86-777: The sultan of Sokoto is the hereditary leader of the Sokoto Caliphate , a Sunni Muslim community in West Africa. The position may also be referred to as the 'Sokoto Caliph' or the "Commander of the Faithful" ( Amir-ul-Momineen in Arabic or Lamido Julbe in Fulani). The current holder of this title, since 2006, is Sa'adu Abubakar . The sultan of Sokoto is the leader of the Qadiriyya Sufi order, historically
172-548: A Mahdist hijra . Muslim supporters and officials moved from Hausaland, Segu , Massina and Adamawa towards to Burmi, a military station on the far-eastern border of the Empire. The now shattered Caliphate was partitioned by Britain and Germany. On March 13, 1903, at the grand market square of Sokoto, the last Vizier of the Caliphate officially conceded to British Rule. The British appointed Muhammadu Attahiru II as
258-498: A Mahdist rebellion broke out outside the city of Sokoto in the village of Satiru. Elements of the Royal West African Frontier Force were dispatched to suppress the rebellion; upon hearing news of what had transpired, Muhammadu Attahiru II dispatched a mixed force of 300 Sokoto cavalry and infantry led by Mallam Isa to join them. The combined force successfully suppressed the rebellion, which marked
344-494: A 'considerable following'. The Scottish explorer Hugh Clapperton in 1826 speaks of 'a numerous train of attendants on horseback and on foot'; another explorer Paul Staudinger in 1886 says the Vizier had considerable 'house-power' ('eine ziemliche Hausmacht'), having a hundred gunmen in his following. He had several estates and villages under him but their inhabitants are often scattered and distant from Sokoto only joining him for
430-477: A battle against un-Islamic practices. The success of these jihads was due not only to military prowess, but he appealed to the Fulani through the desire for conquest and enslavement of the polytheists. The Fulani were instrumental in the expansion of the Caliphate. The final stage (1815-1840) involved further consolidation and minor campaigns against resistant elements. By this time, the Caliphate had grown into one of
516-597: A helper from my family, Aaron, my brother. Strengthen me through him, and let him share my task The vizierate in Sokoto was based on the Abbasid Caliphate version of the position. Shaikh Uthman dan Fodio's book, Bayan wujab al-hijra, justifies the existence of the position in the caliphate: The first pillar [of a kingdom] is an upright wazir (vizier) over the wilaya who wakens [the king] if he sleeps and gives him sight if he cannot see and reminds him if he
602-636: A long history of rail construction in Canada and Africa and was tasked with substantial railroad construction in the Protectorate. In 1909, Henry Hesketh Bell , the governor of the Uganda Protectorate was appointed high commissioner. In 1912, it was estimated that the area of Northern Nigeria was approximately 660,000 square kilometres (255,000 sq mi) and had a population of about 10 million people. Charles Lindsay Temple became
688-525: A major expedition. Foreign visitors between 1880 and 1890 often saw the position as all-powerful. The Scottish geologist and explorer Joseph Thomson described him as being 'more powerful than the Sultan himself' since 'nothing is done except by his advice'; Staudinger reported that he was the most powerful of ministers, almost more so than the Sultan, since all government business went through him; William Wallace found that 'the grand Vizier practically rules
774-519: A number of Hausa sultanates led by different Hausa aristocracies had grown to fill the void. Three of the most significant to develop were the sultanates of Gobir , Kebbi (both in the Rima River valley), and Zamfara , all in present-day Nigeria. These kingdoms engaged in regular warfare against each other, especially in conducting slave raids. In order to pay for the constant warfare, they imposed high taxes on their citizens. The region between
860-478: A significant impact on the region. It played a key role in spreading Islam. The Toucouleur Empire , also known as the Tukulor Empire, was a significant West African state that emerged during the 19th century, in what is now Mali, Senegal, and Guinea. It was founded by El Hadj Umar Tall, an Islamic leader of Tukulor descent, who sought to establish a jihadist state and conquer and enslave the polytheists in
946-548: A wide variety of topics including logic, tafsir, mathematics, governance, law, astronomy, grammar, medicine and so on. Some other famous scholars of that era were Shaikh Dan Tafa and Nana Asma'u . All of these scholars are still being widely studied around West Africa and some as far as the Middle East. The major power in the region in the 17th and 18th centuries had been the Bornu Empire . However, revolutions and
