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118-438: It has an elevation of 370 meters above sea level. The ancient site of Ebla is situated five kilometers south of the city. Nearby localities include Mardikh and Maar Dibsah to the south, Tronba and al-Nayrab to the west, Sarmin to the northwest, Taftanaz to the north, Talhiyah to the northeast, Tell Touqan to the east and Kafr Amim to the southeast. The M4 and M5 motorways intersect near Saraqib. According to

236-435: A US airstrike killed former al-Qaeda commander Abu Hani al-Masri , who was a part of Ahrar al-Sham at the time of his death. It was reported that he was about to defect to Tahrir al-Sham before his death. Around 8 February, Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi confirmed that 2 senior Jabhat Fateh al-Sham leaders loyal to al-Qaeda, including former al-Nusra deputy leader Sami al-Oraydi , left Tahrir al-Sham after its formation. A speech

354-736: A bitter personal and academic conflict between the scholars involved, as well as what some described as political interference by the Syrian authorities. Ancient DNA analysis on 10 human remains dating to the Early and Middle Bronze Age from Ebla found that Eblaites were a mixture of Copper age Levantines and Mesopotamians, and were genetically similar to contemporaneous Levantines. Hayat Tahrir al-Sham Non-state allies : Non-state opponents Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham ( HTS ; Arabic : هيئة تحرير الشام , romanized :  Hayʼat Taḥrīr aš-Šām , lit.   ''Organization for

472-768: A campaign against the southern region of Ib'al – close to Qatna . In order to settle the war with Mari, Isar-Damu allied with Nagar and Kish . Some scholars have suggested that the Kish in question was not the Mesopotamian city but rather a town near Nagar in the Khabur area. The campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish , who led the combined armies to victory in a battle near Terqa . The alliance also attacked Armi and occupied it, leaving Ibbi-Sipish's son Enzi-Malik as governor. Ebla suffered its first destruction

590-401: A council of elders ( Abbu ) and the administration. The second kingdom was also a monarchy, but little is known about it because of a lack of written records. The third kingdom was a city-state monarchy with reduced importance under the authority of Yamhad. The queen shared the running of affairs of state with the king. The crown prince was involved in internal matters and the second prince

708-403: A few years after the campaign, probably following Isar-Damu's death. The first destruction occurred c.  2300   BC ; palace "G" was burned, baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them. Many theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been posited: "Whereas, for all time since the creation of mankind, no king whosoever had destroyed Armanum and Ebla,

826-630: A group of armed factions, including Failaq al-Rahman and Jaysh al-Islam , wrote to the UN declaring they were ready to "evacuate" remaining HTS fighters from Eastern Ghouta within 15 days. At the same time in Idlib Governorate, Ahrar al-Sham, Nour al-Din al-Zinki and Soqour al-Sham entered into conflict with HTS , taking significant territory. During late 2017 and early 2018, it co-operated with Turkey in Idlib, leading to deepening tensions between

944-427: A lower town and a raised acropolis in the center. During the first kingdom, the city had an area of 56 hectares and was protected by mud-brick fortifications. Ebla was divided into four districts – each with its own gate in the outer wall. The acropolis included the king's palace "G", and one of two temples in city dedicated to Kura (called the "Red Temple"). The lower city included the second temple of Kura in

1062-536: A new body. During its foundation declaration, Emir Abu Jaber Shaykh described the Levant Liberation Committee as "an independent entity" free from all the previous relations and allegiances by virtue of the unification. According to Syria analyst Charles Lister, Ahrar al-Sham lost some 800–1,000 defectors to HTS, but gained at least 6,000-8,000 more from the merger into its ranks of Suqor al-Sham , Jaish al-Mujahideen , Fastaqim Union and

1180-536: A new royal dynasty. It was destroyed at the end of the 3rd millennium BC , which paved the way for the Amorite tribes to settle in the city, forming the third Ebla. The third kingdom also flourished as a trade center; it became a subject and an ally of Yamhad (modern-day Aleppo) until its final destruction by the Hittite king Mursili I in c.  1600   BC . Ebla maintained its prosperity through

1298-460: A raid by a Free Syrian Army unit based in the city on a Syrian Army checkpoint. Between 30 October and 1 November 2012, al-Nusra and Liwa Dawud —then a sub-unit of Suqour al-Sham —coordinated an attack on three government checkpoints at entrances to the town. On 23 January 2017, Ahrar al-Sham captured Saraqib from Jabhat Fatah al-Sham . On 19 July 2017 the Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham alliance, which

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1416-418: A shrine frequented by Shi'ite pilgrims and militiamen. In a statement released the following day, Tahrir al-Sham stated that the attacks targeted Iran -backed militants fight on behalf of Bashar al-Assad and condemned Khomeinist militants for ""killing and displacing" Syrians. From September to November 2017, there were a series of assassinations of HTS leaders, in particular foreign clerics associated with

1534-540: A small settlement in the Early Bronze Age ( c.  3500   BC ), Ebla developed into a trading empire and later into an expansionist power that imposed its hegemony over much of northern and eastern Syria. Ebla was destroyed during the 23rd century BC . It was then rebuilt and was mentioned in the records of the Third Dynasty of Ur . The second Ebla was a continuation of the first, ruled by

1652-556: A total of 12,000 fighters. In February 2018, Tahrir al-Sham was accused of killing Fayez al-Madani, an opposition delegate tasked with negotiations with the government over electricity delivery in the northern Homs Governorate , in the city of al-Rastan . Hundreds of people, including fighters of the Men of God Brigade, part of the Free Syrian Army 's National Liberation Movement group, proceeded to demonstrate against HTS in

1770-443: A total of 16,000 HTS fighters. On 31 August, Turkey declared HTS a terrorist organization. In the summer of 2018, HTS strengthened its crackdown campaign against cells affiliated with IS organization in Idlib and Hama regions. In January 2019, HTS was able to seize dozens of villages from rivals, and afterwards, a deal was reached in which the civil administration was to be led by HTS in the whole rebel-held Idlib Governorate. In

