto manner. They were often combined with cascading fountains in Renaissance gardens. The grotto designed by Bernard Palissy for Catherine de' Medici 's château in Paris , the Tuileries , was renowned. There are also grottoes in the gardens designed by André Le Nôtre for Versailles . In England, an early garden grotto

3900-530: The grotto at Tiberius ' Villa Jovis in the Bay of Naples are examples of popular natural seashore grottoes. Whether in tidal water or high up in hills, grottoes are generally made up of limestone geology , where the acidity of standing water has dissolved the carbonates in the rock matrix as it passes through what were originally small fissures. The word grotto comes from Italian grotta , Vulgar Latin grupta , and Latin crypta ("a crypt "). It

3978-888: The grotto under Venusberg, which is figured in Wagner 's Tannhäuser . Although grottoes have largely fallen from fashion since the British Picturesque movement, architects and artists occasionally try to redefine the grotto in contemporary design works. Such examples include Frederick Kiesler 's Grotto of Meditation for New Harmony (1964), ARM'st post-modern Storey Hall (1995), Aranda/Lasch's Grotto Concept, (2005), DSDHA 's Potters Field Park Pavilions (2008) , Callum Moreton's Grotto pavilion (2010), and Antonino Cardillo 's Grottoes series (2013–2023). Today, artificial grottoes are purchased and built for ornamental and devotional purposes. They are often used as shrines in which to place statues of saints, particularly

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4056-431: The hole, but the pace of work slowed as they dug nearer to Collins. A radio amplifier had been jerry-rigged to the copper wire that connected Collins's light bulb. A scientist believed the amplifier could detect vibrations whenever Collins moved. The amplifier crackled 20 times every minute, a hopeful sign that Collins might be breathing. On February 11, 1925, tests showed that Collins' light bulb had gone out, meaning there

4134-460: The homestead and cave to Dr. Harry Thomas, dentist and owner of Mammoth Onyx Cave and Hidden River Cave. The new owner placed Collins' body in a glass-topped coffin and exhibited it in Crystal Cave for many years. On the night of March 18–19, 1929, the body was stolen. The body was later recovered, having been found in a nearby field, but the injured left leg was missing. After this desecration,

4212-446: The landscape gardens of Painshill Park , Stowe , Clandon Park , and Stourhead . Scott's Grotto is a series of interconnected chambers, extending 67 ft (20 metres) into the chalk hillside on the outskirts of Ware, Hertfordshire . Built during the late 18th century, the chambers and tunnels are lined with shells, flints, and pieces of colored glass. The Romantic generation of tourists might not actually visit Fingal's Cave , on

4290-586: The last unexplored regions on Earth and much effort is put into trying to locate, enter and survey them. In well-explored regions (such as most developed nations), the most accessible caves have already been explored, and gaining access to new caves often requires cave digging or cave diving. Caving, in certain areas, has also been utilized as a form of eco and adventure tourism, for example in New Zealand . Tour companies have established an industry leading and guiding tours into and through caves. Depending on

4368-635: The late 1950s. In 1958, two Swiss alpinists, Juesi and Marti teamed together, creating the first rope ascender known as the Jumar . In 1968 Bruno Dressler asked Fernand Petzl, who worked as a metals machinist, to build a rope-ascending tool, today known as the Petzl Croll , that he had developed by adapting the Jumar to vertical caving. Pursuing these developments, Petzl started in the 1970s a caving equipment manufacturing company named Petzl . The development of

4446-419: The lateral tunnel and positively identify the body. Dr. William Hazlett and Captain C.E. Francis, a National Guard medical officer, were then unsuccessful in an attempt to reach the body, but Brenner went in front of them to the body and was able to follow their examination instructions for the official death declaration to be made. It was estimated Floyd had been dead for three to five days, with February 13 being

4524-436: The main highway. If he found a cave, they would form a business partnership and share in the responsibilities of operating the ensuing tourist attraction. Working alone, Collins explored and expanded a hole within three weeks that would later be called "Sand Cave" by the news media. Collins managed to squeeze through several narrow passageways, one of which was reported as being no larger than 9" tall, and claimed he had discovered

