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157-417: Currently, the once mighty wilderness, which once stretched from Kraków to Lviv , now extends from Tarnobrzeg in the north, to the suburbs of Rzeszów in the south. It is regarded as one of the wildest forested areas of Poland. Among animals living here, one can find various birds, deer, wild pigs, moles, foxes, wolves, snakes, various spiders and insects. The area of the forest is 129,115.6 hectares, and it

314-567: A levée en masse , called for a military campaign against Moldavia . However, the lesser and middle strata of the nobility called a rebellion, or semi-legal rebellion, to force the King to abandon his risky reforms. The nobles presented him with 36 demands, most notably: a cessation of further land acquisitions by Queen Bona , exemption of the nobility from the tithes, a clean-up of the Treasury rather than its expansion, confirmation and extension of

471-652: A Duke of Silesia by the authority of his brother Ladislaus II of Bohemia , but like other Jagiellon rulers before him, he had not pursued the Polish Crown's claim to Silesia. After the death of King Alexander I , Sigismund I arrived in Vilnius , where he was elected by the Lithuanian Ducal Council on 13 September 1506 as Grand Duke of Lithuania , contrary to the Union of Mielnik , which involved

628-470: A coat of arms , a flag, a seal, and a banner. Responsibilities of Kraków's president include drafting and implementing resolutions, enacting city bylaws, managing the city budget, employing city administrators, and preparing against floods and natural disasters . The president fulfills his duties with the help of the City Council, city managers and city inspectors. In the 1990s, the city government

785-690: A "free lord" ( pan – dominus ). When the news arrived in Poland concerning the proclamation of Casimir IV Jagiellon as the Grand Duke of Lithuania, it was met with hostility, even to the point of military threats against Lithuania. Since the young Lithuanian Grand Duke was underage, the supreme control over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in the hands of the Lithuanian Council of Lords, presided by Jonas Goštautas, while Casimir IV Jagiellon

942-412: A 100 km (62 mi) radius. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596, and has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life. Cited as one of Europe 's most beautiful cities, its Old Town was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978, one of the world's first sites granted the status. The city began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and

1099-632: A boy by Władysław III on a mission there in 1440, was surprisingly proclaimed by the Lithuanians as a Grand Duke of Lithuania , and he stayed in Lithuania. Oleśnicki gained the upper hand again and pursued his long-term objective of Poland's union with Hungary . At that time the Ottoman Empire embarked on a new round of European conquests and threatened Hungary, which needed the powerful Polish–Lithuanian ally. In 1440 Władysław III assumed

1256-640: A degree of autonomy to Galicia after its own defeat in the Austro-Prussian War . Kraków, being politically freer than the Polish cities under Prussian (later German) and Russian rule, became a Polish national symbol and a centre of culture and art, known frequently as the "Polish Athens" ( Polskie Ateny ). Many leading Polish artists of the period resided in Kraków, among them the seminal painter Jan Matejko , laid to rest at Rakowicki Cemetery , and

1413-635: A degree of autonomy within its own municipal government. Prior to March 1991, the city had been divided into four quarters which still give a sense of identity to Kraków: the towns of Podgórze , Nowa Huta and Krowodrza , which were amalgamated into the city as it expanded; and the ancient town centre of Kraków itself. Jagiellonian dynasty The Jagiellonian ( US : / ˌ j ɑː ɡ j ə ˈ l oʊ n i ə n / YAH -gyə- LOH -nee-ən ) or Jagellonian dynasty ( US : / ˌ j ɑː ɡ ə ˈ -/ YAH -gə- ; Lithuanian : Jogailaičių dinastija ; Polish : dynastia jagiellońska ), otherwise

1570-416: A flood in the year 1813 all added up to the adverse development of the city with a high debt burden on public finances and many workshops and trading houses needing to close their activities. Following Napoleon's defeat, the 1815 Congress of Vienna restored the pre-war boundaries but also created the partially independent and neutral Free City of Kraków . In addition to the historic city of Kraków itself,

1727-604: A high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterized all the Jagiellons, and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polish sejm . Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with which he controlled his nation. Everything went as he wished, they said, because he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to get more money out of

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1884-464: A horse during hunting of a bear and gave a preterm birth to her second son who was born alive and baptized as Albert, but died a few hours after his birth and was buried in the Niepołomice Castle 's chapel. The Polish "Golden Age" , the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II , the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with

2041-584: A joint Polish-Lithuanian election of a monarch. On 8 December 1506 during the session of the Polish Senate in Piotrków , Sigismund I was elected King of Poland. He arrived in Kraków on 20 January 1507 and was crowned four days later in Wawel Cathedral by Primate Andrzej Boryszewski. In 1518 Sigismund I married Bona Sforza d'Aragona , a young, strong-minded Italian princess. Bona's sway over

2198-534: A leading centre of trade. Brick buildings were constructed, including the Royal Wawel Castle with St. Felix and Adaukt Rotunda, Romanesque churches such as St. Andrew's Church , a cathedral , and a basilica . The city was sacked and burned during the Mongol invasion of 1241. It was rebuilt practically identically, based on new location act and incorporated in 1257 by the high duke Bolesław V

2355-513: A length of 4 kilometres (2.5 mi), forming a scenic walkway popular with Cracovians. Jordan Park, founded in 1889 by Henryk Jordan , was the first public park of its kind in Europe. Built on the banks of the Rudawa , the park was equipped with running and exercise tracks, playgrounds, a swimming pool, amphitheatre , pavilions, and a pond for boat rowing and water bicycles . It is located in

2512-422: A longer growing season . In addition, for older data there was less sun than the capital of the country, about 30 minutes daily per year, but both have small differences in relative humidity and the direction of the winds is northeast. The climate table below presents weather data with averages from 1991 to 2020, sunshine ranges from 1971 to 2000, and valid extremes from 1951 to the present day: Kraków provides

2669-695: A major Polish academic and cultural centre, with the establishment of new universities such as the AGH University of Science and Technology and the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts , as well as several new and essential vocational schools. The city became an important cultural centre for Polish Jews , including both Zionist and Bundist groups. Kraków was also an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life, with all its manifestations of religious observance—from Orthodox to Hasidic and Reform Judaism —flourishing side by side. Following

2826-433: A meritorious monument of the times. This period in postwar architecture was followed by the mass-construction of large Panel System apartment blocks, most of which were built outside the city centre and thus do not encroach upon the beauty of the old or new towns. Some examples of the new style (e.g., Hotel Cracovia) recently listed as heritage monuments were built during the latter half of the 20th century in Kraków. After

2983-509: A notable commercial centre controlled first by Moravia (876–879), but captured by a Bohemian duke Boleslaus I in 955. The first acclaimed ruler of Poland, Mieszko I , took Kraków from the Bohemians and incorporated it into the holdings of the Piast dynasty towards the end of his reign. In 1038, Kraków became the seat of the Polish government. By the end of the tenth century, the city was

3140-655: A second expedition to subdue all of Hungary. Louis made a tactical error when he tried to stop the Ottoman army in an open field battle with a medieval army, insufficient firearms, and obsolete tactics. On 29 August 1526, Louis led his forces against Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire in the disastrous Battle of Mohács . In a pincer movement, the Hungarian army was surrounded by Ottoman cavalry, and in

