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68-660: Located at the foot of the Palatine Hill , Santa Maria Antiqua is the oldest Christian monument in the Roman Forum . The church contains the earliest Roman depiction of Santa Maria Regina , the Virgin Mary as a Queen , from the 6th century. Built in the middle of the 5th century on the north-western slope of the Palatine Hill, Santa Maria Antiqua is the earliest and most significant Christian monument within

136-467: A barely-there beard, following Byzantine fashion. Possible influence of the coins appears in Christ's eyes: like on the coin, they are wide open, staring straight ahead instead of shut or downcast. The existence of the loincloth was established by close examination of the fresco, which revealed a heavily contoured or muscled abdomen that would not have been consistent with fabric patterns of a colobium. From

204-415: A chronology of styles and influences: in the case of Santa Maria Antiqua, this is less successful due to the fact that no other church from Late Antiquity has quite the same collection and evolution of styles through this time. The change of style at Santa Maria Antiqua is recognized through its layering of trends and styles. Rome changed hands multiple times during Santa Maria Antiqua's use. The defeat of

272-477: A cleft on the southeast corner of the hill, where later a staircase bearing the name of Cacus was constructed. Rome has its origins on the Palatine. Excavations show that people have lived in the area since the 10th century BC. Excavations performed on the hill in 1907 and again in 1948 unearthed a collection of huts believed to have been used for funerary purposes between the 9th and 7th century BC approximating

340-500: A collection of frescoes in fragments that clearly make it one of a kind in Late Antiquity by its inclusion of all styles, techniques and influences or lack of influence as it does not quite fit with contemporaries. Palatine Hill The Palatine Hill ( / ˈ p æ l ə t aɪ n / ; Classical Latin : Palatium ; Neo-Latin : Collis/Mons Palatinus ; Italian : Palatino [palaˈtiːno] ), which relative to

408-452: A cycle of beautiful colourful frescoes depicting the Virgin Mary and Infant Jesus , popes, saints, and martyrs, thus forming one of the largest and most important collections of pre-iconoclastic Roman and Byzantine art in the world. These frescoes date to a period of iconoclasm when in the East, figures in churches were destroyed. Pope John VII used this church in the early 8th century as

476-627: A determining factor in the different styles in this church. Influences can also be traced through remaining inscriptions: Greek in Pope Martin I's (649-653) decorations, Greek and Latin in Pope John VII's (705-707) and completely Latin in Pope Paul I's. The Palimpsest Wall, located in the sanctuary (number two on map) has at least six layers of decoration, representing different styles, dates and influences. The first two layers from

544-678: A family of Greek origin, in the Calabrian town of Santa Severina . He was most probably a deacon of the Roman Church and as such signed the decrees of the Roman council of 732. He was selected to succeed Gregory III as pope on 3 December or 5 December 741. Gregory III's alliance with the Lombard Duchy of Spoleto put papal cities at risk when the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento rebelled. Zachary turned to King Liutprand

612-663: A flowing beard. There are no known contemporary parallels to Santa Maria Antiqua's use of white highlighting that is common here. John VII's artists were very influenced by the Byzantines as they combine the transparency of Hellenism with denser, layered colours. The most controversial figure from the period of John VII, Christ in the Adoration of the Cross/Crucified, located in the Triumphal Arch. This figure

680-643: A more Roman style. By simplifying the style, Paul I appeased those of Byzantine origin left in Rome who were in the throes of Iconoclastic debates. The progression of styles at Santa Maria Antiqua started as pagan mosaics, turned into a classical revival of Hellenistic styles with fluidity, light, colours and motion that evolved into deeper colours and finer detail, finally morphing into less detailed and rigid: an almost backwards evolution. The shift in trends can correspond to Byzantine influences and tensions within Italy from

748-506: A particular saint. This would have been easily accomplished at Santa Maria Antiqua due to the diverse community surrounding the church and the diversity of medical saints, thus making religion accessible, relatable and understandable. Included in the collection of saints are: Saint Dometius of Persia , a hermit known for miracles, Saints Cosmas and Damian , physicians claimed to appear to the ill who prayed to them, Nazarius and Celsus , martyrs from Gaul . These icons are reproductions made for

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816-526: A place of healing. The saints in Martin I's era were all in frames and sequences of movement with flowing designs, light colours and patterned backgrounds, John VII's era were still in frames of motion but they were more detailed: his designs were slightly linear in the old Roman style and his backgrounds were nondescript. Even though John VII's decorations conform to the Hellenistic style, they are showing