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#17328015219281032-459: Is heedless. The greatest catastrophe which could befall the wilaya and its subjects is to be deprived of good wazirs and helpers. One of the requirements of a wazir is that he should truly be benevolent and kind-hearted towards the people. The first Grand Vizier of Sokoto was Abdullahi dan Fodio . He was described as a 'helper' to the Shaikh, the most important of his helpers. The 2nd Grand Vizier
1118-600: The Battle of Tsuntua and elsewhere, the forces of dan Fodio began taking over some key cities starting in 1805. The Fulani used guerrilla warfare to turn the conflict in their favor, and gathered support from the civilian population, which had come to resent the despotic rule and high taxes of the Hausa kings. Even some non-Muslim Fulani started to support dan Fodio. The war lasted from 1804 until 1808 and resulted in thousands of deaths. The forces of dan Fodio were able to capture
1204-522: The Fulani War . Slaves worked plantations and much of the population converted to Islam despite being encouraged not to. By 1900, Sokoto had "at least 1 million and perhaps as many as 2.5 million slaves" second only to the American South (which had four million in 1860) in size among all modern slave societies. Although European colonists abolished the political authority of the caliphate,
1290-651: The Fulani jihads after defeating the Hausa Kingdoms in the Fulani War . The boundaries of the caliphate are part of present-day Cameroon , Burkina Faso , Niger , and Nigeria . By 1837, the Sokoto state had a population of around 10-20 plus million people, becoming the most populous empire in West Africa . It was dissolved when the British, French and Germans conquered the area in 1903 and annexed it into
1376-597: The Niger River and Lake Chad was largely populated with the Fulani, the Hausa, and other ethnic groups that had immigrated to the area such as the Tuareg. Much of the population had converted to Islam in the centuries before; however, local pagan beliefs persisted in many areas, especially in the aristocracy. In the end of the 1700s, an increase in Islamic preaching occurred throughout the Hausa kingdoms. A number of
1462-522: The Torodbe scholar caste who are descended from Usman dan Fodio. Siddiq Abubakar III was the longest serving Sultan, holding the position for 50 years from 1938 to 1988. The shortest reign was that of Muhammadu Attahiru I , who held the position for five months in 1902–03. The 17th sultan, Ibrahim Dasuki , was forcefully deposed in 1996 by the Sani Abacha military government of Nigeria. Prior to
1548-738: The Caliphate was at war with the Emir of Argungu , defeating Argungu the next year. Monteil claimed that Fulani power was tottering because of the war and the accession of the unpopular Caliph Abderrahman dan Abi Bakar . However, following the Berlin Conference , the British had expanded into Southern Nigeria, and by 1901 had begun to move into the Sokoto Caliphate while simultaneous German efforts occurred in Cameroon . British General Frederick Lugard used rivalries between many of
1634-461: The Caliphate would typically establish an emirate, appointing an emir to govern on behalf of the Sultan of Sokoto. The new rulers were expected to enforce Islamic law and pay tribute to the Sultan. The last major expansion of the Fulani jihadists was their part in the fall of the Sayfawa dynasty in 1846. The Sokoto Caliphate did not directly overthrow the dynasty that ruled the Bornu Empire , but
1720-437: The Caliphate's military strategy involved a system of alliances with local rulers. In some cases, these rulers were allowed to maintain their positions under the condition that they pledged allegiance to the Caliphate and adopted Islam. This strategy helped to solidify the Caliphate's control over conquered territories. The military expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate had significant social, political, and economic impacts. It led to
1806-417: The Caliphate's rule, and there were instances of resistance. Some communities maintained their traditional religions and practices despite the Caliphate's efforts to enforce Islam. There were also armed rebellions against the Caliphate's rule, some of which were successful in achieving local autonomy. The expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate can be understood as a three-stage process. Initially, from 1804 to 1808,
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#17328015219281892-486: The Central African Republic, and Sudan. The legacy of the Sokoto Caliphate and Usman dan Fodio 's teachings has left a lasting impact on the region's history, including contemporary Nigeria and West Africa . The Sokoto era produced some of the most renowned writers in West Africa with the three main reformist leaders, Usman, Abdullahi and Bello , writing more than three hundred books combined on