3297-410: A showcase setting for many historic forms of architecture developed over the ten centuries, especially Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque styles. Renowned artisans and skilled craftsmen from present-day Italy and Germany were brought and sponsored by kings or nobles who contributed to architectural wealth and diversity . The Brick Gothic manner as well as countless structural elements such as

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3454-765: A small cadre military unit , the First Cadre Company —the predecessor of the Polish Legions —which set out from Kraków to fight for the liberation of Poland. The city was briefly besieged by Russian troops in November 1914. Austrian rule in Kraków ended in 1918 when the Polish Liquidation Committee assumed power. Following the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918, Kraków resumed its role as

3611-859: A son, Sigismund III Vasa ; as a result, the Polish branch of the Jagiellonians merged with the House of Vasa , which ruled Poland from 1587 until 1668. During the interval, among others, Stephen Báthory , the husband of the childless Anna, reigned. At one point, the Jagiellonians established dynastic control also over the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary (from 1490 onwards), with Vladislaus Jagiello whom several history books call Vladisla(u)s II. After being elected and crowned King of Hungary, Vladislaus moved his court to Hungary from where he ruled both countries and his children were born and raised. By Louis' sudden death in Battle of Mohács in 1526, that royal line

3768-658: A sophisticated regional centre of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. New representative government buildings and multi-story tenement houses were built at around that time. Much of the urban-planning beyond the walls of the Old Town was done by Polish architects and engineers trained in Vienna . Some major projects of the era include the development of the Jagiellonian University 's new premises and

3925-497: A then-suburban neighborhood, Podgórze District , to become Kraków's ghetto, where many Jews subsequently died of illness or starvation. Initially, most ghettos were open and Jews were allowed to enter and exit freely, but as security became tighter the ghettos were generally closed. From autumn 1941, the SS developed the policy of extermination through labour , which further worsened the already bleak conditions for Jews. The inhabitants of

4082-486: Is also assessed as being of international significance as part of the Pan-European ecological network. Kraków has a humid continental climate , denoted by Köppen classification as Dfb , somewhat boardering on an oceanic climate ( Cfb ); with climate change winters are rapidly becoming milder, and hot summers days above 30C are increasingly common, but with winter temperatures on average still below freezing, it

4239-412: Is an archaic possessive form of Krak and essentially means "Krak's (town)". The true origin of the name is highly disputed among historians, with many theories in existence and no unanimous consensus. The first recorded mention of Prince Krakus (then written as Grakch ) dates back to 1190, although the town existed as early as the seventh century, when it was inhabited by the tribe of Vistulans. It

4396-590: Is his mother's maiden name. The latter surname may refer to his occupation. "Lanthos" means "lutenist", or "bard". He received incomes from the Royal Treasury regularly. He had further offspring. The Jagiellonians were the primary inheritors of the title of the Grand Duke of Lithuania following the deaths of Vytautas the Great , Sigismund Kęstutaitis (children of Grand Duke Kęstutis ) as they remained as

4553-801: Is located on the border between different physiographic regions : the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland in the north-western parts of the city, the Małopolska Upland in the north-east, the Sandomierz Basin (east) and the Western Beskidian Foothills of the Carpathians (south). There are five nature reserves in Kraków, with a combined area of ca. 48.6 hectares (120 acres). Due to their ecological value, these areas are legally protected. The western part of

4710-664: Is made mostly of pines. Currently, large parts of the forest are covered by the Natura 2000 network (Natura 2000 Puszcza Sandomierska PLB180005). Sandomierz Forest has several small rivers, with the largest one being the Łęg , a right tributary of the Vistula . The soil is mostly poor quality podzols . The boundary of the forest is marked by four rivers - the Vistula, the San , the Wisłoka , and

4867-665: Is often regarded as a period of maximum political power, great prosperity, and in its later stage, the Golden Age of Polish culture . The Great War of 1409–1411, precipitated by the Lithuanian uprising in the Order controlled Samogitia , included the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg), where the Polish and Lithuanian-Rus' armies completely defeated the Teutonic Knights . The offensive that followed lost its impact with

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5024-415: Is particularly notable for its many renaissance buildings and picturesque streets, as well as the historic Jewish quarter located in the north-eastern part of Kazimierz. Kazimierz was founded in the 14th century to the south-east of the city centre and soon became a wealthy, well-populated area where construction of imposing properties became commonplace. Perhaps the most important feature of medieval Kazimierz

5181-455: Is perhaps best defined as having a semicontinental climate. In older reference periods it was classified as a warm summer continental climate ( Dfb ). By classification of Wincenty Okołowicz , it has a warm temperate climate in the centre of continental Europe with the "fusion" of different features. Due to its geographic location, the city may be under marine influence, sometimes Arctic influence, but without direct influence, giving

5338-486: Is possible that the name of the city is derived from the word kruk , meaning 'crow' or 'raven'. The city's full official name is Stołeczne Królewskie Miasto Kraków , which can be translated as " Royal Capital City of Kraków". In English, a person born or living in Kraków is a Cracovian ( Polish : krakowianin or krakus ). Until the 1990s the English version of the name was often written as Cracow, but now

5495-515: Is the mayor , or President of Kraków, elected every four years. The election of the City Council and of the local head of government , which takes place at the same time, is based on legislation introduced on 20 June 2002. The President of Kraków, re-elected for his fourth term in 2014, is Jacek Majchrowski . Several members of the Polish national Parliament ( Sejm ) are elected from the Kraków constituency . The city's official symbols include

5652-554: The Barbican ( Barbakan ), St. Florian's Gate , Kazimierz and the Wawel Castle , was included as the first of its kind on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1978. The central core surrounded by Planty Park remains the most prominent example of an old town in the country, with the medieval street layout still in existence. Kraków was the royal capital of Poland for many centuries, until Sigismund III Vasa relocated

5809-486: The CORINE biotopes programme due to their unique flora, fauna, geomorphology and landscape. The western part of Kraków constitutes the so-called Obszar Krakowski ecological network, including the ecological corridor of the Vistula. The southern slopes of limestone hills provide conditions for the development of thermophilous vegetation, grasslands and shrubs . The city is spaced along an extended latitudinal transect of

5966-746: The Catholic Church and the Protestants . Unsuccessful and debilitating beginning of the Livonian War for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Lithuanian nobility 's desire for equal rights with the Polish nobility resulted in childless Sigismund II's possibly the most striking memorial—the Union of Lublin , which united Poland and Lithuania with equal rights into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth —the "Republic of

6123-931: The Charles University in Prague . The city continued to grow under the Jagiellonian dynasty . As the capital of the Kingdom of Poland and a member of the Hanseatic League , the city attracted many craftsmen from abroad, businesses, and guilds as science and the arts began to flourish. The royal chancery and the university ensured a first flourishing of Polish literary culture in the city. The 15th and 16th centuries were known as Poland's Złoty Wiek or Golden Age . Many works of Polish Renaissance art and architecture were created, including ancient synagogues in Kraków's Jewish quarter located in

6280-863: The Council of Constance . During the Hussite Wars (1420–1434), Jagiełło, Vytautas and Sigismund Korybut were involved in political and military maneuvering concerning the Czech crown , offered by the Hussites first to Jagiełło in 1420. Zbigniew Oleśnicki became known as the leading opponent of a union with the Hussite Czech state. The Jagiellonian dynasty was not entitled to automatic hereditary succession, as each new king had to be approved by nobility consensus. Władysław Jagiełło had two sons late in life from his last wife, Sophia of Halshany. In 1430