884-647: A planned attack on Ravenna and to restore territory seized from the city. Zachary corresponded with Archbishop Boniface of Mainz , counseling him about dealing with disreputable prelates such as Milo, bishop of Reims and Trier . "As for Milo and his like, who are doing great injury to the church of God, preach in season and out of season, according to the word of the Apostle, that they cease from their evil ways." At Boniface's request, Zachary confirmed three newly established bishoprics of Würzburg , Büraburg , and Erfurt . In 742 he appointed Boniface as papal legate to

952-589: A slow shift back to the old Roman traditions that are dominant in the decorations from the era of Paul I. Paul I's (757-767) Saint Abbakyros in the atrium was created after the Lombards succeeded in destroying the Byzantine government in Italy and during the Iconoclasm period in the east. Saint Abbakyros is well preserved with hard, stiff brush strokes. His face has asymmetrical eyes with arching eyebrows,

1020-627: A tomb to him on the hill and called the place Pallantium, after him. According to Livy , after the immigration of the Sabines and the Albans to Rome, the original Romans lived on the Palatine. The Palatine Hill was also the site of the ancient festival of the Lupercalia . Many affluent Romans of the Republican period ( c.  509 BC – 44 BC) had their residences there. From

1088-469: A wrinkled forehead and a beard. The finer details of eyelashes are indistinguishable from shadows, no highlights accenting his hair or beard and a stiff pose represent Roman bulkiness with this lack of detail. His mouth is a series of lines due to the lack of shading and detailing; Paul I's Saint Abbakyros clearly lacks the finder details of the earlier frescoes. The Hellenistic trend and Byzantine influence on art had seemingly wanted by this time, returning to

1156-873: Is also the etymological origin (via the Latin adjective palatinus ) of " palatine ", a 16th-century English adjective that originally signified something pertaining to the Caesar's palace, or someone who is invested with the king's authority. Later its use shifted to a reference to the German Palatinate . The office of the German count palatine ( Pfalzgraf ) had its origins in the comes palatinus , an earlier office in Merovingian and Carolingian times. Another modern English word, " paladin ", came into usage to refer to any distinguished knight (especially one of

1224-518: Is approximately 2.5 meters high and poorly preserved: Christ's head, abdomen and left arm survive. Flanking Christ on the cross are angels, Saint John's head with halo and there is a crown of adoring followers dressed in different coloured robes at the foot of a cliff (believed to be Golgotha , from Matthew 27: 33). Christ's image does not conform to contemporary images or other portrayals of Christ by John VII: in Santa Maria Antiqua he

1292-510: Is holding a scroll in their right hand and varying styles of surgeon boxes with black straps. These details are gleaned from the pieces of individual saints in the chapel, as no individual saint survives intact. There is no contemporary example of this chapel or a collection this diverse of medical saints. Originating around the mid seventh century, medical saints are believed to have encouraged people to stop seeking pagan cures for illness and turn to Christian prayers by identifying themselves with

1360-417: Is painted on a heavily contoured, emaciated jaw and he carries a jewelled book. He wears an ecclesiastical hairstyle that is balding, short and has a central lock of hair around the forehead. Martin I's eyes are not staring straight ahead with jet-black pupils as was typical of contemporaries, instead they are gazing downward and individualized. Most notably is that Martin I and John VII's images are clothed in

1428-544: Is referenced by a Greek inscription below as pertaining to the Lateran Council of 649 that condemned Monothelitism . Martin I was ultimately exiled for his condemnation of Monothelitism but John VII commissioned his image to be painted in the Presbytery (see map) with other images of popes in Santa Maria Antiqua. Martin I is depicted in Hellenistic fashion by white brush strokes shading his brown facial hair that

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1496-493: Is seen as having curly, short hair, lightly thatched facial hair and wearing a loincloth. Contemporary images show Christ having long hair with a long beard and wearing a colobium (a linen shift). The origin of this new portrayal is thought to have come from the coins issued by Justinian II after he reasserted Byzantine rule in Italy in AD 705. The coins were minted in Italy, and like the fresco, they depict Christ with short hair and

1564-409: Is stances of motion. Although many of the surviving frescoes at Santa Maria Antiqua are Hellenistic, they lack classical Hellenistic backgrounds of villas and columns. Instead, the backgrounds are more detached and neutral looking. Early examples often have the blackened pupils staring straight ahead with contour details on the face. The first stage of each frescoes involved penciling in outlines, then