1978-523: The Diina of Hamdullahi, was an early 19th-century Fulani Jihad state centered in the Inner Niger Delta area of present-day Mali. This West African state was founded by Seku Amadu , also known as Sheikh Amadu Sheikh, who started a jihad movement among the Fulani people in the region. In the early 1800s, Seku Amadu, inspired by the teachings of Usman dan Fodio and the success of the Sokoto Caliphate,
2064-608: The Fulah Empire' and holds 'all the real power, the Sultans being completely hedged in by formalities'. Though these impressions are exaggerated, the Vizier did appear to have the whole civil service under his control. The vizierate never rivalled the Caliph's position. The Vizier was the chief supporter, adviser and friend to the Caliph, and in that position was able to reassert the Islamic tradition in Sokoto. The military, which
2150-704: The Kingdom of Segou in 1861 and the Massina Empire in 1862. At its height, the Toucouleur Empire stretched from modern-day Senegal in the west to Timbuktu in the east. Its capital was established at Segou, in present-day Mali. Though not strictly a jihadist state, the Wassoulou Empire , founded by Samori Ture, was a significant Islamic state during this period. Located in what is now Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Ivory Coast. The Wassoulou Empire
2236-403: The Massina Empire also faced resistance. Some local communities resisted the imposition of Islamic law and the centralization of political power. Furthermore, the Massina Empire faced external threats from neighboring states, including the Toucouleur Empire under El Hadj Umar Tall. The Massina Empire fell to the Toucouleur Empire in 1862. Despite its relatively short lifespan, the Massina Empire had
2322-641: The Sokoto Caliphate established the Bida Emirate in the Nupe Kingdom. The Caliphate appointed a local Fulani leader, known Mallam Dendo , as the emir, who ruled on behalf of the Sultan of Sokoto . The emir was expected to enforce Islamic law and pay tribute to the Sultan. The conquest of the Nupe Kingdom had significant impacts on the region. Islam became the dominant religion, and the Arabic script
2408-401: The Sokoto Caliphate had gained control over Hausaland and several surrounding states. Under the sixth caliph Ahmadu Rufai , the state reached its maximum extent, covering a large swath of West Africa. In 1903, the twelfth and last caliph Attahiru was assassinated by British forces, marking the end of the caliphate. Developed in the context of multiple independent Hausa Kingdoms , at its peak,
2494-399: The Sokoto state included over 30 different emirates under its political structure. The political structure of the state was organized with the Sultan of Sokoto ruling from the city of Sokoto (and for a brief period under Muhammad Bello from Wurno ). The leader of each emirate was appointed by the sultan as the flag-bearer for that city but was given wide independence and autonomy. Much of
2580-516: The United States ( which had 4 million in 1860 ) in size among all modern slave societies. From 1808 until the mid-1830s, the Sokoto state expanded, gradually annexing the plains to the west and key parts of Yorubaland . It became one of the largest states in Africa, stretching from modern-day Burkina Faso to Cameroon and including most of northern Nigeria and southern Niger. At its height,
2666-581: The Wolof resisted French rule and increasingly turned towards Islam. Despite their eventual dissolution, these jihadist states played a significant role in the spread of Islam and shaping of West Africa. They marked a crucial phase in the regional spread of Islam and a turbulent period in the region's indigenous political and social structures. Many of the jihadist movements began with the overthrow of traditional rulers who were accused of un-Islamic practices. These rulers were often replaced with leaders who had led
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2752-690: The acting Head Commissioner in 1911 and 1912 and began overseeing, with close collaboration with Lugard, the creation of the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria . One defining characteristic of administration in Northern Nigeria Protectorate was the inclusion of chiefs and emirs—including the emir of Bornu —as "native authorities" fitting into British administration (cf. the similar practice with chiefs, rajas , and maharajas in British India ). Taxation proved very difficult in