6437-777: The Duchy of Oświęcim and Duchy of Zator on Silesia 's border with Lesser Poland , and there was notable progress regarding the incorporation of the Piast Masovian duchies into the Crown . The influence of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Central Europe had been on the rise. In 1471 Casimir's son Władysław became a king of Bohemia , and in 1490 also of Hungary . The southern and eastern outskirts of Poland and Lithuania became threatened by Turkish invasions beginning in

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6594-537: The Eastern Bloc , was enforced from 1949 to 1956. It involved all domains of art, but its most spectacular achievements were made in the field of urban design. The guidelines for this new trend were spelled-out in a 1949 resolution of the National Council of Party Architects. Architecture was to become a weapon in establishing the new social order by the communists. The ideological impact of urban design

6751-525: The House of Vasa moved the administrative capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Kraków to Warsaw . The city was destabilised by pillaging in the 1650s during the Swedish invasion , especially during the 1655 siege . Later in 1707, the city underwent an outbreak of bubonic plague that left 20,000 of the city's residents dead. Already weakened during the 18th century, by

6908-538: The Jagiellon dynasty (Polish: dynastia Jagiellonów ), the House of Jagiellon (Polish: Dom Jagiellonów ), or simply the Jagiellons (Lithuanian: Jogailaičiai ; Polish: Jagiellonowie ; Latin : Iagellonidae ), was the name assumed by a cadet branch of the Lithuanian ducal dynasty of Gediminids upon reception by Jogaila , the Grand Duke of Lithuania , of baptism as Władysław in 1386, which paved

7065-613: The Kraków Ghetto were later murdered or sent to German extermination camps , including Bełżec and Auschwitz , and to Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp . The largest deportations within the Distrikt occurred from June to September 1942. More specifically, mass deportation from Kraków's ghetto occurred in the first week of June 1942, and the ghetto was finally liquidated in March 1943. The film director Roman Polanski survived

7222-404: The Kraków uprising of 1846, which was crushed by the Austrian authorities. The Free City was therefore annexed into the Austrian Empire as the Grand Duchy of Kraków ( Polish : Wielkie Księstwo Krakowskie , German : Großherzogtum Krakau ), which was legally separate from but administratively part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (more simply Austrian Galicia). During the era of

7379-416: The Kraków-Częstochowa Upland Jurassic Landscape Parks' Board, which deals with the protection areas of the Polish Jura. Under its jurisdiction are: the Bielany-Tyniec Landscape Park (Park Bielańsko-Tyniecki), Tenczynek Landscape Park (Park Tencziński) and Kraków Valleys Landscape Park (Park Krajobrazowy Dolinki Krakowskie), with their watersheds. The natural reserves of the Polish Jura Chain are part of

7536-411: The National Museum , Kraków Opera , Juliusz Słowacki Theatre , National Stary Theatre , and the Jagiellonian Library . Kraków is classified as a global city with the ranking of "high sufficiency" by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network . The city is served by John Paul II International Airport , the country's second busiest airport and the most important international airport for

7693-406: The Polish–Lithuanian union . The Union strengthened both nations in their shared opposition to the Teutonic Knights and the growing threat of the Grand Duchy of Moscow . Uniquely in Europe, the union connected two states geographically located on the opposite sides of the great civilizational divide between the Western or Latin, and the Eastern or Byzantine worlds. The intention of the Union

7850-400: The Renaissance style reconstruction of the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania in Vilnius which was started by his father, Sigismund I. Sigismund II maintained two separate and equally lavish Lithuanian -speaking and Polish -speaking royal courts in Vilnius. From the outset of his reign, Sigismund II came into collision with the country's nobility, who had already begun curtailing

8007-441: The Revolutions of 1989 and the birth of the Third Republic in the latter half of the 20th century, a number of new architectural projects were completed, including the construction of large business parks and commercial facilities such as the Galeria Krakowska , or infrastructure investments like the Kraków Fast Tram . A good example of this would be the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology designed by Arata Isozaki ,

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8164-406: The Union of Krewo was signed between Queen Jadwiga of Poland and Jogaila , the Grand Duke of Lithuania, the last pagan state in Europe. The act arranged for Jogaila's baptism (after which Jogaila was known in Poland by his baptismal name, Władysław, and the Polish version of his Lithuanian name, Jagiełło) (Zamoyski, the Polish Way) and for the couple's marriage and constituted the beginning of

8321-508: The Vistula River Valley with a network of tributaries including its right tributary Wilga , and left: Rudawa , Białucha, Dłubnia and Sanka. The rivers and their valleys along with bodies of water are some of the most interesting natural wonders of Kraków. Kraków and its environment, surrounded by mountains, suffer from Europe's dirtiest air pollution because of smog , caused by burning coal for heating, especially in winter. The Kraków City Council has 43 elected members, one of whom

8478-401: The Wisłok . The forest lies within Subcarpathian Voivodeship ; its northern part is located in Tarnobrzeg Plain, while in the south it lies in Kolbuszowa Plateau. The first modern settlements were established here between the 10th and 12th centuries. During the Mongol invasion of Poland and other Mongol/Tatar raids of the early Kingdom of Poland , residents of Lesser Poland escaped to

8635-401: The invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in September 1939, the city of Kraków became part of the General Government , a separate administrative region of the Third Reich. On 26 October 1939, the Nazi régime set up Distrikt Krakau , one of four districts within the General Government. On the same day, the city of Kraków became the capital of the administration. The General Government

8792-436: The sejm than his father ever could, and at one of his sejm s he won the hearts of the assembly by unexpectedly appearing before them in the simple grey coat of a Masovian lord. Like his father, a pro- Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him the nation, often distrustful of the Germans. He avoided serious complications with the powerful Turks. Sigismund II mediated for twenty years between

8949-428: The 19th and early 20th centuries in Kraków include the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, the directorate of the Polish State Railways as well as the original complex of Kraków Główny railway station and the city's Academy of Economics . It was also at around that time that Kraków's first radial boulevards began to appear, with the city undergoing a large-scale program aimed at transforming the ancient Polish capital into

9106-490: The 2007-built Pawilon Wyspiański 2000 , which is used as a multi-purpose information and exhibition space, or the Małopolski Garden of Arts ( Małopolski Ogród Sztuki ), a multi-purpose exhibition and theatre complex located in the historic Old Town. There are about 40 parks in Kraków, including dozens of gardens and forests. Several, like the Planty Park , Botanical Garden , Zoological Garden , Royal Garden , Park Krakowski , Jordan Park and Błonia Park are located in

9263-440: The Chaste who following the example of Wrocław , introduced city rights modelled on the Magdeburg law allowing for tax benefits and new trade privileges for the citizens. In 1259, the city was again ravaged by the Mongols. A third attack in 1287 was repelled thanks in part to the newly built fortifications . In 1315 a large alliance of Poland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden was formed in Kraków. In 1335, King Casimir III

9420-448: The Free City included the towns of Chrzanow , Trzebinia and Nowa Gora and 224 villages. Outside the city, mining and metallurgy started developing. The population of Kraków itself grew in this time from 23,000 to 43,000; that of the overall republic from 88,000 to 103,000. The population of the city had an increasing number of Catholic clergy, officials and intelligentsia with which the rich townspeople sympathised. They were opposed to