1632-518: The curies of Rome. In 2007 the legendary Lupercal cave was claimed to have been found beneath the remains of the Domus Livia (House of Livia ) on the Palatine. Archaeologists came across the 16-metre-deep cavity while restoring the decaying palace, with a richly decorated vault encrusted with mosaics and seashells. The Lupercal was probably converted to a sanctuary by Romans in later centuries. Many others have denied its identification with

1700-702: The Arcadian settlers from Pallantium , named from its founder Pallas, son of Lycaon . More likely, it is derived from the noun palātum "palate"; Ennius uses it once for the "heaven", and it may be connected with the Etruscan word for sky, falad . The name of the hill is the etymological origin of the word palace and its cognates in other languages ( Greek : παλάτιον , Italian : palazzo , French : palais , Spanish : palacio , Portuguese : palácio , German : Pfalz and Palast , Czech : palác , Croatian : palača , etc.). The Palatine Hill

1768-639: The Arch of Constantine . The Republican-era houses on the Palatine were overbuilt by later palaces after the Great Fire of Rome (AD 64), but apparently this one was not and perhaps was preserved for an important reason. On the ground floor, three shops opened onto the Via Sacra . The location of the domus is significant because of its potential proximity to the Curiae Veteres , the earliest shrine of

1836-643: The Concilium Germanicum , hosted by Carloman , one of the Frankish mayors of the Palace . In a later letter Zachary confirmed the metropolitans appointed by Boniface to Rouen , Reims , and Sens . In 745 Zachary convened a synod in Rome to discourage a tendency toward the worship of angels. Zachary corresponded with temporal rulers as well. Answering a question from the Frankish Mayor of

1904-645: The Severan Dynasty , made significant additions to the buildings, notably the Domus Severiana . The House of Livia , the wife of Augustus, is conventionally attributed to her based only on the generic name on a clay pipe and circumstantial factors such as proximity to the House of Augustus. The building is located near the Temple of Magna Mater at the western end of the hill, on a lower terrace from

1972-649: The Twelve Peers of Charlemagne ) under Charlemagne in late renditions of the Matter of France . According to Roman mythology , the Palatine Hill was the location of the cave, known as the Lupercal , where Romulus and Remus were found by the she-wolf Lupa that kept them alive. Another legend occurring on the Palatine is Hercules ' defeat of Cacus after the monster had stolen some cattle. Hercules struck Cacus with his characteristic club so hard that it formed

2040-585: The Western Roman Empire by the Goths in the fifth century gave way to Byzantine and Lombard influence in the late fifth to mid eighth centuries. Artists from the Greek community surrounding the church had local influence, but there was also a Byzantine administration operating atop the Palatine Hill , at the base of which is Santa Maria Antiqua. This continual change in influences is thought to be

2108-530: The seven hills of Rome is the centremost, is one of the most ancient parts of the city; it has been called "the first nucleus of the Roman Empire ". The site is now mainly a large open-air museum whilst the Palatine Museum houses many finds from the excavations here and from other ancient Italian sites. Imperial palaces were built there, starting with Augustus . Before imperial times the hill

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2176-500: The "original town of Rome." Modern archaeology has identified evidence of Bronze Age settlement in the area which predates Rome's founding. Intensive archaeological excavations began in the 18th century and culminated in the late 19th century, after the proclamation of Rome as the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Discoveries continued sporadically throughout the 20th century until the present time. In 2006, archaeologists announced

2244-518: The Lombard directly. Out of respect for Zachary the king restored to the church of Rome all the territory seized by the Lombards and sent back the captives without ransom. The contemporary history ( Liber pontificalis ) dwells chiefly on Zachary's personal influence with Liutprand, and with his successor Ratchis . At the request of the Exarchate of Ravenna , Zachary persuaded Liutprand to abandon

2312-476: The Lupercal on topographic and stylistic grounds, and believe that the grotto is actually a nymphaeum or underground triclinium from Neronian times. 41°53′18″N 12°29′13″E  /  41.88833°N 12.48694°E  / 41.88833; 12.48694 Pope Zachary Pope Zachary ( Latin : Zacharias ; 679 – March 752) was the bishop of Rome from 28 November 741 to his death. He