1888-459: A vassal to the Idrimi dynasty . "Mardikh V" (1200–535  BC ) was a rural, Early Iron Age settlement that grew in size during later periods. Further development occurred during "Mardikh VI", which lasted until c.  60   AD . "Mardikh VII" began in the 3rd century AD and lasted until the 7th century, after which the site was abandoned. Ebla consisted of

2006-518: A vast trading network. Artifacts from Sumer , Cyprus , Egypt and as far as Afghanistan were recovered from the city's palaces. The kingdom had its own language, Eblaite , and the political organization of Ebla had features different from the Sumerian model. Women enjoyed a special status, and the queen had major influence in the state and religious affairs. The pantheon of gods was mainly north Semitic and included deities exclusive to Ebla. The city

2124-486: Is Ibbit-Lim , who described himself as the Mekim of Ebla. A basalt votive statue bearing Ibbit-Lim's inscription was discovered in 1968; this helped to identify the site of Tell-Mardikh with the ancient kingdom Ebla. The name of the king is Amorite in the view of Pettinato; it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom Ebla were predominantly Amorites, as were most of the inhabitants of Syria at that time. By

2242-485: Is 5.20 meters long, 4 meters wide and west–east oriented. Limestone was used to build the walls and few blocks protruding from the sides toward the middle of the rooms suggest the roof to have been a corbelled vault . The tombs were found under the floor of Building Q, which was built in the Isin-Larsa period. The first kingdom's government consisted of the king (styled Malikum ) and the grand vizier, who headed

2360-536: Is based on expanding its territorial control in Syria, establishing governance and mobilising popular support. In 2017, HTS permitted Turkish troops to patrol North-West Syria as part of a ceasefire brokered through the Astana negotiations . Its policies have brought it into conflict with Hurras al-Deen , Al-Qaeda's Syrian wing. HTS had an estimated 6,000-15,000 members in 2022. Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham gives allegiance to

2478-542: Is called Saraqib Sporting Club . Founded in 1980, the club last played in the Syrian League 2nd Division. Ebla Ebla ( Sumerian : 𒌈𒆷 eb₂-la , Arabic : إبلا , modern: تل مرديخ , Tell Mardikh ) was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria . Its remains constitute a tell located about 55 km (34 mi) southwest of Aleppo near the village of Mardikh . Ebla was an important center throughout

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2596-449: Is followed by the first and second kingdoms era between about 3000 and 2000  BC , designated "Mardikh II". I. J. Gelb considered Ebla as part of the Kish civilization , which was a cultural entity of East Semitic -speaking populations that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to the western Levant. During the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300  BC , Ebla was

2714-421: Is identified with building "CC", and structures that form a part of building "G2", which was apparently a royal palace built c.  2700   BC . Toward the end of this period, a hundred years' war with Mari started. Mari gained the upper hand through the actions of its king Saʿumu , who conquered many of Ebla's cities. In the mid-25th century  BC , king Kun-Damu defeated Mari, but

2832-614: Is well known for its elaborate black cotton cloth embroidery . On 26 February 1959, former president Gamal Abdel Nasser addressed the city's residents in a speech commemorating the union between Egypt and Syria forming the United Arab Republic . The town of Saraqib lies at a strategic junction of the Aleppo-Damascus and Aleppo-Latakia roads. Since the outbreak of the Syrian civil war , from at least April 2011,

2950-596: The 3rd millennium BC and in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC . Its discovery proved the Levant was a center of ancient, centralized civilization equal to Egypt and Mesopotamia and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only important centers in the Near East during the Early Bronze Age . The first Eblaite kingdom has been described as the first recorded world power. Starting as

3068-726: The Combating Terrorism Center reported that Jabhat Fateh al-Sham had formed the Tahrir al-Sham group due to its fear of being isolated, and to counter Ahrar al-Sham's recent expansion during the clashes in the Idlib Province. On 22 February, the last of Liwa al-Asqa's 2,100 militants left their final positions in Khan Shaykhun , with unconfirmed reports in pro-government media that they were to join ISIL in

3186-602: The Idlib Governorate , near the town of Maarrat al-Nu'man (57 km (35 mi) north of the city of Hama), or the town of Saraqib, according to other sources, with a shoulder launched surface to air missile . He committed suicide by blowing his grenade to avoid capture. On 15 October 2018, the Guardians of Religion Organization which is al-Qaeda 's branch in Syria published a video in Saraqib which showed

3304-575: The Institute for the Study of War reported that the commander killed was Sheikh Abu al-Abbas al-Suri. On 24 March, two flatbed trucks carrying flour and belonging to an IHH -affiliated Turkish relief organization were stopped at a HTS checkpoint at the entrance to Sarmada . HTS then seized the trucks and the flour, which was intended for a bakery in Saraqib . The seizure caused 2,000 families in

3422-595: The Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Saraqib had a population of 32,495 in the 2004 census. It is the administrative center and largest locality of the Saraqib nahiyah ("subdistrict") which consists of 24 localities that had a collective population of 88,076 in 2004. Its inhabitants are predominantly Sunni Muslims . A large community of Nawar settled in Saraqib during the Ottoman era . Along with Khan Shaykhun and Ma'arat al-Numan , Saraqib

3540-781: The Syrian Interim Government held territories. After achieving stability in Idlib in 2021, HTS launched the policy of repatriating confiscated properties of minorities in North-West Syria. These also included the re-building of destroyed churches in Idlib. HTS commanders and SSG officials have since initiated regular meetings to engage with priests and representatives the Christian community in Idlib . The Washington Post reported in January 2022 that