9577-435: The Germans arrested more than 180 university professors and academics, and sent them to the Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps , though the survivors were later released on the request of prominent Italians. Before the formation of ghettos , which began in the Kraków District in December 1939, Jews were encouraged to flee the city. For those who remained, the German authorities decided in March 1941 to allocate

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9734-405: The Grand Duke of Lithuania. As a result of the Union of Krewo he then converted to Christianity and married the 11-year-old Queen Jadwiga of Poland (daughter of King Louis I of Hungary from the Angevins Dynasty). Thereby he became jure uxoris King of Poland as her co-ruler and founded the dynasty. Angevin rulers were the second and Jagiellonian third dynasty of Polish Kings. In 1385

9891-435: The Great ( Polish : Kazimierz ) declared the two western suburbs to be a new city named after him, Kazimierz ( Latin : Casimiria ). The defensive walls were erected around the central section of Kazimierz in 1362, and a plot was set aside for the Augustinian order next to Skałka . The city rose to prominence in 1364, when Casimir founded the University of Kraków , the second oldest university in central Europe after

10048-484: The Habsburgs to the municipal council only half were Polish. From 1796 to 1809, the population of the city rose from 22,000 to 26,000 with an increasing percentage of nobles and officials. In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte captured former Polish territories from Austria and made the town part of the Duchy of Warsaw . During the time of the Duchy of Warsaw, requirements to upkeep the Polish army followed by tours of Austrian, Polish and Russian troops, plus Russian occupation and

10205-421: The Habsburgs' advantage. The decisive factor that damaged or weakened the monarchies of the last Jagiellons was the Ottoman Empire 's Turkish expansion. Hungary's vulnerability greatly increased after Suleiman the Magnificent took the Belgrade fortress in 1521. To prevent Poland from extending military aid to Hungary, Suleiman had a Tatar-Turkish force raid southeastern Poland–Lithuania in 1524. The Hungarian army

10362-436: The Hungarian throne. Influenced by Julian Cesarini, the young king led the Hungarian army against the Ottomans in 1443 and again in 1444. Like Cesarini, Władysław III was killed at the Battle of Varna . Beginning toward the end of Jagiełło's life, Poland was practically governed by a magnate oligarchy led by Oleśnicki. The rule of the dignitaries was actively opposed by various szlachta groups. Their leader Spytek of Melsztyn

10519-418: The Jagiellon brothers, Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Sigismund I of Poland and Lithuania. It was supposed to end the Emperor's support for Poland's enemies, the Teutonic and Russian states , but after the election of Charles V , Maximilian's successor in 1519, the relations with Sigismund had worsened. The Jagiellon rivalry with the House of Habsburg in central Europe was ultimately resolved to

10676-412: The Jewish population of the city had grown to approximately 70,000. According to German statistics from 1940, over 200,000 Jews lived within the entire Kraków District, comprising more than 5 percent of the district's total population. However, these statistics probably underestimate the situation. In November 1939, during an operation known as Sonderaktion Krakau ('special operation Kraków'),

10833-444: The King Matthias Corvinus died without heir in 1490. His illegitimate son John Corvinus was not recognized by the Hungarian nobility , and after being forced to retreat, they called Vladislaus to Hungary, as his mother was the sister of the long ago deceased King Ladislaus and granddaughter of King Sigismund. Vladislaus was then crowned King of Hungary on 18 September 1490. Vladislaus immediately moved to Hungary, and there he lived

10990-490: The Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, but the Hungarian throne was contested by John Zápolya , who ruled the areas of the kingdom conquered by the Turks as an Ottoman client. Although Louis II's marriage remained childless, he probably had an illegitimate child with his mother's former lady-in-waiting, Angelitha Wass , before his marriage. This son was called John (János in Hungarian). This name appears in sources in Vienna as either János Wass or János Lanthos. The former surname

11147-499: The Kraków Ghetto. Oskar Schindler selected employees from the ghetto to work in his enamelware factory Deutsche Emailwarenfabrik , saving them from the camps. Similarly, many men capable of physical labor were saved from deportation to extermination camps and instead sent to labor camps across the General Government. By September 1943, the last of the Jews from the Kraków Ghetto had been deported. Although looted by occupational authorities , Kraków remained relatively undamaged at

11304-539: The Ottoman ambassador executed and sent the head to the Sultan. Louis believed that the Papal States and other Christian States including Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor would help him. This event hastened the fall of Hungary. The Ottoman Empire declared war on the Kingdom of Hungary , Suleiman postponed his plan to besiege Rhodes and made an expedition to Belgrade. Louis failed to coordinate and gather his forces. At

11461-623: The Polish throne only on a condition that Lithuania and Poland will be equivalent states. Casimir IV Jagiellon succeeded his brother Władysław III as King of Poland after a three-year interregnum on 25 June 1447. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellon married Elisabeth of Austria , daughter of the late King of the Romans Albert II of Habsburg by his late wife Elisabeth of Bohemia . Her distant relative Frederick of Austria became Holy Roman Emperor and reigned as Frederick III until after Casimir IV Jagiellon's own death. The marriage strengthened

11618-616: The Renaissance attics with decorative pinnacles became recognisable features of historical buildings in Kraków. Built from its earliest nucleus outward, the city's monuments can be seen in historical order by walking from the city centre out, towards its newer districts. Kraków's historic centre, which includes the Old Town ( Stare Miasto ), the Main Market Square ( Rynek Główny ), the Cloth Hall ( Sukiennice ),

11775-481: The Two Nations" ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów , Lithuanian : Abiejų Tautų Respublika ). Also, German-speaking Royal Prussia and Prussian cities were included. This achievement might well have been impossible without Sigismund II. Bona Sforca was pregnant and expected to give birth to a legitimate brother of Sigismund II Augustus; however, in 1527, being pregnant for five-months, she fall from

11932-516: The Youth Departments. Subsequently, the number of criminal offences dropped by 3 percent between 2000 and 2001, and the rate of detection increased by 1.4 percent to a total of 30.2 percent in the same period. The city is receiving help in carrying out the program from all educational institutions and the local media, including TV, radio and the press. Kraków is divided into 18 administrative districts ( dzielnica ) or boroughs, each with

12089-413: The already existing defensive walls. The walls were expanded again in 1608 due to the growth of the community and influx of Jews from Bohemia. In 1572, King Sigismund II , the last of the Jagiellons, died childless. The Polish throne passed to Henry III of France and then to other foreign-based rulers in rapid succession, causing a decline in the city's importance. Furthermore, in 1596, Sigismund III of

12246-412: The banks of the Vistula, St. Mary's Basilica , Saints Peter and Paul Church , and the largest medieval market square in Europe, Rynek Główny . Kraków is home to Jagiellonian University , one of the oldest universities in the world and often considered Poland's most reputable academic institution of higher learning. The city also hosts a number of institutions of national significance, including

12403-692: The building of the Collegium Novum just west of the Old Town. The imperial style planning of the city's further development continued until the return of Poland's independence, following the First World War. Early modernist style in Kraków is represented by such masterpieces as the Palace of Art by Franciszek Mączyński and the 'House under the Globe'. Secession style architecture, which had arrived in Kraków from Vienna , became popular towards