2380-639: The Palace Pepin the Short , who planned to usurp the Frankish throne from the puppet-king Childeric III , Zachary rendered the opinion that it was better that he should be king who had the royal power than he who had not. Shortly thereafter, the Frankish nobles decided to abandon Childeric, the last Merovingian king, in favor of Pepin. Zachary remonstrated with the Byzantine emperor Constantine V Copronymus on his iconoclastic policies . Zachary built

2448-473: The Popes Martin I (649-653), John VII (705-707), Zachary (741-752) and Paul I (757-767). The amount of erosion and destruction makes obtaining an accurate record of the styles difficult. Using the fragments of the frescoes, archaeologists and historians have assembled a rough chronology of the decorations. Historians who study Santa Maria Antiqua often rely on contemporary churches to help create

2516-520: The Presbytery, Chapel of Physicians (or Chapel of Medical Saints) and the Oratory of Forty Martyrs. John VII's ambitious projects can be partially blamed for the removal and destruction of existing frescoes as his artists often re-plastered the areas approximately 4.5 meters and up. Holes drilled into the walls at even intervals and levels remain to provide details of how this was accomplished in such small, cramped spaces. The artists would drill holes into

2584-465: The Roman Forum. The church contains a unique collection of wall paintings from the 6th to late 8th century. The discovery of these paintings have given many theories on the development of early medieval art and given distinctive beliefs in archaeology . The church was abandoned in the 9th century after an earthquake buried the buildings; it remained sealed for over 1000 years until its rediscovery in

2652-651: The Scot Charles Mills who turned it into an elaborate neo-Gothic villa. At the end of the 19th century the villa was converted into a convent. This was partially demolished from 1928 to allow excavations and in the surviving part of the building the Palatine Museum has been installed. Dominating the site is the Palace of Domitian which was rebuilt largely during the reign of Domitian over earlier buildings of Nero . Later emperors, particularly those of

2720-403: The ability of the artists to incorporate different techniques and styles; consequently, these styles soon became unique as generations of artists formed specific skill sets for Santa Maria Antiqua to continue or discontinue trends seemingly at random. The Martin I (649-653) frescoes are few but reasonably preserved. These in Hellenistic style as it had fully eclipsed the traditional Roman style by

2788-551: The church is now open for tours. Santa Maria Antiqua is a ruined church in the Roman Forum, and is part of the Foro Romano e Palatino archaeological site which requires a ticket purchase in order to get access inside. The church itself is not always open to the public, owing to ongoing excavations which began 2004 under the aegis of the World Monuments Fund. Thanks to centuries of sealing off, its walls showcase

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2856-505: The city in honor of his ancestor, Pallas, although Pausanias as well as Dionysius of Halicarnassus say that Evander's birth city was Pallantium, and thus he named the new city after the one in Arcadia. Dionysius of Halicarnassus also mention that some writers, including Polybius of Megalopolis , say that the town was named after Pallas, who was the son of Heracles and Lavinia, the daughter of Evander, and when he died his grandfather raised

2924-478: The darker colours would be added as clothing while the finer details were finished last. Hellenism began to manifest itself during the time the Pompeian Angel was painted and eclipsed the more Pagan styles by AD 650. The eras of Popes Martin I (649-653), John VII (705-707) and Paul I (757-767) provide clear examples of the stylistic trends through their surviving decorations. The surviving frescoes exemplify

2992-586: The discovery of the Palatine House, believed to be the birthplace of Rome 's first Emperor, Augustus. A section of corridor and other fragments under the Hill were found and described as "a very ancient aristocratic house." The two-story house appears to have been built around an atrium , with frescoed walls and mosaic flooring, and is situated on the slope of the Palatine that overlooks the Colosseum and

3060-606: The early 20th century. Therefore, Santa Maria Antiqua represents a key element for the understanding of the cultural and urban development of the Roman Forum from Antiquity into the first centuries of the Christian period. From 1980 to 2012 the monument was closed to the general public and limited to scholars who applied for a special visit. Following a conservation program carried out by the Soprintendenza per il Patrimonio Storico in partnership with World Monuments Fund ,

3128-462: The easiest access to the Byzantine influenced practice of incubation (the notion that while sleeping in a church, one could see a saint or be cured of disease) that was popular in the early eighth century. The ease in accessibility of these medical saints of all different origins encouraged people to recover from illness in a Christian way, replacing any traces that Santa Maria Antiqua was associated with pagans but still continuing its reputation for being