2838-554: The beginning of the Fulani Jihad of 1804 , the ethnic category Fulani was not important for the Torodbe and their literature reveals the ambivalence they had defining Torodbe-Fulani relationships. They adopted the language of the Fulani and much ethos while maintaining a separate, non-ethnic identity. The Torodbe clan at first recruited members from all levels of Sūdānī society , particularly the poorer people. As mentioned above,
2924-505: The caliphate linked over 30 different emirates and 10–20+ million people in the largest independent polity in the continent at the time. According to historian John Iliffe , Sokoto was the most developed state of pre-modern Subsaharan Africa. The caliphate was a loose confederation of emirates that recognized the suzerainty of the Amir al-Mu'minin , the Sultan of Sokoto . An estimated 1 to 2.5 million non-Muslim slaves were captured during
3010-647: The capital, Ngazargamu and defeated the main army of the Mai of Borno. The 19th century was a period of significant Islamic reform and jihads in West Africa, and the Sokoto Caliphate was just one of several powerful states that emerged during this time. In present-day Mali, the Massina Empire and the Toucouleur Empire were examples of states established through similar processes of Islamic reform and military expansion. The Massina Empire, also known as
3096-623: The cities throughout the Sokoto state. The Caliphate and its resulting emirates each had Viziers (Waziris) as they are called in the Caliphate. Those Viziers mostly came from the most learned families in Sokoto, learned not only in the legal and political aspects of Islam but also in its mystical side. The classical vizierate is based on some verses from the Quran . يَفْقَهُوا۟ قَوْلِى وَٱجْعَل لِّى وَزِيرًۭا مِّنْ أَهْلِى هَـٰرُونَ أَخِى ٱشْدُدْ بِهِۦٓ أَزْرِى وَأَشْرِكْهُ فِىٓ أَمْرِى so people may understand my speech, and grant me
3182-538: The city of Gobir with the approval and support of the Hausa leadership of the city. However, when Yunfa , a former student of dan Fodio, became the sultan of Gobir, he restricted dan Fodio's activities, eventually forcing him into exile in Gudu . A large number of people left Gobir to join dan Fodio, who also began to gather new supporters from other regions. Feeling threatened by his former teacher, Sultan Yunfa declared war on dan Fodio on February 21, 1804. Usman dan Fodio
3268-459: The consolidation of power occurred in Gobir and the neighboring Hausa states. The successful military campaigns against these rulers won him considerable support, establishing the foundation for the forthcoming expansion. The second stage (1809-1815) marked the eastward and southward expansion, reaching the Bornu Empire and Yorubaland . Dan Fodio and his lieutenants led a series of jihads, framed as
3354-542: The emirates which made up the caliphate. A large number of emirs and senior officials were Fulani clerics and scholars who participated in the Fulani War. The major administrative division was between Sokoto and the Gwandu Emirate . In 1815, Usman dan Fodio retired from the administrative business of the state and divided the area taken over during the Fulani War with his brother Abdullahi dan Fodio ruling in
3440-546: The emirs in the south and the central Sokoto administration to prevent any defense as he marched toward the capital, while the Germans conquered Adamawa. As the British approached the city of Sokoto, the new Sultan Muhammadu Attahiru I along with Muhammad bin Anabwani organized a quick defense of the city and fought the advancing British-led forces. The British force quickly won, sending Attahiru I and thousands of followers on
3526-534: The founder of the dynasty of Sokoto State and of the Fulani Empire (consisting of the Fulbe Jihad states of which Sokoto was suzerain), never used the high style of Sultan but was simply titled Amir al-Mu´minin . The first to assume the title of Sultan was Fodio's son Muhammed Bello , who ruled from 1817 to 1837. Since the creation of the title, there have been nineteen Sultans of Sokoto, all men from
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3612-458: The growth of plantations which were vital to the economy. The expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate had significant impacts on local populations. In many cases, conquered peoples were assimilated into the Caliphate, adopting Islam and becoming part of the Caliphate's political and social structures. In other cases, communities resisted the Caliphate's rule, leading to conflicts and tensions that sometimes persisted for years. The most significant impact