12560-416: The center, the Hungarian heavy knights and infantry were repulsed and suffered heavy casualties, especially from the well-positioned Ottoman cannons and well-armed and trained Janissary musketeers. Nearly the entire Hungarian Royal army was destroyed on the battlefield. During the retreat, the twenty-year-old king died in a marsh. As Louis had no legitimate children, Ferdinand was elected as his successor in

12717-587: The centre of the city; with others, such as Zakrzówek, Wolski forest, Strzelecki Park and Lotników Park in the surrounding districts. Parks cover about 318.5 hectares (787 acres; 1.23 sq mi) of the city. The best-known park in Kraków is the Planty Park. Established between 1822 and 1830 in place of the old city walls, it forms a green belt around the Old Town and consists of a chain of smaller gardens designed in various styles and adorned with monuments. The park has an area of 21 hectares (52 acres) and

12874-615: The city variable meteorological conditions over short spaces of time. The city lies in proximity to the Tatra Mountains and there are often occurrences of a foehn wind called halny , causing temperatures to rise rapidly. In relation to Warsaw, temperatures are very similar for most of the year, except that in the colder months southern Poland has a larger daily temperature range, more moderate winds, generally more rainy days and with greater chances of clear skies on average, especially in winter. The higher sun angle also allows for

13031-490: The city was spared from destruction. In 1978, Karol Wojtyła , archbishop of Kraków , was elevated to the papacy as Pope John Paul, the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. The Old Town and historic centre of Kraków, along with the nearby Wieliczka Salt Mine , are Poland's first World Heritage Sites . Its extensive cultural and architectural legacy across the epochs of Gothic , Renaissance , and Baroque architecture includes Wawel Cathedral and Wawel Royal Castle on

13188-532: The city, along its northern and north-western side, borders an area of international significance known as the Jurassic Bielany - Tyniec refuge. The main motives for the protection of this area include plant and animal wildlife and the area's geomorphological features and landscape. Another part of the city is located within the ecological 'corridor' of the Vistula River valley. This corridor

13345-554: The common appellation " Poland–Lithuania " in discussions about the area from the Late Middle Ages onward. One Jagiellon, Władysław III of Poland , briefly ruled both Poland and Hungary (1440–1444), and two others ruled both Bohemia and Hungary (1490–1526) and then continued in the distaff line as a branch of the House of Habsburg . The Polish "Golden Age ", the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II ,

13502-589: The conservative landed aristocracy who also were drawn more and more to the city real estates even though their income still mainly came from their agricultural possessions in the Republic, the Kingdom of Poland and Galicia. The percentage of the Jewish population in the city also increased in this time from 20.8% to 30.4%. However, nationalist sentiment and other political issues led to instability; this culminated in

13659-486: The construction of the country's largest steel mill in the newly created suburb of Nowa Huta . The creation of the giant Lenin Steelworks (now Sendzimir Steelworks owned by Mittal ) sealed Kraków's transformation from a university city into an industrial centre. In an effort that spanned two decades, Karol Wojtyła , the cardinal archbishop of Kraków from 1964 to 1978, successfully lobbied for permission to build

13816-644: The court to Warsaw in 1596. The district is bisected by the Royal Road , the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland . Several important monuments were lost in the course of history, notably the Ratusz town hall . However, the Gothic Town Hall Tower measuring 70 m (229 ft 8 in) in height remains standing. In addition to the old town, the city's district of Kazimierz

13973-572: The death of George of Poděbrady was a time of conflict for the Bohemian throne (see Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478) ), and Vladislaus was unable to confront it. At the time of his arrival in Prague , he was only fifteen years old and significantly dominated by his advisers. The succession conflict was settled in 1479 in the Peace of Olomouc, which allowed both Vladislaus and Matthias Corvinus to use

14130-463: The dense forest to save themselves from Asiatic hordes. Sandomierz Forest remained sparsely populated until the mid-14th century, when King Casimir III the Great initiated a program of mass settlement, founding several towns. In the 15th and 16th centuries, northern and central areas of the forest were settled by peasants from overpopulated province of Mazovia . In the 17th century, during the Swedish invasion of Poland , local residents again escaped to

14287-661: The devastation brought by the Second World War, and have remained empty. Most recent efforts at restoring the historic neighborhoods gained new impetus around 1993. Kazimierz is now a well-visited area, seeing a booming growth in Jewish-themed restaurants, bars, bookstores and souvenir shops. As the city of Kraków began to expand further under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire , the new architectural styles also developed. Key buildings from

14444-449: The dynastic union and the preferences of the Jagiellonian kings accelerated the process of reorientation of Polish territorial priorities to the east. The political influence of the Jagiellonian kings was diminishing during this period, which was accompanied by the ever-increasing role in central government and national affairs of landed nobility. The royal dynasty, however, had a stabilizing effect on Poland's politics. The Jagiellonian Era

14601-760: The dynasty is known as Jagiellonowie and the patronymic form: Jagiellończyk ; in Lithuanian it is called Jogailaičiai , in Belarusian Яґайлавічы ( Jagajłavičy ), in Hungarian Jagelló , and in Czech Jagellonci , as well as Jagello or Jagellon in Latin . Etymologically, the name Jogaila means "strong rider", from the Lithuanian words joti (to ride) and gailus (strong, powerful). The rule of Piasts ,

14758-458: The dynasty were Kings of Poland (1386–1572), Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377–1392 and 1440–1572), Kings of Hungary (1440–1444 and 1490–1526), and Kings of Bohemia and imperial electors (1471–1526). The personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (converted in 1569 with the Treaty of Lublin into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ) is the reason for

14915-481: The earlier Polish ruling house (c. 962–1370) had ended with the death of King Casimir III the Great . Gediminids , the immediate predecessors of the first Jagiellonian, were rulers of medieval Lithuania with the title of Grand Duke . Their realm, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , was chiefly inhabited by Lithuanians and Ruthenians . Jogaila, the eponymous first ruler of the Jagiellonian dynasty, started as

15072-522: The eastern territories in 1482 and 1487, until they were confronted by King Jan Olbracht (John Albert), Casimir's son and successor. Poland was attacked in 1487–1491 by remnants of the Golden Horde . They had invaded into Poland as far as Lublin before being beaten at Zaslavl. King John Albert in 1497 made an attempt to resolve the Turkish problem militarily, but his efforts were unsuccessful as he

15229-487: The end of the Partitions . With Poland's regained independence came the major change in the fortunes of Kraków—now the second most important city of a sovereign nation. The state began to make new plans for the city development and commissioned a number of representative buildings. The predominant style for new projects was modernism with various interpretations of the art-deco style. Important buildings constructed in

15386-716: The end of World War II, with most of the city's historical and architectural legacy spared. Soviet forces under the command of Marshal Ivan Konev entered the city on 18 January 1945, and began arresting Poles loyal to the Polish government-in-exile or those who had served in the Home Army. After the war, under the Polish People's Republic (officially declared in 1952), the intellectual and academic community of Kraków came under complete political control. The universities were soon deprived of their printing rights and autonomy. The Stalinist government of Poland ordered

15543-594: The first churches in the newly industrialized suburbs. In 1978, the Catholic Church elevated Wojtyła to the papacy as John Paul II , the first non-Italian pope in over 450 years. In the same year, UNESCO , following the application of local authorities, placed Kraków Old Town on the first list of World Heritage Sites . Kraków lies in the southern part of Poland, on the Vistula River , approximately 219 m (719 ft) above sea level . The city