3658-603: The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR), local residents and local officials have said that the building struck was a mosque filled with worshipers, which was subsequently confirmed by Bellingcat . On the morning of 21 March, according to pro-government media, a US drone strike in Darkush , Idlib Province, killed Abu Islam al-Masri, described as an Egyptian high-ranking HTS commander, and Abu al-'Abbas al-Darir, described as an Egyptian HTS commander; however,

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3776-784: The Syrian Salvation Government , which is an alternative government of the Syrian opposition in the Idlib Governorate . While the organisation officially adheres to the Salafi school; the High Council of Fatwa of the Syrian Salvation Government - to which it is religiously beholden - consists of ulema from Ash'arite and Sufi traditions as well. In its legal system and educational curriculum, HTS implements Shafi'ite thought and teaches

3894-644: The Turkish military against the Assad regime . On 1 March 2021 it was reported that Hayat Tahrir al-Sham intensified its campaign against al-Qaeda affiliate Hurras al-Din in Idlib. Since 2021, HTS has started implementing various reconstruction projects in areas under its control, with a focus on establishing civil institutions in opposition-held territories. These included the Bab al-Hawa Industrial City project and re-opening of al-Ghazawiya crossing point to connect with

4012-628: The 2000  BC dating being a mere formal date. The Akkadians under Sargon of Akkad and his descendant Naram-Sin invaded the northern borders of Ebla aiming for the forests of the Amanus Mountain ; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90 years and the areas attacked were not attached to Akkad. Archi accept that the Ibla mentioned in the annals of Sargon and Naram-Sin is the Syrian Ebla but do not consider them responsible for

4130-579: The Ansar al-Din Front in 2018. The formation of HTS was followed by a string of assassinations of its supporters. In response, HTS launched a successful crackdown on Al-Qaeda loyalists, which cemented its power in Idlib . HTS has since been pursuing a "Syrianization" programme; focused on establishing a stable civilian administration that provides services and connects to humanitarian organizations in addition to maintaining law and order. Tahrir al-Sham's strategy

4248-753: The Ar-Raqqah Province after a negotiated withdrawal deal with Tahrir al-Sham and the Turkistan Islamic Party. Afterward, Tahrir al-Sham declared terminating Liwa al-Aqsa, and promised to watch for any remaining cells. On 26 February, a US airstrike in Al-Mastoumeh, Idlib Province, killed Abu Khayr al-Masri , who was the deputy leader of al-Qaeda. The airstrike also killed another Tahrir al-Sham militant. Abu Khayr's death left HTS freer to move away from al-Qaeda's any remaining influence. In early March 2017, local residents in

4366-618: The Bible, based on preliminary guesses and speculations by Pettinato and others, is now widely discredited and the academic consensus is that Ebla "has no bearing on the Minor Prophets, the historical accuracy of the Biblical Patriarchs, Yahweh worship, or Sodom and Gomorrah". In Ebla studies, the focus has shifted away from comparisons with the Bible; Ebla is now studied as a civilization in its own right. The claims led to

4484-743: The Bunyan al-Marsous Operations Room, of which Tahrir al-Sham was a member, launched an offensive against the Syrian Army in Daraa 's Manshiyah district. Tahrir al-Sham forces reportedly began the attack with 2 suicide bombers and car bombs . On 13 February, clashes erupted between the previously allied Tahrir al-Sham and Jund al-Aqsa , also called Liwa al-Aqsa, in northern Hama and southern Idlib. On 15 February, Ahrar al-Sham published an infographic on its recent defections, claiming that only 955 fighters had defected to Tahrir al-Sham. On 22 February,

4602-571: The Homs attack, stating that it was a message for the "defeatist politicians" to "step aside." It has been disputed that the raid resulted in the death of Ibrahim Darwish. On 11 March 2017, Tahrir al-Sham carried out a twin bombing attack in the Bab al-Saghir area of Damascus's Old City, killing 76 and wounding 120. The death toll included 43 Iraqi pilgrims, whom HTS claimed were "Iranian militias" supporting Assad regime 's dictatorship. The attacks were at

4720-464: The Idlib Province who supported FSA factions accused Tahrir al-Sham of doing more harm than good, saying that all they've done is "kidnap people, set up checkpoints, and terrorize residents." On 16 March, a US airstrike struck the village of al-Jinah, just southwest of Atarib , killing at least 29 and possibly over 50 civilians; the US claimed the people targeted in the strike were "al-Qaeda militants" but

4838-514: The JFS and Al-Qaeda loyalists of Al-Nusra Front , before the JFS - Ahrar al-Sham merger to form Tahrir al-Sham (Syrian Liberation Committee) in January 28. Soon after the merger, Emir Abu Jaber Shaykh announced a ceasefire deal to unite all opposition militia factions into a central command. Some Turkish-backed FSA supporters pejoritavely named the newly formed organization "Hetish". The formation of HTS

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4956-634: The Liberation of the Levant' or 'Levant Liberation Committee''), commonly referred to as Tahrir al-Sham , is a Sunni Islamist political and armed organisation involved in the Syrian Civil War . It was formed on 28 January 2017 as a merger between Jaysh al-Ahrar (an Ahrar al-Sham faction), Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (JFS), Ansar al-Din Front , Jaysh al-Sunna , Liwa al-Haqq , and Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement . The unification process

5074-735: The Northern Brigade's Commandos of Islam Brigade reportedly joined Tahrir al-Sham, although Captain Kuja, leader of the unit, stated that he is still part of the Northern Brigade. During 18–23 July, HTS launched a series of attacks on Ahrar al-Sham positions, which were quickly abandoned. On 20 July 2017, the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement led by Sheikh Tawfiq Shahabuddin announced its withdrawal from Tahrir al-Sham amid widespread conflict between HTS and Ahrar al-Sham, and became an independent Islamist group. On 23 July 2017, Tahrir al-Sham expelled