3698-405: The growth of the state occurred through the establishment of an extensive system of ribats as part of the consolidation policy of Muhammed Bello, the second Sultan. Ribats were established, founding a number of new cities with walled fortresses, schools, markets, and other buildings. These proved crucial in expansion through developing new cities, settling the pastoral Fulani people, and supporting
3784-574: The jihad and who sought to establish governance in diverse communities such as the Yoruba Kingdoms, based on their new rules. The jihads often led to shifts in the social hierarchy. European attention had been focusing on the region for colonial expansion for much of the last part of the 19th century. The French in particular had sent multiple exploratory missions to the area to assess colonial opportunities after 1870. French explorer Parfait-Louis Monteil visited Sokoto in 1891 and noted that
3870-412: The jihadist movements of the 19th century certainly had an impact on it. The empire was weakened by internal conflicts, as well as by external threats, including the expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate and the encroachment of other jihadist groups. The Fulani jihadists, under Usman dan Fodio's banner tried to conquer Borno, who was governed by Mai Dunama IX Lefiami , in 1808. They partly succeeded. They burnt
3956-399: The kingdom was internally divided due to succession disputes and other political tensions. Abdullahi dan Fodio exploited these internal divisions and launched a military campaign against the Nupe Kingdom. Despite the initial resistance, the Nupe Kingdom was eventually defeated. Etsu Majiya II was killed in battle, and the kingdom fell to the Sokoto forces c. 1808 . After the conquest,
4042-466: The largest empires in Africa, extending over present-day northern Nigeria , parts of Niger , Cameroon , and Benin . This expansion led to profound changes on local populations. The spread of Islam was a significant outcome, transforming the religious landscape of the region. Islamic law was imposed, affecting local customs and norms, especially concerning property rights , marriage , and criminal justice . This religious influence continues to shape
4128-506: The last major instance of armed resistance to British rule in the region. After 1907 there were fewer revolts and use of military force by the British and the focus of the High Commissioner turned toward taxation and administration. The British Administration began with Frederick Lugard as the first High Commissioner. In 1907, Lugard left Nigeria for Hong Kong and Percy Girouard became the new High Commissioner. Girouard had
4214-759: The most important Muslim position in Nigeria and senior to the Emir of Kano , the leader of the Tijaniyya Sufi order. The post has become increasingly ceremonial since British rule defeated the caliphate and replaced it with the Sokoto Sultanate Council in 1903, but the sultan – considered a spiritual leader in the Muslim community in Nigeria – can still carry much weight with Fulani and Hausa people from northern Nigeria. Usman dan Fodio ,
4300-424: The new Caliph. Fredrick Lugard abolished the Caliphate, but retained the title Sultan as a symbolic position in the newly organized Northern Nigeria Protectorate . This remnant became known as " Sokoto Sultanate Council ". In June 1903, the British defeated the remaining forces of Attahiru I in an engagement where he was killed in action ; by 1906, armed resistance to British rule had ended. The Sokoto state
4386-601: The newly established Northern Nigeria Protectorate , Senegambia and Niger and Kamerun respectively. The caliphate emerged after the Hausa King Yunfa attempted to assassinate Usman dan Fodio in 1802. In order to escape persecution, Usman and his followers migrated towards Gudu in February 1804. Usman's followers pledged allegiance to Usman as the Commander of the Faithful ( Amīr al-Muʾminīn ). By 1808,
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#17328015219284472-438: The northern part of what is now Nigeria . The protectorate spanned 660,000 square kilometres (255,000 sq mi) and included the emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate and parts of the former Bornu Empire , conquered in 1902. The first High Commissioner of the protectorate was Frederick Lugard , who suppressed slavery and tribal raiding and created a system of administration built around native authorities. The Protectorate
4558-482: The other hand, was on the rise. The Sokoto Caliphate's main involvement with the Oyo Empire was through Ilorin , a northern Yoruba vassal state of the Oyo Empire. The Ilorin, backed by the Sokoto Caliphate, launched a series of attacks against the Oyo Empire. These attacks, combined with internal conflicts, led to the final collapse of the Oyo Empire by the mid-19th century. Parts of present-day Niger, particularly