15700-691: The forest from Swedish, Cossack, Tatar and Transilvanian invaders. After the Partitions of Poland , the forest became part of newly formed Austrian Galicia . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Austrian government invited German-speaking settlers (the so-called Josephine colonization , after Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor ). The area turned into a melting pot, where ethnic Poles from Mazovia and Lesser Poland mixed with Germans, Ukrainians, Tatars, Jews, Wallachians and other nationalities. Several local villages were named after different ethnic groups: Rusiny, Moskale, Mazury, Wolochy, Szwedy, Turki, Tatary. In

15857-441: The founder of modern Polish drama, Stanisław Wyspiański . Fin de siècle Kraków evolved into a modern metropolis; running water and electric streetcars were introduced in 1901, and between 1910 and 1915, Kraków and its surrounding suburban communities were gradually combined into a single administrative unit called Greater Kraków ( Wielki Kraków ). At the outbreak of World War I on 3 August 1914, Józef Piłsudski formed

16014-412: The free city, a free trade zone led to positive economic development. But because of the unstable political situation and insecurity about the future, not much of the accumulated wealth was invested. Through the increase of taxes, customs and regulations, prices soared and the city fell into a recession. From 1844 to 1850 the population was diminished by over 4,000 inhabitants. In 1866, Austria granted

16171-435: The grounds of one of the city's larger parks, Błonia Park. The less prominent Park Krakowski, founded in 1885 by Stanisław Rehman , was a popular destination point for Cracovians at the end of the 19th century, but has since been greatly reduced in size because of rapid real estate development . There are five nature reserves in Kraków with a total area of 48.6 hectares (120 acres). Smaller green zones constitute parts of

16328-464: The historic synagogues. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated an unsuccessful insurrection in the town's Main Square which, in spite of his victorious Battle of Racławice against a numerically superior Russian army , resulted in the third and final partition of Poland . As a result, Kraków fell under Habsburg rule. In 1802, German became the town's official language. Of the members appointed by

16485-549: The ineffective siege of Malbork (Marienburg). The failure to take the fortress and eliminate the Teutonic (later Prussian) state had for Poland dire historic consequences in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. The Peace of Thorn (1411) had given Poland and Lithuania rather modest territorial adjustments, including Samogitia. Afterwards there were negotiations and peace deals that didn't hold, more military campaigns and arbitrations. One attempted, unresolved arbitration took place at

16642-485: The inhabitants of south-eastern Poland. In 2000, Kraków was named European Capital of Culture . In 2013, Kraków was officially approved as a UNESCO City of Literature . The city hosted World Youth Day in 2016, and the European Games in 2023. The name of Kraków is traditionally derived from Krakus (Krak, Grakch), the legendary founder of Kraków and a ruler of the tribe of Vistulans . In Polish, Kraków

16799-421: The king and the magnates , her efforts to strengthen the monarch's political position, financial situation, and especially the measures she took to advance her personal and dynastic interests, including the forced royal election of the minor Sigismund Augustus in 1529 and his premature coronation in 1530, increased the discontent among szlachta activists. The rebellion of Lwów (the so-called Chicken War )

16956-491: The king's death in 1503, resulting in a territorial compromise and an unstable truce. The Grand Duke Alexander was elected King of Poland in 1501, after the death of John Albert. In 1506 he was succeeded by Sigismund I the Old ( Polish : Zygmunt I Stary , Lithuanian : Žygimantas Senasis ) in both Poland and Lithuania, as the political realities were drawing the two states closer together. Prior to that Sigismund I had been

17113-407: The last Jagiellons who spoke in their patrilineal ancestors’ Lithuanian language ; however, even the last patrilineal Jagiellonian monarch Sigismund II Augustus maintained two separate and equally lavish Lithuanian-speaking and Polish -speaking royal courts in Lithuania's capital Vilnius . The Jagiellons reigned in several European countries between the 14th and 16th centuries. Members of

17270-437: The last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance . The cultural blossoming had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk . The name comes from Jogaila ( Jagiełło ), the first Grand Duke of Lithuania to become King of Poland. In Polish,

17427-635: The late 15th century. Moldavia 's involvement with Poland goes back to 1387, when Petru I , Hospodar of Moldavia , seeking protection against the Hungarians, paid Jagiełło homage in Lviv , which gave Poland access to the Black Sea ports. In 1485 King Casimir undertook an expedition into Moldavia, after its seaports were overtaken by the Ottoman Turks. The Turkish controlled Crimean Tatars raided

17584-596: The late 19th century, inhabitants of the wilderness began to call themselves Lasowiacy (or Lesioki). Krak%C3%B3w Kraków ( Polish: [ˈkrakuf] ), also spelled as Cracow or Krakow , is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland . Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship , the city has a population of 804,237 (2023), with approximately 8 million additional people living within

17741-635: The mid-1790s the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had twice been partitioned by its neighbors: Russia , the Habsburg empire and Prussia . In 1791, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II changed the status of Kazimierz as a separate city and made it into a district of Kraków. The richer Jewish families began to move out. However, because of the injunction against travel on the Sabbath , most Jewish families stayed relatively close to

17898-491: The most powerful branch of the Lithuanian Gediminids dynasty and were direct ancestors of Grand Duke Gediminas by the man's line. After Sigismund II Augustus, the dynasty underwent further changes. Sigismund II's heirs were his sisters Anna Jagiellon and Catherine Jagiellon . The latter had married Duke John (a son of King Gustav I ), who thereby from 1569 became King John III of Sweden , and they had

18055-459: The most widespread modern English version is Krakow. Kraków's early history begins with evidence of a Stone Age settlement on the present site of the Wawel Hill . A legend attributes Kraków's founding to the mythical ruler Krakus , who built it above a cave occupied by a dragon , Smok Wawelski . The first written record of the city's name dates back to 965, when Kraków was described as

18212-797: The nobility agreed to the succession of the future Władysław III , only after the King gave in and guaranteed the satisfaction of their new demands. In 1434 the old monarch died and his minor son Władysław was crowned; the Royal Council led by Bishop Oleśnicki undertook the regency duties. In 1438 the Czech anti- Habsburg opposition, mainly Hussite factions, offered the Czech crown to Jagiełło's younger son Casimir IV . The idea, accepted in Poland over Oleśnicki's objections, resulted in two unsuccessful Polish military expeditions to Bohemia . After Vytautas ' death in 1430 Lithuania became embroiled in internal wars and conflicts with Poland. Casimir IV, sent as

18369-565: The north-eastern part of Kazimierz, such as the Old Synagogue . During the reign of Casimir IV , various artists came to work and live in Kraków, and Johann Haller established a printing press in the city after Kasper Straube had printed the Calendarium Cracoviense , the first work printed in Poland, in 1473. In 1520, the most famous church bell in Poland, named Zygmunt after Sigismund I of Poland ,

18526-414: The nucleus of a national spirit. After the invasion of Poland , at the start of World War II , the newly defined Distrikt Krakau became the seat of Nazi Germany 's General Government . The Jewish population was forced into the Kraków Ghetto , a walled zone from where they were sent to Nazi extermination camps such as the nearby Auschwitz , and Nazi concentration camps like Płaszów . However,