5192-408: The Syrian goddess Ishara , who was the goddess of the royal family. Ishtar was also worshiped but was mentioned only five times in one of the monthly offering lists, while Ishara was far more important, appearing 40 times. Other deities included Damu ; the Mesopotamian god Utu ; Ashtapi ; Dagan ; Hadad ( Hadda ) and his consort Halabatu ("she of Halab"); and Shipish , the goddess of

5310-482: The U.S. Deputy Assistant Secretary Defense Michael Mulroy stated that "Idlib is essentially the largest collection of al Qaeda affiliates in the world." On July 10–11, 57 pro-government fighters were killed when Tahrir al-Sham militants attacked Syrian positions near the fortified village of Hamamiyat. 44 militants were also killed. HTS successfully defended Idlib from 2019 to 2020 government offensives. During this period, HTS cemented its security partnership with

5428-405: The acropolis. The reason for the destruction is not known; according to Astour, it could have been the result of a Hurrian invasion c.  2030   BC , led by the former Eblaite vassal city of Ikinkalis . The destruction of Ebla is mentioned in the fragmentary Hurro-Hittite legendary epic "Song of Release" discovered in 1983, which Astour considers as describing the destruction of

5546-458: The archive period, Ebla had political and military dominance over the other Syrian city-states of northern and eastern Syria, which are mentioned in the archives. Most of the tablets, which date from that period, are about economic matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents. The written archives do not date from before Igrish-Halam 's reign, which saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari, and an extensive invasion of Eblaite cities in

5664-543: The area to be cut off from a free supply of bread . In April 2017, Jaysh al-Islam attacked HTS and expelled it from the territories under its control in Eastern Ghouta. On 3 May, HTS arrested Suhail Muhammad Hamoud , "Abu TOW ", a former FSA fighter, in a house raid in Idlib. Earlier, al-Hamoud had published a photograph of him smoking in front of a HTS billboard that prohibited smoking . According to reports from pro-government Al-Masdar news , on 20 May,

5782-540: The area. In response to these attacks, Syrian president Bashar al-Assad increased the number of troops garrisoned near Idlib, which some have argued is an impending renewed offensive in the region, following the Northwestern Syria Campaign , where pro-government forces retook the formerly rebel-controlled Abu al-Duhur Military Airbase that was captured by the FSA and Army of Conquest in 2015. In 2019,

5900-580: The beginning of the 18th century BC , Ebla had become a vassal of Yamhad , an Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo. Written records are not available for this period, but the city was still a vassal during Yarim-Lim III of Yamhad's reign. One of the known rulers of Ebla during this period was Immeya , who received gifts from the Egyptian Pharaoh Hotepibre , indicating the continuing wide connections and importance of Ebla. The city

6018-417: The central authority were either ruled directly from the capital, or had appointed officials. The titles of the civil servants do not clearly define the bearer's responsibilities and authority as each town had its own political traditions. The regions under the direct control of the king that were economically vital for the capital are called the " chora " by archaeologists. Regions under direct control of

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6136-402: The cities and villages where the king or his vizier had palaces, towns that included important sanctuaries of gods related to the royal institution, towns visited by the monarch during the different rituals he participated in (such as the renewal of royalty ritual), and other cities such as the ones where textiles were delivered. The chora spans around 3000 km ; from west to east it includes

6254-548: The city fell to the Syrian Army in the 5th Northwestern Syria offensive , but had been retaken weeks later by 26 February during a Syrian opposition and Turkish counter attack. On 1 March 2020, Saraqib was once again under Syrian Army control. On 2 March 2020, the Russian Reconciliation Centre in Syria announced that Russian Military Police had been deployed to the city. The local football team

6372-475: The city on 13 February. In response, HTS withdrew from Rastan and handed over its headquarters in the city to the Men of God Brigade. Meanwhile, Al-Qaeda loyalists formed the anti-HTS Guardians of Religion Organization (Hurras al-Din) in February 2018, establishing it as the successor group of Al-Nusra Front . HTS was left excluded of the 24 February ceasefire agreement on Eastern Ghouta. In late February,

6490-490: The city's most important deity apart from Hadad. At the beginning of the process of deciphering the tablets, Giovanni Pettinato made claims about possible connections between Ebla and the Bible, citing alleged references in the tablets to the existence of Yahweh , the Patriarchs , Sodom and Gomorrah and other Biblical references. However, much of the initial media excitement about a supposed Eblaite connections with

6608-408: The city. Trade continued to be Ebla's main economic activity during the third kingdom; archaeological finds show there was an extensive exchange with Egypt and coastal Syrian cities such as Byblos . Ebla was a polytheistic state. During the first kingdom, Eblaites worshiped their dead kings. The pantheon of the first Ebla included pairs of deities and they can be separated into three genres; in

6726-558: The city; the last ten kings (ending with Irkab-Damu) were buried in Darib , while older kings were buried in a royal mausoleum located in Binas and only one royal tomb dating to the first kingdom was discovered in Ebla (Hypogeum "G4"). This first kingdom tomb was probably built during the reign of the last king and might be an indication of Eblaite adoption of Mesopotamian traditions to bury

6844-538: The destruction which ended the Archive period. By the time of Naram-Sin, Armi was the hegemonic city in northern Syria and was destroyed by the Akkadian king. A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla, but there was continuity with its first kingdom heritage. Ebla maintained its earliest features, including its architectural style and the sanctity of the first kingdom's religious sites. A new royal palace

6962-712: The entire kingdom. The Eblaites of Mardikh II were Semite-speakers close to their Northwestern Semitic neighbors, such as the Amorites. Giovanni Pettinato said the Eblaite language , one of the oldest attested Semitic languages, was a West Semitic language ; Gelb and others said it was an East Semitic dialect closer to the Akkadian language . Academic consensus considers Eblaite an East Semitic language which exhibits both West and East Semitic features. Ebla held several religious and social festivals, including rituals for