4644-650: The preachers were linked in a shared Tariqa of Islamic study. Maliki scholars were invited or traveled to the Hausa lands from the Maghreb and joined the courts of some sultanates such as in Kano. These scholars preached a return to adherence to Islamic tradition. The most important of these scholars is Muhammad al-Maghili , who brought the Maliki jurisprudence to Nigeria. Usman dan Fodio , an Islamic scholar and an urbanized Fulani, had been actively educating and preaching in
4730-537: The previous Grand Vizier, refused to relinquish the position even though Sultan Bello chose Gidado but he later formally recognised Gidado as the new vizier after his reconciliation with Muhammad Bello, giving Gidado his robes in token. As Vizier, Gidado had considerable freedom of judgement. He retired the Emir of Daura, Ishaq, and appointed his son, Zubair bin Ishaq which was later approved by Sultan Bello. The position had
4816-451: The primary mode of transportation during this period. During the expansion, the Caliphate's military utilized a strategy of establishing emirates in conquered territories. These emirates were governed by emirs, who were either appointed by the Sultan or were local rulers who had submitted to the Caliphate's authority. This strategy helped in maintaining control over the vast territories of the Caliphate. The Sokoto Caliphate relied heavily on
4902-639: The protectorate for the first years of British rule. Lugard's attempts to institute poll taxes were foiled by the Emirates, the need to introduce coin controversy and attempts to tax trade were opposed by powerful merchants. This created a substantial deficit in the budget of the Protectorate and public works projects had to be paid by grants from the British Empire. As a result, the British often had significant shortages of British personnel before 1907. These pragmatic concerns resulted in incorporation of
4988-517: The region. The Nupe Kingdom , historically a powerful state in Central Nigeria , was conquered by the Sokoto Caliphate in the early 19th century as part of its expansionist campaigns. The Sokoto forces, under the leadership of Usman dan Fodio's brother, Abdullahi dan Fodio , advanced towards the Nupe Kingdom c. 1806 . The Nupe Kingdom, under the rule of Etsu Majiya II, was a prosperous state known for its military prowess. However,
5074-438: The region. Umar Tall began his jihad, or holy war, in the 1850s after studying in the Sokoto Caliphate. In 1854, Umar Tall declared a jihad against the un-Islamic practices of the local rulers. He assembled a large army, which included his fellow Toucouleurs, as well as other Muslim groups and enslaved individuals. With this army, he undertook a series of successful military campaigns against various West African kingdoms, including
5160-568: The regions bordering Nigeria, were conquered by the Sokoto Caliphate. The town of Birnin Konni , for instance, was a significant center of the Caliphate in this region. The Sokoto Caliphate extended its influence into the northern areas of present-day Benin, which borders Nigeria to the west. The process of expansion into these regions was similar to that within Nigeria. The Caliphate launched military campaigns against local rulers, often exploiting internal conflicts and divisions. Upon conquering an area,
5246-601: The rise of new powers decreased the power of the Bornu empire and by 1759 its rulers had lost control over the oasis town of Bilma and access to the Trans-Saharan trade . Vassal cities of the empire gradually became autonomous, and the result by 1780 was a political array of independent states in the region. The fall of the Songhai Empire in 1591 to Morocco also had freed much of the central Bilad as-Sudan, and
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#17328015219285332-421: The socio-cultural dynamics of the region. Moreover, the Caliphate's administrative and social structures were imposed on conquered territories. The Caliphate established a system of emirates, with appointed emirs overseeing local governance. The social hierarchy saw the Sultan and the ruling elite at the top, followed by free Muslims, non-Muslims, and slaves. This system significantly altered the political fabric of
5418-461: The spread of Islam and the Fulani language and culture in the region. The Caliphate's rule also resulted in changes in local governance systems and the economy, with the introduction of new administrative structures and trade networks. Northern Nigeria Protectorate Northern Nigeria ( Hausa : Arewacin Najeriya ) was a British protectorate which lasted from 1900 until 1914, and covered