4602-657: The mid-16th century. Two famous grottoes in the Boboli Gardens of Palazzo Pitti were begun by Vasari and completed by Ammanati and Buontalenti between 1583 and 1593. One of these grottoes originally housed the Prisoners of Michelangelo . Before the Boboli grotto, a garden was laid out by Niccolò Tribolo at the Medici Villa Castello , near Florence . At Pratolino , in spite of the dryness of

4680-758: The morphology of rocks and boulders, to create rooms with a cool climate suitable for food, particularly milk and cheese, as well as potatoes, sausages, and wine storage. The importance of these cellars is demonstrated in their number; for example, there are 40 grotti in Maggia , no fewer in Moghegno , and about 70 in Cevio behind Case Franzoni. Some grotti have been opened to the public, as in Avegno , but most have lost their original character as they became rustic restaurants which serve basic local food and drink. A true grotto

4758-537: The most likely date of death. Newspaper reporter William Burke "Skeets" Miller from The Courier-Journal in Louisville reported on the rescue efforts from the scene. Miller, of small stature, was able to remove a lot of earth from around Collins. He also interviewed Collins in the cave, receiving a Pulitzer Prize for his coverage and playing a part in Collins' attempted rescue. Miller's reports were distributed by telegraph and were printed by newspapers across

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4836-415: The natural ice within Sand Cave, causing it to melt and create puddles of cool water; one of which Floyd himself lay in. On February 4, the cave passage collapsed in two places due to the ice melting. Attempts were made to dig the passages that led to Floyd back out, but rescue leaders, led by Henry St. George Tucker Carmichael, determined the cave impassable and too dangerous, which brought the decision to dig

4914-610: The nature of the cave, gloves are sometimes worn to protect the hands against abrasion or cold. In pristine areas and for restoration, clean oversuits and powder-free, non-latex surgical gloves are used to protect the cave itself from contaminants. Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches (single rope technique or SRT) or for protection. Knots commonly used in caving are the figure-of-eight - (or figure-of-nine -) loop, bowline , alpine butterfly , and Italian hitch . Ropes are usually rigged using bolts , slings , and carabiners . In some cases cavers may choose to bring and use

4992-468: The nearest telegraph station was in Cave City, some miles from the cave, two amateur radio operators with the callsigns 9BRK and 9CHG provided the link to pass messages to the authorities and the press. With Collins's body remaining in the cave, funeral services were held on the surface. Homer Collins was not pleased with Sand Cave as his brother's grave, and two months later, he and some friends reopened

5070-430: The others as backup in case the first fails. More often than not, a second light will be mounted to the helmet for quick transition if the primary fails. Carbide lamp systems are an older form of illumination, inspired by miner's equipment, and are still used by some cavers, particularly on remote expeditions where electric charging facilities are not available. The type of clothes worn underground varies according to

5148-472: The remains were kept in a secluded portion of Crystal Cave in a chained casket. In 1961, Crystal Cave was purchased by Mammoth Cave National Park and closed to the public. The Collins family had objected to Collins' body being displayed in the cave and, at their request, the National Park Service re-interred him at Mammoth Cave Baptist Church Cemetery , Mammoth Cave, Kentucky in 1989. It took

5226-487: The remote isle of Staffa in the Scottish Hebrides , but they have often heard of it, perhaps through Felix Mendelssohn 's " Hebrides Overture ", better known as " Fingal's Cave ", which was inspired by his visit. In the 19th century, when miniature Matterhorns and rock gardens became fashionable, a grotto was often found, such as at Ascott House . In Bavaria, Ludwig 's Linderhof contains an abstraction of

5304-483: The shaft. They dug a new tunnel to the opposite side of the cave passage and recovered Floyd Collins' remains on April 23, 1925. The body was taken that day to Cave City for embalming at J.T. Geralds and Brothers funeral home. Following a 2-day visitation at the funeral home, on April 26, 1925, his body was transported to the Collins family farm and buried on the hillside over Great Crystal Cave, which Lee Collins renamed "Floyd Collins' Crystal Cave." In 1927, Lee Collins sold