7080-408: The event as part of "a comprehensive plan.. to achieve development and progress for the region". In August 2022, HTS ideologue Abu Maria al-Qahtani issued a statement demanding the dissolution of Al-Qaeda and urged all AQ branches to cut ties from the organization. In 2022, HTS took a significant amount of territory and several key settlements during the October 2022 Aleppo clashes . In 2023, it

7198-530: The first and most common one, there were the couples, such as the deity and his female consort. The second type of pairs was the divine twosomes, such as the deities that cooperate to create the cosmos, like in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian pantheons. The third type included divine pairs who were actually a single deity that had two names. Eblaites worshiped few Mesopotamian deities, preferring North-Western Semitic gods, some of which were unique to Ebla. The first genre of pairs included Hadabal ( NI- da -KUL ), who

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7316-428: The focus of attempts to unify Islamist rebel elements. He led a more Islamist and less nationalist faction within Ahrar al-Sham, Jaysh al-Ahrar , which supported merger of Ahrar al-Sham with JFS. There were merger talks in late 2016, but these broke down. In early 2017 it clashed with rival Islamist groups in Idlib, in particular Ahrar al-Sham, but Jaish al-Ahrar detached itself from Ahrar al-Sham to merge with JFS in

7434-547: The god Nergal, by means of (his) weapons opened the way for Naram-Sin, the mighty, and gave him Armanum and Ebla. Further, he gave to him the Amanus, the Cedar Mountain, and the Upper Sea. By means of the weapons of the god Dagan, who magnifies his kingship, Naram-Sin, the mighty, conquered Armanum and Ebla." The second kingdom's period is designated "Mardikh IIB2", and spans the period between 2300 and 2000  BC . The second kingdom lasted until Ebla's second destruction, which occurred anytime between 2050 and 1950  BC , with

7552-413: The group was "trying to convince Syrians and the world that it is no longer as radical and repressive as it once was", voicing rhetoric about combating extremism, and shifting its focus to providing services to the refugees and residents of Idlib province through the Salvation Government. In 7 January, Abu Muhammad al-Joulani announced the inauguration of the Aleppo-Bab al-Hawa International Road, presenting

7670-474: The group's religious police, the hisbah , driving around the city with loudspeakers calling on people to adhere to sharia. In July 2019, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham raided an ISIL base in the city, arresting several individuals including an individual reportedly associated with ISIL's leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi , resulting in clashes between ISIL and HTS fighters; during the fighting several improvised explosive devices were detonated by ISIL. On 6 February 2020,

7788-471: The hostility between Turkey and HTS in Idlib, or by supporters of Jolani's attempt to turn the organization away from hardline Salafi-jihadi positions. There were also high-profile defections from HTS in the same period, including Abdullah al-Muhaysini and Muslah al-Alyani . In December, HTS arrested several prominent jihadi activists, former members of al-Nusra who remained loyal to al-Qaeda and rejected HTS's turn away from Salafi-jihadist positions. The move

7906-425: The importance of the four classical Sunni madhahib (schools of law) in Islamic jurisprudence . As of 2021, HTS is considered the most powerful military faction within the Syrian opposition . Al-Nusra/JFS co-operated with Ahrar al-Sham for much of 2015–16. Leading Ahrar al-Sham cleric Abu Jaber had long criticized al-Nusra's affiliation to al-Qaeda as setting back the cause of the rebels, and had also been

8024-412: The king extended beyond the chora and it is difficult to determine the exact size of the kingdom and the chora due to the constant military expansion of Ebla which added new territories; some of those were ruled directly while others were allowed to retain their own rulers as vassals. Generally, the chora is the core region of Ebla that includes the economic hinterland supporting the capital. It includes

8142-417: The kings beneath their royal palaces. The third kingdom royal necropolis was discovered beneath palace "Q" (the western palace); it contains many hypogea but only three were excavated. Those tombs were natural caves in the bedrock of the palace's foundation; they all date to the 19th and 18th centuries BC and had a similar plan consisting of an entrance shaft, burial chambers and a dromos connecting

8260-450: The lord". Each year was given a name instead of a number. Women received salaries equal to those of men and could accede to important positions and head government agencies. The Eblaites imported Kungas from Nagar , and used them to draw the carriages of royalty and high officials, as well as diplomatic gifts for allied cities. Society was less centered around the palace and the temple than in Mesopotamian kingdoms. The Eblaite palace

8378-495: The main faction of the Abu Amara Battalions joined Tahrir al-Sham, which "now boasts a fighting force of some 50,000 militants" according to one pro-government media source. However, the covert operations unit of the Abu Amara Battalions based in Aleppo remained independent. On 29 May, Tahrir al-Sham arrested opposition activist and FSA commander Abdul Baset al-Sarout after accusing him of participating in an anti-HTS protest in Maarat al-Nu'man . On 2 June 2017, defectors from

8496-738: The mid-3rd millennium  BC 's Levant. The word "Ebla" means "white rock" and may refer to the limestone outcrop on which the city was built. In the central mound, finds from the Late Ubaid and Late Chalcolithic has been found. Ebla was first settled around 3500  BC ; its growth was supported by many satellite agricultural settlements. The city benefited from its role as an entrepôt of growing international trade, which probably began with an increased demand for wool in Sumer . Archaeologists designate this early habitation period "Mardikh I"; it ended around 3000  BC . Mardikh I

8614-497: The middle Euphrates region led by the Mariote king Iblul-Il . Ebla recovered under King Irkab-Damu in about 2340  BC ; becoming prosperous and launching a successful counter-offensive against Mari. Irkab-Damu concluded a peace and trading treaty with Abarsal ; it is one of the earliest-recorded treaties in history. At its greatest extent, Ebla controlled an area roughly half the size of modern Syria, from Ursa'um in