5504-445: The states of Katsina and Daura , the important kingdom of Kano in 1807, and finally conquered Gobir in 1809. In the same year, Muhammed Bello , the son of dan Fodio, founded the city of Sokoto , which became the capital of the Sokoto state. The jihad had created "a new slaving frontier on the basis of rejuvenated Islam." By 1900, the Sokoto state had "at least 1 million and perhaps as many as 2.5 million slaves", second only to
5590-479: The sultan of Sokoto, beginning from 1817. Sala – 1867 Wurno (aged 59) – 1867 Wurno (aged 53) – 1877 (aged 65) – 1881 (aged 65) – 1903 Mbormi Sokoto Caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate ( Arabic : دولة الخلافة في بلاد السودان ), also known as the Sultanate of Sokoto , was a Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa . It was founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 during
5676-524: The sultan; they traveled yearly to pledge allegiance and deliver taxes in the form of crops, cowry shells , and slaves. When a sultan died or retired from the office, an appointment council made up of the emirs would select a replacement. Direct lines of succession were largely not followed, although each sultan claimed direct descent from dan Fodio. The caliphate absorbed many of the structures of governments of their Hausa predecessors which they had conquered. It ruled under Islamic law with powers falling to
5762-402: The sultans were also styled Amir al-Mu´minin and Sarkin Musulmi ("King of the Muslims"), basically the autochthonous form of the former, which is the Arabic style of caliphs and other independent sovereign Muslim rulers that claim legitimacy from a community of Muslims); Mai , occurring in various sultans' surnames, is another autochthonous title. The table below shows the historical list of
5848-455: The surrounding Sahelian and savannah regions. Some of the notable areas that came under the control of the Massina Empire include Timbuktu and Djenné, key centers of trans-Saharan slave trade. The Massina Empire's rule was characterized by a strict interpretation of Islamic law. Seku Amadu implemented legal and social reforms, including the outlawing of many traditional polytheist practices as well as forcing many polytheists into slavery. However,
5934-435: The title of sultan was retained and remains an important religious position for Sunni Muslims in the region to the current day. Usman dan Fodio's jihad provided the inspiration for a series of related jihads in other parts of the Sudanian Savanna and the Sahel far beyond the borders of what is now Nigeria that led to the foundation of Islamic states in the regions that are now in modern-day Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, Chad,
6020-408: The traditional authorities within the British structure. These same financial and administrative challenges resulted in discussions led by Lugard for the unification of the Lagos Colony , the Southern Nigeria Protectorate , and Northern Nigeria. The disparities between the protectorates was to be corrected by creating a central administration in Lagos, with custom revenues from the south paying for
6106-466: The use of cavalry in its military campaigns. The Fulani horsemen, renowned for their equestrian skills, formed the core of the Caliphate's cavalry. They were instrumental in the rapid expansion of the Caliphate's territories. Parfait-Louis Monteil , the french explorer who visited the caliphate in 1890, claimed that he witnessed Sultan Umaru bin Ali raise "an army of forty thousand men, half of whom were cavalry, to lay siege to Argungu." Additionally,
6192-553: The vice governor. The Company moved in-land and negotiated trade agreements and political agreements, sometimes coercive, with several local chieftains. In 1897, Frederick Lugard was the appointed head of the West African Frontier Force which was tasked with stopping Fulani resistance and possible French incursions in the northwest area. On 1 January 1900, the Royal Niger Company's charter
6278-566: The west with the Gwandu Emirate and his son Muhammed Bello taking over administration of the Sokoto Sultanate. The Emir at Gwandu retained allegiance to the Sokoto Sultanate and spiritual guidance from the sultan, but the emir managed the separate emirates under his supervision independently from the sultan. The administrative structure of loose allegiances of the emirates to the sultan did not always function smoothly. There
6364-624: Was Waziri Gidado bin Abu Bakr who was under Sultan Muhammad Bello . All subsequent 'Grand Vizier of Sokoto' came from his family, with his great-grandson, Gidado Idris , continuing the tradition of being the 'helper' to a Head of State by serving as Secretary to the Government of the Federation under the government of General Sani Abacha . Waziri Gidado was married to the Shaikh's daughter Nana Asma'u dan Fodio . Abdullahi dan Fodio,