3196-785: The even larger Domus Aurea , over which was eventually built Domitian's Palace. From the 16th century, the hill was owned by the Farnese family and was occupied by the Farnese Gardens , still partially preserved above the remains of the Domus Tiberiana. At the top of the hill, between the Domus Flavia and the Domus Augustana, the Villa Mattei was built in the 16th century, then purchased around 1830 by

3264-620: The fall of Simon Magus . Santa Maria Antiqua suffered further damages during the Norman Sack of Rome (1084) . Prior to the present structures, the church of San Salvatore in Lacu , occupied by Benedictines, was located at this site, named because of its proximity to a site called the Lago di Gioturna . The church was assigned in 1550 by Pope Julius III to the Oblates of St Frances of Rome from

3332-489: The fifth to ninth centuries. Difficulties in establishing chronologies are the result of poor preservation, changes in style and the partial decoration or redecoration during each phase. Ultimately it was the Byzantine-influenced popes and artists at Santa Maria Antiqua who were most important; however, it is the artists' adaption of technique that survives as a tribute to their skill. Santa Maria Antiqua hosts

3400-487: The fourth to sixth century are of Ancient Roman Pagan mosaics, which quickly were replaced by the earliest frescoes of Santa Maria Antiqua. About two percent of these mosaics survive because they were overpainted with fresco. The third layer, c. 500-550, contains remnants of Queen of Heaven , the earliest association of this title with the Virgin Mary and the Pompeian Angel. It is on this layer that archaeologists note

3468-627: The majority of surviving frescoes in Santa Maria Antiqua were painted top-to-bottom instead of side-to-side or at once. Complex, detailed frescoes were needed where intonaco was spread because it would overlap with existing frescoes causing lines, easily shown in the details of Hellenistic styled frescoes. The new complex designs would help hide the lines and cracks that was caused by the intonaco. The John VII decorations feature Hellenistic styles fused with earlier Roman linear styles. Although John VII's frescoes are adorned with breezy tunics, toned contours of flesh and animated expressions that individualized

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3536-470: The nearby Monastery of Tor de' Specchi. The church of Santa Maria Liberatrice (Sancta Maria libera nos a poenis inferni) was built in 1617 on its ruins of Santa Maria Antiqua. This refurbishment was patronized by Cardinal Marcello Lante della Rovere and utilized the architect Onorio Longhi . The church was decorated by the painters Stefano Parrocel , Gramiccia ( Lorenzo ?), Francesco Ferrari, and Sebastiano Ceccarini . The church of Maria Liberatrice, however,

3604-520: The original church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva over an ancient temple to Minerva near the Pantheon . He also restored the decaying Lateran Palace , moving the relic of the head of Saint George to the church of San Giorgio al Velabro . After Venetian merchants bought many slaves in Rome to sell to the Muslims of Africa , Zachary forbade such traffic and then paid the merchants their price, giving

3672-566: The saints, they are considered by archaeologists and historians to be strained in their movement. The artists posed them in conversation with quick hands and turned heads but their backs are "flat" against the background instead of turning inwards toward the conversation. An example of this detail comes in the form of Saint Hermolaus of Macedon in the Chapel of Physicians who is pictured with high, strongly contoured cheekbones, asymmetrical eyes, arching eyebrows with highlighted long, dark hair and

3740-432: The same colour paenula of light yellow with green underlay showing through, suggesting a sort of solidarity among the popes against the Byzantines, using art to convey political messages that the Byzantine decision to exile Martin I was wrong. The period of Pope John VII (705-707) has the most surviving decorations. These provide examples of techniques used during Santa Maria Antiqua's extensive repairs and redecorations of

3808-408: The seat of the bishop of Rome. The church was partially destroyed in 847, when an earthquake caused parts of the imperial palaces to collapse and cover the church. For this reason, a new church called Santa Maria Nova (New St Mary, now Santa Francesca Romana ) was erected nearby by Pope Leo IV , on a portion of the ruined temple of Temple of Venus and Roma , where once stood a chapel commemorating

3876-436: The slaves their freedom. Pope Zachary died around 15 March 752 (it may also have been the 12th or 14th) and was buried in St. Peter's Basilica . His elected successor, Stephen , died within days, and Zachary was finally succeeded by Stephen II . The letters and decrees of Zachary are published in Jacques Paul Migne , Patrolog. lat. lxxxix. p. 917–960. Church historian Johann Peter Kirsch said of Zachary: "In