5382-590: The site, there was a Grotto of Cupid (surviving), with water tricks for the unsuspecting visitor. The Fonte di Fata Morgana ("Fata Morgana's Spring") at Grassina, not far from Florence, is a small garden building, built in 1573–74 as a garden feature in the extensive grounds of the Villa "Riposo" (rest) of Bernardo Vecchietti. It is decorated with sculptures in the Giambolognan manner. The outsides of garden grottoes are often designed to look like an enormous rock,

5460-469: The slightest touch and some by impacts as slight as a breath. Research suggests that increased carbon dioxide levels can lead to "a higher equilibrium concentration of calcium within the drip waters feeding the speleothems, and hence causes dissolution of existing features." In 2008, researchers found evidence that respiration from cave visitors may generate elevated carbon dioxide concentrations in caves, leading to increased temperatures of up to 3 °C and

5538-426: The type of cave and the type of tour, the experience could be adventure-based or ecological-based. There are tours led through lava tubes by a guiding service (e.g. Lava River Cave , the oceanic islands of Tenerife , Iceland and Hawaii ). Caving has also been described as an "individualist's team sport" by some, as cavers can often make a trip without direct physical assistance from others but will generally go in

5616-664: The warmer months when they are most sensitive and vulnerable. Due to an affliction affecting bats in the northeastern US known as white nose syndrome (WNS), the US Fish & Wildlife Service has called for a moratorium effective March 26, 2009, on caving activity in states known to have hibernacula (MD, NY, VT, NH, MA, CT, NJ, PA, VA, and WV) affected by WNS, as well as adjoining states. Some cave passages may be marked with flagging tape or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas. Marked paths may show ways around notably fragile areas such as

5694-408: The winter season, when no food supply exists on the surface to replenish the bat's store of energy should it be awakened from hibernation. Bats which migrate are most sensitive during the summer months when they are raising their young. For these reasons, visiting caves inhabited by hibernating bats is discouraged during cold months; and visiting caves inhabited by migratory bats is discouraged during

5772-427: The world, leptospirosis ("a type of bacterial infection spread by animals" including rats ) is a distinct threat, owing to the presence of rat urine in rainwater or precipitation that enters the caves water system. Complications are uncommon, but can be serious. Safety risks while caving can be minimized by using a number of techniques: Many cave environments are very fragile. Many speleothems can be damaged by even

5850-458: Was built at Wilton House in the 1630s, probably by Isaac de Caus . Grottoes were suitable for less formal gardens too. Pope's Grotto , created by Alexander Pope , is almost all that survives of one of the first landscape gardens in England, at Twickenham . Pope was inspired after seeing grottoes in Italy during a visit there. Efforts are underway to restore his grotto. There are grottoes in

5928-432: Was estimated that the team of 75 volunteer workers would be able to dig this shaft within 30 hours, at a rate of 2 feet (0.61 m) per hour. The first ton of dirt moved efficiently, though around 10 feet (3.0 m), the shaft became so narrow only two men could work at a time. By 15 feet (4.6 m), workers hit boulders under the surface and began to use pickaxes. A series of pulley systems were used to remove rocks from

6006-407: Was no way to tell if he was still alive. The 55-foot (17 m) shaft and subsequent lateral tunnel intersected the cave just above Collins, but when he was finally reached on Monday, February 16, by miner Ed Brenner, he was "cold and apparently dead." Having been appointed as the members of a coroner's jury, Floyd's friend, Johnnie Gerald, and a few other acquaintances of Floyd were allowed to go into

6084-561: Was uncovered from an "underworld" source. This led the Romans of that era to give it the name grottesca , from which came the French grotesque . Grottoes were very popular in Greek and Roman culture. Spring-fed grottoes were a feature of Apollo's oracles at Delphi , Corinth , and Clarus . The Hellenistic city of Rhodes was designed with rock-cut artificial grottoes incorporated into

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