8732-454: The more pragmatic leadership and more hardline (especially foreign fighters) elements hostile to working with Turkey. Some of the latter split in February 2018 to form Huras al-Din . The HTS leadership also cracked down on remaining ISIS splinter cells active in Idlib. By August, when HTS entered into (unsuccessful) negotiations with Russia and Turkey, HTS was estimated to have around 3,000–4,000 foreign fighters, including non-Syrian Arabs, out of

8850-404: The most hardline elements, such as Abu Talha al-Ordini, Abu Abdulrahman al-Mohajer, Abu Sulaiman al-Maghribi, Abu Yahya al-Tunisi, Suraqa al-Maki and Abu Mohammad al-Sharii, as well as some local military leaders, including Abu Elias al-Baniasi, Mustafa al-Zahri, Saied Nasrallah and Hassan Bakour. There was speculation that the assassinations were carried out either by pro-Turkish perpetrators, given

8968-431: The most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states, especially during the second half of the 3rd millennium  BC , which is known as "the age of the archives" after the Ebla tablets. Mardiikh IIA : The early period between 3000 and 2400  BC is designated "Mardikh IIA". General knowledge about the city's history prior to the written archives is obtained through excavations. The first stages of Mardikh IIA

9086-565: The mountains of Ebla, indicating Ebla's territory included Urshu north of Carchemish in modern-day Turkey. Texts that dates to the seventh year of Amar-Sin ( c.  2040   BC ), a ruler of the Ur III empire, mention a messenger of the Ensí ("Megum") of Ebla. The second kingdom was considered a vassal by the Ur III government, but the nature of the relation is unknown and it included

9204-548: The north, to the area around Damascus in the south, and from Phoenicia and the coastal mountains in the west, to Haddu in the east. Large parts of the kingdom were under the direct control of the king and were administered by governors; the rest consisted of vassal kingdoms. One of the most important of these vassals was Armi , which is the city most often mentioned in the Ebla tablets. Ebla had more than sixty vassal kingdoms and city-states, including Hazuwan , Burman , Emar , Halabitu and Salbatu . The vizier

9322-608: The ouster of the Ba'athist regime and Hezbollah militants from Syrian territories , and the formation of an Islamic government . After the announcement, additional groups and individuals joined. The merged group has been primarily led by Jabhat Fatah al-Sham and former Ahrar al-Sham leaders, although the High Command also has representation from other groups. The Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement split from Tahrir al-Sham in July 2017, and

9440-453: The payment of tribute. A formal recognition of Ur's overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of trade with that empire. The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the 21st century BC , and ended with the destruction of the city by fire, although evidence for the event has only been found outside of the so-called "Temple of the Rock", and in the area around palace "E" on

9558-483: The plains east of Jabal Zawiya , the Maṭkh swamp, al-Hass mountain and mount Shabīth. Areas directly on the borders of the chora such as al-Ghab , al-Rouge plain and al-Jabbul have close cultural affinity with the chora. Mardikh II's periods shared the same culture. the population of Ebla during Mardikh IIB1 (2400–2300 BC) is estimated to have numbered around 40,000 in the capital, and over 200,000 people in

9676-426: The port of Ugarit , but most of its trade seems to have been directed by river-boat towards Mesopotamia – chiefly Kish. The main palace G was found to contain artifacts dating from Ancient Egypt bearing the names of the pharaohs Khafre and Pepi I . Ebla continued to be a center of trade during the second kingdom, evidenced by the surrounding cities that appeared during its period and were destroyed along with

9794-488: The rebel regions that HTS controls have resisted it. On 3 February, hundreds of Syrians demonstrated under the slogan "There is no place for al-Qaeda in Syria" in the towns of Atarib , Azaz , Maarat al-Nu'man to protest against HTS. In response, supporters of HTS organized counter-protests in al-Dana , Idlib, Atarib, and Khan Shaykhun . In Idlib pro- Hayyat Tahrir al-Sham protests were held waving pictures of its emir Abu Jaber on 3 February 2017. On 4 February 2017,

9912-403: The remnants of Ahrar al-Sham from Idlib, capturing the entire city as well as 60% of the Idlib Governorate . HTS was now the dominant armed group in opposition-held NW Syria. On 18 August 2017, Tahrir al-Sham captured 8 rebel fighters from the town of Madaya after it accused them of wanting to return to Madaya during a ceasefire agreement . Syrian intelligence commander Hassan Daaboul

10030-527: The sanctity of the acropolis in the center of the city. The third kingdom's iconography and royal ideology were under the influence of Yamhad's culture; kingship was received from the Yamhadite deities instead of Ishtar of Ebla, which is evident by the Eblaite seals of Indilimma's period. During the first kingdom period, the palace controlled the economy, but wealthy families managed their financial affairs without government intervention. The economic system

10148-522: The second kingdom. In the epic, an Eblaite assembly led by a man called "Zazalla" prevents king Meki from showing mercy to prisoners from Ebla's former vassal Ikinkalis, provoking the wrath of the Hurrian storm god Teshub and causing him to destroy the city. The third kingdom is designated "Mardikh III"; it is divided into periods "A" ( c.  2000–1800   BC ) and "B" ( c.  1800–1600   BC ). In period "A", Ebla

10266-404: The shaft to the chamber. The royal tomb found in the royal palace "G" is designated hypogeum "G4"; it dates to the archive period, most probably the reign of Isar-Damu . The tomb is heavily damaged; most of its stones were sacked and nothing of the roof system remains. It also lacks any skeletal remains or funerary goods suggesting that it was either heavily pillaged, never used, or

10384-405: The southeast called "Temple of the Rock". During the second kingdom, a royal palace (Archaic palace "P5") was built in the lower town northwest of the acropolis, in addition to temple "D" built over the destroyed "Red Temple". During the third kingdom, Ebla was a large city nearly 60 hectares in size, and was protected by a fortified rampart, with double chambered gates. The acropolis