3944-456: The start of the Empire (27 BC) Augustus built his palace there and the hill gradually became the exclusive domain of emperors; the ruins of the palaces of at least Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), Tiberius (14 – 37 AD) and Domitian (81 – 96 AD) can still be seen. Augustus also built a temple to Apollo here. The Great Fire of Rome in AD 64 destroyed Nero's palace, the Domus Transitoria , but he replaced it by AD 69 with

4012-503: The temple. It is notable for its frescoes. Known as the Domus Tiberiana because the original house was built by Tiberius , he spent much of his time in his palaces in Campania and Capri. It was later incorporated into Nero 's Domus Transitoria . Part of its remains lie in the current Farnese Gardens . Already during Augustus' reign an area of the Palatine Hill was subject to a sort of archaeological expedition which found fragments of Bronze Age pots and tools. He declared this site

4080-571: The time he entered office, which was after the Byzantines had taken over. Roman style was much less detailed: no contour lines or shading and very subdued backgrounds. The earliest Martin I decorations are the Church Fathers AD 649 who are expressing movement by having a leg lifted in the walking motion while their robes are draped and highlighted to exaggerate this effect. The Church Fathers are exemplifying more fluidity with their tunics swirling than compared to later frescoes but their faces are much stiffer, also compared to later frescoes. The precise date

4148-403: The time period when the city of Rome was founded. Pallantium was an ancient city near the Tiber river on the Italian peninsula. Roman mythology , as recounted in Virgil 's Aeneid for example, states that the city was founded by Evander of Pallene and other ancient Greeks sometime previous to the Trojan War . In addition, Dionysius of Halicarnassus writes that Romans say that the city

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4216-486: The turn toward Hellenistic or Byzantine styles and away from a traditional linear Roman style. Layers four and five, c. 570-655 see the complete take over of Hellenistic style from earlier Roman styles, asserting Byzantine influence in Rome. Layer six belongs to Pope John VII (705-707) who is responsible for the extensive repairs and decorations that currently survive. Hellenistic style is notable for white highlighting and shadowing of hair and robes along with placing figures

4284-608: The two different images of Christ in circulation at this time, from the west and from the east, it is possible to suggest that the Byzantine artist community living on Palatine Hill by Santa Maria Antiqua held influence in the painting of the Adoration of the Cross/Crucified. The 'Chapel of Physicians' or 'Chapel of Medical Saints' is another of John VII's works that survives, although poorly in comparison to his others. The chapel hosts numerous, life-sized saints with their common appearance of brown tunics, long, dark hair, long beards, wide open eyes, animated eyebrows and sandals, each saint

4352-402: The walls 9.3 meters above the floor to hold their scaffolding then spread intonaco (plaster) to reinforce and secure layers below the current working surface. Painting took place immediately after the intonaco was spread in order to allow the paint to seep into the plaster for a deeper effect. The same holes would then be drilled lower, 7.98 meters above the floor and the process repeated. Thus

4420-468: Was demolished in 1900 to bring the remains of the old church to light. Santa Maria Antiqua was closed for restoration from 1980 to 2016. The heavily layered walls of Santa Maria Antiqua host numerous frescoes of varying artistic style and adaption during its time of intense decoration from the sixth to the ninth century. Each alcove, wall and altar can be attributed to different times and trends of style representative of its artists and patrons, including

4488-440: Was founded by Greeks from Pallantium of Arcadia , about sixty years before the Trojan war and the leader was Evander. The myth of the city's origin was significant in ancient Roman mythology because Pallantium became one of the cities that was merged later into ancient Rome , thereby tying Rome's origins to the ancient Greek heroes. Other cities in the area were founded by various Italic tribes . Virgil states that Evander named

4556-420: Was mostly occupied by the houses of the rich. The hill originally had two summits separated by a depression; the highest part was called Palatium and the other Germalus (or Cermalus). Using the Forma Urbis its perimeter enclosed 63 acres (25 ha); while the Regionary Catalogues of the 4th century enclose 131 acres (53 ha). According to Livy (59 BC – AD 17) the Palatine hill got its name from

4624-409: Was the last pope of the Byzantine Papacy . Zachary built the original church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva , forbade the traffic of slaves in Rome , negotiated peace with the Lombards , and sanctioned Pepin the Short 's usurpation of the Frankish throne from Childeric III . Zachary is regarded as a capable administrator and a skillful and subtle diplomat in a dangerous time. Zachary was born into

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