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24-584: The bay was known to historic and ancient indigenous peoples, including the Iroquoian-speaking Wyandot who dominated this area (they were called the Huron people by French explorers and colonists). Located in territory claimed by early French explorers, the bay was identified on a 1718 map by Guillaume Delisle as Lac Sandouské (later anglicized as Lake Sandusky). The Indians of the area, primarily Wyandot (Huron) were said to refer to what

48-567: A 1754 French fort) and Lake Otsandoské (also related to the Wyandot term for the lake). Lake Sandusky, Sandoski Bay, Sandusky Bay, and Sandusky Lake are also recorded. French engineer Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry passed through this area in 1754, commanding forces to reinforce Fort Detroit at the outbreak of the French and Indian War . He found the ruins of the earlier fort on the north shore of what he referred to as Lac Otsandoské . He had

72-632: A complementary distribution and are frequent in Africa , Eurasia , Australia , and New Guinea , the only area in which both types overlap appreciably. Double-marked possession is rare but found in languages around the Eurasian periphery such as Finnish , in the Himalayas , and along the Pacific Coast of North America . Zero-marked possession is also uncommon, with instances mostly found near

96-523: A few types of agreement in English that can be used to illustrate those notions. The following graphic representations of a clause , a noun phrase , and a prepositional phrase involve agreement. The three tree structures shown are those of a dependency grammar , as opposed to those of a phrase structure grammar : Heads and dependents are identified by the actual hierarchy of words, and the concepts of head-marking and dependent-marking are indicated with

120-628: A language family of indigenous peoples of North America . They are known for their general lack of labial consonants . The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking . As of 2020, almost all surviving Iroquoian languages are severely or critically endangered , with some languages having only a few elderly speakers remaining. The two languages with the most speakers, Mohawk (Kenien'kéha) in New York and Canada, and Cherokee in Oklahoma and North Carolina, are spoken by less than 10% of

144-406: A width of something like two miles." It contains numerous marshes and serves as an entry point for several streams. Sandusky Bay runs from Muddy Creek Bay to Cedar Point , which separates Sandusky Bay from Lake Erie. The Sandusky River drains into the bay at its westernmost point. The Thomas A. Edison Memorial Bridge carries Route 2 and Route 269 across Sandusky Bay at its eastern end. This

168-640: Is also very common in New Guinea and moderately common in Eastern Africa and Central America and South America, among languages of average or higher morphological complexity. The Pacific Rim distribution of head-marking may reflect population movements beginning tens of thousands of years ago and founder effects . Kusunda has traces in the Himalayas, and there are Caucasian enclaves, both of which are perhaps remnants of typology preceding

192-512: Is known as the Sandusky River and the bay, as well as the general area, as saundustee , meaning "water" or andusti , "cold water". In his 1734 history of New France , Charlevoix transliterated the word as "Chinouski". Sandusky Bay is identified as "Lac (Lake) Sandouské" on a 1718 map by Guillaume DeLisle. The name "L.(Lac) Sandoski" appears on a 1733 map. Sandusky Bay was also called Lac Otsandaské , in another French transliteration of

216-447: Is the only direct highway link between Ottawa and Erie counties. Sandusky Bay can be viewed from Marblehead Lighthouse at Marblehead Lighthouse State Park. The Sandusky Bay Water Trail was dedicated on June 2, 2007 to provide recreational opportunities along Sandusky Bay. The water of Sandusky Bay is shallow and rarely clear. According to author Tom Cross, "Sandusky Bay is known for great early spring crappie fishing." On June 14, 2012,

240-680: The University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario started offering a credit course in Mohawk; the classes are to be given at Renison University College in collaboration with the Waterloo Aboriginal Education Centre, St. Paul's University College . Head-marking language A language is head-marking if the grammatical marks showing agreement between different words of a phrase tend to be placed on

264-831: The equator , but it does not form any true clusters. The head-marked clause is common in the Americas , Australia, New Guinea, and the Bantu languages but is very rare elsewhere. The dependent-marked clause is common in Eurasia and Northern Africa , sparse in South America , and rare in North America. In New Guinea, it clusters in the Eastern Highlands and in Australia in the south, east, and interior with

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288-530: The heads (or nuclei) of phrases, rather than on the modifiers or dependents . Many languages employ both head-marking and dependent-marking , and some languages double up and are thus double-marking . The concept of head/dependent-marking was proposed by Johanna Nichols in 1986 and has come to be widely used as a basic category in linguistic typology . The concepts of head-marking and dependent-marking are commonly applied to languages that have richer inflectional morphology than English . There are, however,