18683-459: The power of the great families. The ostensible cause of the nobility's animosity to the King was his second marriage, secretly contracted before his accession to the throne, with (said to be beautiful) Lithuanian Calvinist, Barbara Radziwiłł , daughter of Hetman Jerzy Radziwiłł . The secret marriage was strongly opposed by his mother Bona and by the magnates of the Crown. Sigismund II, who took over

18840-405: The privileges of the nobility, lifting of the toll or exemption of the nobility from it, adoption of a law concerning incompatibilitas —the incompatibility of certain offices that were not to be joined in the same hand, the carrying out of a law requiring the appointment of only the local nobles to most important local offices and the creation of a body of permanent advisors to the king. Finally,

18997-506: The process of national integration. The Academy of Kraków and Sigismund II possessed well-stocked libraries; smaller collections were increasingly common at noble courts, schools and the households of townspeople. Illiteracy levels were falling, as by the end of the 16th century almost every parish ran a school. In 1515, during a congress in Vienna , a dynastic succession arrangement was agreed to between Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and

19154-410: The protesters criticised the role of Queen Bona, whom they blamed for the "bad education" of young Prince Sigismund Augustus (the future King Sigismund II Augustus), as well as for seeking to increase her power and influence in the state. Following an agreement between Sigismund I, Bona Sforza and Lithuanian Council of Lords , Sigismund II Augustus was proclaimed as Grand Duke of Lithuania when he

19311-538: The purpose of carrying out orders for the Nazis. These orders included the registration of all Jewish people living in each area, the collection of taxes, and the formation of forced-labour groups. The Polish Home Army maintained a parallel underground administrative system. At the outbreak of World War II , some 56,000 Jews resided in Kraków—almost one-quarter of a total population of about 250,000; by November 1939,

19468-426: The reign of the Kingdom of Poland after his father's Sigismund I death in 1548, overcame the resistance and had Barbara crowned in 1550; a few months later the new queen died. Sigismund II accompanied the funeral procession of Barbara from Kraków to Vilnius by personally going on foot through cities. Bona, estranged from her son returned to Italy in 1556, where she died soon afterwards. Sigismund II possessed to

19625-447: The rest of his life, having his court and all his children born in the palace of Buda. The Hungarian nobility reigned and took many important decisions in his name, and his role as monarch soon passed to be in a second plan. Stephen Zápolya , the archbishop Tamás Bakócz and George Szatmári continued with the Turkish war plans and tried then to maintain the Kingdom that fell in a severe economical crisis after Matthias's death. Vladislaus

19782-620: The ringing of church bells and the singing of the Te Deum laudamus . The Bishop of Vilnius put a Gediminas' Cap in the Vilnius Cathedral on Casimir IV Jagiellon's head, despite the Polish nobility 's opposition. This was breaching the agreements of the Union of Grodno (1432) and terminating the Polish–Lithuanian union . It manifested Lithuania as a sovereign state and its ruler Casimir IV Jagiellon stressed himself as

19939-541: The rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance . The cultural flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk . As was the case with other European nations, the Renaissance inspiration came in the first place from Italy , a process accelerated to some degree by the marriage of Sigismund I to Bona Sforza . Many Poles traveled to Italy to study and to learn its culture. As imitating Italian ways became very trendy (the royal courts of

20096-535: The river was filled in with earth and rock, and subsequently built over. By the 1930s, Kraków had 120 officially registered synagogues and prayer houses that spanned across the old city. Much of Jewish intellectual life had moved to new centres like Podgórze . This, in turn, led to the redevelopment and renovation of much of Kazimierz and the development of new districts in Kraków. Most historic buildings in central Kazimierz today are preserved in their original form. Some old buildings, however, were not repaired after

20253-518: The same time, Hungary was unable to get assistance from other European states, which Louis had hoped for. Belgrade and many strategic castles in Serbia were captured by the Ottomans. This was disastrous for Louis' kingdom; without the strategically important cities of Belgrade and Šabac, Hungary, including Buda, was open to further Turkish conquests. After the siege of Rhodes , in 1526 Suleiman made

20410-650: The seceded western Prussian regions, Royal Prussia , and the Polish crown's overlordship over the remaining Teutonic Monastic State , transformed in 1525 into a duchy, Ducal Prussia . Poland regained Pomerelia and with it the all-important access to the Baltic Sea , as well as Warmia . In addition to land warfare, naval battles had taken place, where ships provided by the City of Danzig (Gdańsk) successfully fought Danish and Teutonic fleets. Other 15th-century Polish territorial gains, or rather revindications, included

20567-749: The separatist Prussian regions a protectorate of the Polish Kingdom . However, when the insurgent cities rebelled against the Order, it resisted and the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) ensued. Casimir IV Jagiellon and the Prussian Confederation defeated the Teutonic Order, taking over its capital at Marienburg ( Malbork Castle ). In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), the Order recognized Polish sovereignty over

20724-649: The style of Polish modernism include the Feniks 'LOT' building on Basztowa Street, the Feniks department store on the Main Square and the Municipal Savings Bank on Szczepański Square. The Józef Piłsudski house is also of note as a particularly good example of interwar architecture in the city. After the Second World War, new Communist government adopted Stalinist monumentalism . The doctrine of Socialist realism in Poland , as in other countries of

20881-596: The thirteen-year-old boy would become a Vice-regent for the Polish King in Lithuania. Casimir IV Jagiellon was invited by the Lithuanian magnates to Lithuania and was sent by his older brother Władysław III , King of Poland and Hungary, Supreme Duke of Lithuania, to Lithuania to rule in his name. But instead he was elected by the Lithuanian Council of Lords as the Grand Duke of Lithuania upon his arrival to Lithuania's capital Vilnius on June 29, 1440, with

21038-588: The ties between the house of Jagiellon and the sovereigns of Hungary-Bohemia and put Casimir IV Jagiellon at odds with the Holy Roman Emperor through internal Habsburg rivalry. Becoming a King of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellon also freed himself from the control the Lithuanian oligarchy had imposed on him; in the Vilnius Privilege of 1447 he declared the Lithuanian nobility having equal rights with Polish szlachta . In time Casimir IV Jagiellon

21195-466: The title "King of Bohemia". Vladislaus would reign in Bohemia proper, while Matthias gained Moravia , Silesia , and the two Lusatias. The deal also stipulated that in case of Matthias' death, Vladislaus would pay 400,000 gulden for the entirety of the Bohemian lands. However, this payment was not made once Vladislaus became King of Hungary after the death of Matthias. Great chaos overcame Hungary when

21352-475: The two kings provided the leadership and example for everybody else), many Italian artists and thinkers were coming to Poland, some settling and working there for many years. While the pioneering Polish humanists, greatly influenced by Erasmus of Rotterdam, accomplished the preliminary assimilation of the antiquity culture, the generation that followed was able to put greater emphasis on the development of native elements, and because of its social diversity, advanced

21509-502: The way to his ensuing marriage to the Queen Regnant Jadwiga of Poland , resulting in his ascension to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło (initially ruling jure uxoris jointly with Jadwiga until her death), and the effective promotion of his branch to a royal dynasty. The Jagiellons were polyglots and per historical evidence Casimir IV Jagiellon and his son Saint Casimir possibly were