10502-415: The state's power declined following his reign. Mardikh IIB1 : The archive period, which is designated "Mardikh IIB1", lasted from c.  2400   BC until c.  2300   BC . The end of the period is known as the "first destruction", mainly referring to the destruction of the royal palace (called palace "G" and built over the earlier "G2"), and much of the acropolis. During

10620-430: The succession of a new king, which normally lasted for several weeks. The Eblaite calendars were based on a solar year divided into twelve months. Two calendars were discovered; the "old calendar" used during the reign of Igrish-Halam, and a "new calendar" introduced by vizier Ibbi-Sipish. Many months were named in honor of deities; in the new calendar, "Itu be-li" was the first month of the year, and meant "the month of

10738-442: The sun who had a temple dedicated to her cult. The four city gates were named after the gods Dagan, Hadda, Rasap and Utu, but it is unknown which gate had which name. Overall, the offering list mentioned about 40 deities receiving sacrifices. During the third kingdom, Amorites worshiped common northern Semitic gods; the unique Eblaite deities disappeared. Hadad was the most important god, while Ishtar took Ishara's place and became

10856-479: The town has seen popular opposition to Bashar al-Assad 's government. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights claimed that over 200 anti-government activist suspects were arrested when Syrian security forces captured the city on 11 August 2011. Syrian government forces recaptured the city in the Battle of Saraqib , 24–27 March 2012. On 19 July 2012, at least 25 people were killed in Syrian Army shelling following

10974-549: The town of Darat Izza defected from Tahrir al-Sham. In October 2017, Russia claimed to have injured Abu Mohammed al-Joulani in an air raid; HTS denied the claim. HTS established the Syrian Salvation Government in Idlib, as a rival to the Syrian Interim Government recognized by other rebels. In early 2018, there were reports that HTS had been significantly weakened, and now had "a small presence in Eastern Ghouta and declining influence in Idlib, northern Hama, and western Aleppo provinces", with just 250 men in Eastern Ghouta and

11092-411: The vizier palace, the western palace (in area "Q"), the temple of Shamash (temple "N"), the temple of Rasap (temple "B1") and the northern palace (built over the "Intermediate Palace"). In the north of the lower town, a second temple for Ishtar was built, while the former "Temple of the Rock" was replaced by a temple of Hadad . The kings of the first kingdom were buried outside

11210-585: The wake of the 5th Idlib inter-rebel conflict , HTS gained control of nearly the entire Idlib pocket, after defeating the Turkish-backed National Front for Liberation . Following their victory, Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham would immediately violate the ceasefire treaty brokered by Turkey and Russia by placing combat units in the demilitarized zone along the Idlib-Syrian Government border, and attack SAA encampments near

11328-547: The western Aleppo units of the Levant Front , and the Idlib-based units of Jaysh al-Islam . JFS meanwhile lost several hundred fighters to Ahrar al-Sham, but gained 3,000-5,000 fighters from its merger with Harakat Nour al-Din al-Zinki, Liwa al-Haq, Jaish al-Sunna, and Jabhat Ansar al-Din into HTS. Nour al-Din al-Zenki had at one time been supported by the US. Throughout January fierce fighting had broken out between

11446-415: The western palace "Q". Alternatively, Maratewari could well be the last king according to Archi, who also argued that the "Song of Release" epic describes the destruction of the third kingdom and preserves older elements. Ebla never recovered from its third destruction. It was a small village in the phase designated "Mardikh IV" (1600–1200  BC ), and was mentioned in the records of Alalakh as

11564-467: Was among the 40 assassinated by Hayyat Tahrir al-Sham, in twin bomb attacks at complexes of the Ba'athist secret police in Homs . The explosion killed Ibrahim Darwish, a Brigadier General and the state security branch's chief. Abu Yusuf al-Muhajir, a Tahrir al-Sham military spokesman was interviewed by Human Voice on the bombings. Twenty-six names were released. HTS leader Abu Mohammed al-Julani mentioned

11682-453: Was built as a cenotaph. Excavated between 1992 and 1995, it is located underneath the western sector of the palace at a depth of almost 6 meters. The tomb is composed of two rooms opened on each other's with lime plaster floors. Both rooms are rectangular in shape; the eastern room (L.6402) is 4 meters wide, more than 3,5 meters long (total length is unknown due to heavy damage) and west–east oriented. The western room (L.5762)

11800-429: Was built in the lower town, and the transition from the archive period is marked only by the destruction of palace "G". Little is known about the second kingdom because no written material have been discovered aside from one inscription dating to the end of the period. The second kingdom was attested to in contemporaneous sources; in an inscription, Gudea of Lagash asked for cedars to be brought from Urshu in

11918-461: Was created after the merger of Jabhat Fatah al-Sham and other rebel factions, recaptured the city from Ahrar al-Sham militants. Saraqib was bombed in September 2017 as part of a government/Russian offensive against rebel territories in Idlib and Hama . On 3 February 2018, Russian military pilot Roman Filipov 's Su-25SM jet was shot down by Tahrir al-Sham and Jaysh al-Nasr militants over

12036-480: Was described as a "reshaping of revolutionary dynamics" that could change the balance of power in the Syrian civil war and also adversely affect the future prospects of Al-Qaeda in northern Syria. During 2017-2019, HTS launched a series of crackdowns against Al-Qaeda loyalists; while concurrently carrying out military operations to dismantle cells linked to the Islamic State (IS) group. On 30 January, it

12154-513: Was designed around the courtyard, which was open toward the city, thus making the administration approachable. This contrasts with Mesopotamian palaces, which resembled citadels with narrow entrances and limited access to the external courtyard. Music played an important part in the society and musicians were both locals, or hired from other cities such as Mari. Ebla also hired acrobats from Nagar, but later reduced their number and kept some to train local Eblaite acrobats. The Mardikh III population