312-1114: The American South. They are believed to have spoken an Iroquoian language but documentation is lacking. Attempts to link the Iroquoian, Siouan , and Caddoan languages in a Macro-Siouan family are suggestive but remain unproven ( Mithun 1999 :305). As of 2012, a program in Iroquois linguistics at Syracuse University , the Certificate in Iroquois Linguistics for Language Learners , is designed for students and language teachers working in language revitalization . Six Nations Polytechnic in Ohsweken, Ontario offers Ogwehoweh language Diploma and Degree Programs in Mohawk or Cayuga . Starting in September 2017,

336-726: The Conestoga Confederacy and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy were defeated and scattered, migrating to form new tribes or adopted into others. The Iroquoian peoples had a practice of adopting valiant enemies into the tribe; they also adopted captive women and children to replace members who had died. The group known as the Meherrin were neighbors to the Tuscarora and the Nottoway ( Binford 1967 ) in

360-558: The French Fort Junandat built in 1754 diagonally across from the former Ft. Sandusky. Sandusky Bay is one of the principal bodies of water in northern Ohio. It is situated between Erie , Ottawa , and Sandusky counties in Ohio and is part of Lake Erie . According to author Francis Leroy Landacre, it is a "shallow, almost land-locked harbor averaging about twelve feet in depth, some fourteen or fifteen miles in length, with

384-492: The U.S. Customs and Border Protection agency opened Sandusky Bay Station. Samples of water from Sandusky Bay gathered on July 30 and 31, 2012 showed that invasive Asian carp may have reached Lake Erie. If so, they may adversely affect Lake Erie's $ 1 billion fishing industry and $ 10 billion tourism industry. 41°28′13″N 82°51′18″W  /  41.47028°N 82.85500°W  / 41.47028; -82.85500 Iroquoian languages The Iroquoian languages are

408-569: The Wyandot. The Wyandot occupied areas along the river at the Upper and Lower falls. In 1745, Chief Nicolas of the Wyandot allowed the English to establish a trading post on the north shore of the bay, which they called Fort Sandusky and the French knew as Fort Sandoské . This was the first fort built by Europeans in Ohio Country. The bay has also been referred to as Lake Junandat (derived from

432-529: The arrows. Subject-verb agreement, shown in the tree on the left, is a case of head-marking because the singular subject John requires the inflectional suffix -s to appear on the finite verb cheats , the head of the clause. The determiner-noun agreement, shown in the tree in the middle, is a case of dependent-marking because the plural noun houses requires the dependent determiner to appear in its plural form, these , not in its singular form, this . The preposition-pronoun agreement of case government , shown in

456-648: The eastern end of Lake Erie placed them between the larger confederations. To the east of the Wenro, beyond the Genesee Gorge , were the lands of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. To the southeast, beyond the headwaters of the Allegheny River , lay the Conestoga (Susquehannock). The Conestoga Confederacy and Erie were militarily powerful and respected by neighboring tribes. By 1660 all of these peoples but

480-464: The populations of their nations. † — language extinct/dormant Evidence is emerging that what has been called the Laurentian language appears to be more than one dialect or language. Ethnographic and linguistic field work with the Wyandot tribal elders ( Barbeau 1960 ) yielded enough documentation for scholars to characterize and classify the Huron and Petun languages. The languages of

504-519: The subject rather than the verb is the head of a clause so "head-marking" is not necessarily a coherent typology. Still, languages that are head-marking in both noun and verb phrases are common enough to make the term useful for typological description. Head-marked possessive noun phrases are common in the Americas, Melanesia, Afro-Asiatic languages ( status constructus ) and Turkic languages and infrequent elsewhere. Dependent-marked noun phrases have

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528-532: The tree on the right, is also an instance of dependent-marking because the head preposition with requires the dependent pronoun to appear in its object form, him , not in its subject form, he . The distinction between head-marking and dependent-marking shows the most in noun phrases and verb phrases, which have significant variation among and within languages. Languages may be head-marking in verb phrases and dependent-marking in noun phrases, such as most Bantu languages , or vice versa, and it has been argued that

552-590: The tribes that constituted the tiny Wenrohronon , the powerful Conestoga Confederacy and the confederations of the Neutral Nation and the Erie Nation are very poorly documented in print. The Huron ( Wyandot people ) referred to the Neutral people as Atiwandaronk, meaning 'they who understand the language'. The Wenro and Neutral are historically grouped together, and geographically the Wenro's range on

576-562: The very old Pama-Nyungan family. Double-marking is moderately well attested in the Americas, Australia, and New Guinea, and the southern fringe of Eurasia (chiefly in the Caucasian languages and Himalayan mountain enclaves), and it is particularly favored in Australia and the westernmost Americas. The zero-marked object is unsurprisingly common in Southeast Asia and Western Africa , two centers of morphological simplicity, but it

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