21666-497: Was 9 years old in Vilnius in 1529. Initially, Sigismund II opposed the Polish–Lithuanian union as he sought to leave the Lithuanian throne to his heirs as Jagiellonian patrimony . In 1544 Sigismund II began to independently rule the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1547 Sigismund II moved his royal court from Kraków to Vilnius and it had a great influence on the intellectual life of the region. In 1548 Sigismund II finished

21823-437: Was a busy trading centre of Central Europe in 985. In 1038, it became the seat of Polish monarchs from the Piast dynasty , and subsequently served as the centre of administration under Jagiellonian kings and of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the late 16th century, when Sigismund III transferred his royal court to Warsaw . With the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918, Kraków reaffirmed its role as

21980-453: Was a cheerful man, but after the death of his third wife, he fell into a severe depression and almost retired from all official issues. Then he gained the nickname of "Vladislaus Bene" (Polish: Władysław Dobrze , Hungarian: Dobzse László , Czech: král Dobře ) because to almost any request he answered, "Bene" (Latin for "(It is) well"). Louis II was the son of Ladislaus II Jagiellon and his third wife, Anne of Foix-Candale . In 1515 Louis II

22137-498: Was able to remove from power Cardinal Oleśnicki and his group, basing his own power on the younger middle nobility camp instead. A conflict with the pope and the local Church hierarchy over the right to fill vacant bishop positions Casimir IV Jagiellon also resolved in his favor. That same year, Casimir IV Jagiellon was approached by the Prussian Confederation for aid against the Teutonic Order , which he promised, by making

22294-458: Was also used for augmenting Poland's Socialist national format. However, in the course of incorporating the principles of Socialist realism, there were quite a few deviations introduced by the communists. From 1953, critical opinions in the Party were increasingly frequent, and the doctrine was given up in 1956 marking the end of Stalinism . The soc-realist centre of Nowa Huta is considered to be

22451-474: Was an anti-royalist and anti-absolutist rokosz (rebellion) by the Polish nobility that occurred in 1537. The derisive name was coined by the magnates, who for the most part supported the King and claimed that the "war's" only effect was the near-extinction of the local chickens, eaten by the nobles gathered for the rebellion at Lwów, in Lesser Poland . The nobility, gathered near the city to meet with

22608-523: Was cast by Hans Behem. At that time, Hans Dürer , a younger brother of artist and thinker Albrecht Dürer , was Sigismund's court painter . Hans von Kulmbach made altarpieces for several churches. In 1553, the Kazimierz district council gave the Jewish Qahal (council of a Jewish self-governing community) a licence for the right to build their own interior walls across the western section of

22765-470: Was christened as the namesake of his grandfather, King Władysław Jagiełło of Poland and Lithuania, his maternal uncle King Ladislaus the Posthumous of Bohemia and his paternal uncle Władysław III of Poland, an earlier king of Hungary. He was proposed for the Bohemian throne by the widow of the previous king, George of Poděbrady , and was crowned King of Bohemia on 22 August 1471. The period after

22922-631: Was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, where the young Louis II Jagiellon , son of Vladislas II, was killed. Subsequently, after a period of internal strife and external intervention, Hungary was partitioned between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans. Vladislaus was born on 1 March 1456, the oldest son of King Casimir IV of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, then the head of the ruling Jagiellon dynasty of Poland, and Elizabeth of Austria , daughter of Albert , King of Germany , Hungary and Bohemia. He

23079-463: Was expected to become king before his majority. Strangely, little was done for his education; he was never taught Latin, nor was he trained for the responsibilities of office, despite the fact he was the only brother of the rightful sovereign. He often relied on his instinct and feelings and had little political knowledge, but shared a great interest in the diplomacy and economic affairs of the country. Throughout Casimir's youth, Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki

23236-446: Was his mentor and tutor; however, the cleric felt a strong reluctance towards him, believing that he would be an unsuccessful monarch following Władysław's death. The sudden death of Sigismund Kęstutaitis left the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania empty. The Voivode of Trakai , Jonas Goštautas , and other magnates of Lithuania, supported Casimir IV Jagiellon as a candidate to the throne. However, many Polish noblemen hoped that

23393-435: Was killed during an armed confrontation in 1439 , which allowed Oleśnicki to purge Poland of the remaining Hussite sympathizers and pursue his other objectives without significant opposition. Casimir IV Jagiellon was the third and youngest son of King Władysław II Jagiełło and his fourth wife, Sophia of Halshany . His father was already 65 at the time of Casimir's birth, and his brother Władysław III, three years his senior,

23550-489: Was married to Mary of Austria , granddaughter of Emperor Maximilian I , as stipulated by the First Congress of Vienna in 1515. His sister Anne was married to Archduke Ferdinand of Austria , then a governor on behalf of his brother Charles V , and later Emperor Ferdinand I. Following the accession to the throne of Suleiman I , the sultan sent an ambassador to Louis II to collect the annual tribute that Hungary had been subjected to. Louis refused to pay annual tribute and had

23707-423: Was reorganised to better differentiate between its political agenda and administrative functions. As a result, the Office of Public Information was created to handle inquiries and foster communication between city departments and citizens at large. In 2000, the city government introduced a new long-term program called "Safer City" in cooperation with the Police, Traffic, Social Services, Fire, Public Safety , and

23864-437: Was ruled by Governor-General Hans Frank , who was based in the city's Wawel Castle. The Nazis envisioned turning Kraków into a completely Germanised city; after removal of all Jews and Poles, renaming of locations and streets into the German language, and sponsorship of propaganda portraying the city as historically German. On 28 November 1939, Frank set up Judenräte ('Jewish Councils') to be run by Jewish citizens for

24021-439: Was taught Lithuanian language and the customs of Lithuania by appointed court officials. In 1445, Casimir IV Jagiellon, already being the Grand Duke of Lithuania, was asked to also assume the Polish throne vacated by the death of his brother Władysław III (killed at the Battle of Varna in 1444). Casimir IV Jagiellon was a tough negotiator and did not accept the Polish nobility's conditions for his election, thus he assumed

24178-408: Was the only major, permanent bridge ( Pons Regalis ) across the northern arm of the Vistula. This natural barrier used to separate Kazimierz from the Old Town for several centuries, while the bridge connected Kraków to the Wieliczka Salt Mine and the lucrative Hungarian trade route. The last structure at this location (at the end of modern Stradom Street) was dismantled in 1880 when the northern arm of

24335-408: Was to create a common state under Władysław II Jagiełło, but the Polish ruling oligarchy's idea of incorporation of Lithuania into Poland turned out to be unrealistic. There would be territorial disputes and warfare between Poland and Lithuania or Lithuanian factions; the Lithuanians at times had even found it expedient to conspire with the Teutonic Knights against the Poles . Geographic consequences of

24492-414: Was unable to secure effective participation in the war by his brothers, King Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Alexander, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and because of the resistance on the part of Stephen the Great , the ruler of Moldavia. More Ottoman Empire-instigated destructive Tatar raids took place in 1498, 1499 and 1500. John Albert 's diplomatic peace efforts that followed were finalized after

24649-406: Was valued more than aesthetics. It aimed at expressing persistence and power. This form of architecture was implemented in the new industrial district of Nowa Huta with apartment blocks constructed according to a Stalinist blueprint, with repetitious courtyards and wide, tree-lined avenues. Since the style of the Renaissance was generally regarded as the most revered in old Polish architecture, it

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