12272-457: Was equal to that of the most important Sumerian cities, and its main commercial rival was Mari. Ebla's main articles of trade were probably timber from the nearby mountains, and textiles. Handicrafts also appear to have been a major export, evidenced by the quantity of artifacts recovered from the palaces of the city. Ebla possessed a wide commercial network reaching as far as modern-day Afghanistan. It shipped textiles to Cyprus, possibly through

12390-452: Was excavated from 1964 and became famous for the Ebla tablets , an archive of about 20,000  cuneiform tablets found there, dated to 2500  BC –2350  BC . Written in both Sumerian and Eblaite and using the cuneiform , the archive has allowed a better understanding of the Sumerian language and provided important information over the political organization and social customs of

12508-439: Was exclusive to Ebla, and his consort, Belatu ("his wife"); Rasap and his consort Adamma ; the patron gods of the city Kura , who was unique to Ebla, and his consort Barama . The third genre included the artisan god Kamish/Tit , Kothar-wa-Khasis and the planet Venus represented by twin mountain gods; Shahar as the morning star and Shalim as the evening star. The first Eblaites worshiped many other deities, such as

12626-444: Was fortified and separated from the lower town. New royal palace "E" was built on the acropolis (during Mardikh IIIB), and a temple of Ishtar was constructed over the former "Red" and "D" temples (in area "D"). The lower town was also divided into four districts; palace "P5" was used during Mardikh IIIA, and replaced during Mardikh IIIB by the "Intermediate Palace". Other third kingdom buildings included

12744-424: Was held under the initiative of Abu Jaber Shaykh , an Islamist commander who had been the second Emir of Ahrar al-Sham . Proclaiming the nascent organisation as "a new stage in the life of the blessed revolution", Abu Jaber urged all factions of the Syrian opposition to unite under its Islamic leadership and wage a "popular Jihad " to achieve the objectives of the Syrian revolution , which he characterised as

12862-431: Was interpreted as an attempt to re-establish as a more pragmatic, pan-Sunni group, with a civilian structure. Al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri denounced this turn. HTS announced Abu Jaber's resignation as the group's leader on 1 October 2017. He was succeeded by Nusra Front founder Abu-Muhammad al-Julani , who had already been the de facto military commander. On 1 October 2017, the ibn Taymiyyah Battalions based in

12980-530: Was involved in foreign affairs. Most duties, including military ones, were handled by the vizier and the administration, which consisted of 13 court dignitaries – each of whom controlled between 400 and 800 men forming a bureaucracy with 11,700 people. Each of the four quarters of the lower city was governed by a chief inspector and many deputies. To oversee royal interest, the king employed agents (mashkim), collectors ( ur ) and messengers ( kas ). Many client kingdoms owed allegiance to Ebla and each

13098-476: Was mentioned in tablets from the Yamhadite vassal city of Alalakh in modern-day Turkey; an Eblaite princess married a son of King Ammitaqum of Alalakh, who belonged to a branch of the royal Yamhadite dynasty . Ebla was destroyed by the Hittite King Mursili I in about 1600  BC . Indilimma was probably the last king of Ebla; a seal of his crown prince Maratewari was discovered in

13216-543: Was predominately Semitic Amorite. The Amorites were mentioned in the first kingdom's tablets as neighbors and as rural subjects, and they came to dominate Ebla after the destruction of the second kingdom. The city witnessed a great increase in construction, and many palaces, temples and fortifications were built. The Amorite-speaking Eblaites worshiped many of the same deities as the Paleo-Syrian-speaking Eblaites of earlier periods, and maintained

13334-408: Was quickly rebuilt as a planned city. The foundations covered the remains of Mardikh II; new palaces and temples were built, and new fortifications were built in two circles – one for the low city and one for the acropolis. The city was laid out on regular lines and large public buildings were built. Further construction took place in period "B". The first known king of the third kingdom

13452-567: Was redistributive; the palace distributed food to its permanent and seasonal workers. It is estimated that around 40,000 persons contributed to this system, but in general, and unlike in Mesopotamia, land stayed in the hands of villages, which paid an annual share to the palace. Agriculture was mainly pastoral; large herds of cattle were managed by the palace. The city's inhabitants owned around 140,000 head of sheep and goats, and 9,000 cattle. Ebla derived its prosperity from trade; its wealth

13570-421: Was released by Abu Jaber on 9 February. He emphasized his group being an "independent entity" and praised his "brothers" in the "Syrian Jihad " for their "heroic" resistance against Ba'athist forces , Hezbollah and Russians. The statement urged all opposition factions to join forces with HTS and warned Syrian Sunnis ; asserting that Iran will "enslave the region" if the rebels lose the war. On 12 February,

13688-462: Was reported by Asharq al-Awsat that there were around 31,000 fighters in Tahrir al-Sham. Fighters of Jaysh al-Ahrar , a breakway faction of Ahrar al-Sham militia, joined Tahrir al-Sham and increased its numbers. On 3 February, a US airstrike struck a Tahrir al-Sham headquarters in Sarmin , killing 12 members of HTS and Jund al-Aqsa . 10 of the killed militants were HTS members. Civilians in

13806-420: Was ruled by its own king (En); those vassal kings were highly autonomous, paying tribute and supplying military assistance to Ebla. The administrative center in the capital was named the "SA.ZA"; it included the royal palaces, storerooms and some temples. Regions beyond the walls of the capital were collectively named in Eblaite texts "uru-bar" (literally meaning outside of the city). The villages and towns under

13924-578: Was the king's chief official. The holder of the office possessed great authority; the most powerful vizier was Ibrium , who campaigned against Abarsal during the term of his predecessor Arrukum. Ibrium held office for 18 years with warfare occurring in all but one year. During the reign of Isar-Damu , Ebla continued the war against Mari, which defeated Ebla's ally Nagar , blocking trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia. Ebla conducted regular military campaigns against rebellious vassals, including several attacks on Armi, and

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