6450-548: Was a series of revolutions by the Hausa aristocracy in 1816–1817 during the reign of Muhammed Bello , but the sultan ended these by granting the leaders titles to land. There were multiple crises that arose during the 19th century between the Sokoto Sultanate and many of the subservient emirates: notably, the Adamawa Emirate and the Kano Emirate . A serious revolt occurred in 1836 in the city-state of Gobir, which
6536-455: Was authorized by Fodio to carry out jihad in the Massina region. Seku Amadu's forces succeeded in overthrowing the ruling elites and establishing a new jihadist state. The capital of the Massina Empire was Hamdullahi, a city founded by Seku Amadu. The expansion of the Massina Empire occurred mainly through military conquest. The Empire extended its control over the Inner Niger Delta and parts of
6622-480: Was commanded by the Sarkin Yaki (war commander) the title still held by the descendants of Ali Jedo , at the time of the jihad was organized into a standing army and a cavalry. The standing army was composed of Hausa and Fulani warriors who were trained in warfare and were responsible for the Caliphate's defense and the expansion of its territories. The cavalry was an essential part of the military, as horses were
6708-529: Was crushed by Muhammed Bello at the Battle of Gawakuke . The Sufi community throughout the region proved crucial in the administration of the state. The Tariqa brotherhoods, most notably the Qadiriyya , to which every successive sultan of Sokoto was an adherent, provided a group linking the distinct emirates to the authority of the sultan. Scholars Burnham and Last claim that this Islamic scholarship community provided an "embryonic bureaucracy" which linked
6794-412: Was elected as the "Commander of the Faithful" ( Amir al-Mu'minin ) by his followers, marking the beginning of the Sokoto state. Usman dan Fodio then created a number of flag bearers amongst those following him, creating an early political structure of the empire. Declaring a jihad against the Hausa kings, dan Fodio rallied his primarily Fulani "warrior-scholars" against Gobir. Despite early losses at
6880-671: Was ended on 1 January 1914, when its area was unified with the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Lagos Colony , becoming the Northern Province of the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria . The Berlin Conference of 1884 and 1885 provided the area that would become the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to the British. The Royal Niger Company was formed in 1886 with George Taubman Goldie as
6966-483: Was introduced for writing the local Nupe language . The Sokoto Caliphate also established new trade routes and markets in the region, leading to economic changes. The Oyo Empire , located in present-day southwestern Nigeria, was one of the most powerful kingdoms in West Africa during the 18th century. However, by the early 19th century, the Oyo Empire was in decline due to internal conflicts, succession disputes, and pressures from external enemies. The Sokoto Caliphate, on
7052-459: Was known for its strict implementation of Islam and enslavement of polytheists. During and subsequent to the 18th century, the Wolof people were significantly affected by the tumultuous jihads spreading across West Africa. These militant Islamic campaigns faced heavy resistance from the Wolof kingdoms. However, in the 19th century, as the French colonial forces began taking territory in West Africa,
7138-649: Was largely organized around a number of largely independent emirates pledging allegiance to the sultan of Sokoto. The administration was initially built to follow those of Muhammad during his time in Medina , but also the theories of Al-Mawardi in "The Ordinances of Government". The Hausa kingdoms prior to Usman dan Fodio had been run largely through hereditary succession. The early rulers of Sokoto, dan Fodio and Bello, abolished systems of hereditary succession, preferring leaders to be appointed by virtue of their Islamic scholarship and moral standing. Emirs were appointed by
7224-415: Was revoked and the British government took control, in a ceremony where Lugard read the proclamation. The Royal Niger Company was paid £865,000 and was given the rights to half of all mining revenue in a large part of the areas for 99 years in exchange for ceding the territory to the British government. Lord Lugard was appointed the High Commissioner of the newly created Northern Nigeria Protectorate. Lokoja
7310-483: Was the capital from 1900, but Zungeru became the headquarters for the protectorate in 1902 because it was the most northerly city accessible by river transport. Military operations began in 1902 and continued for about five years of sporadic fighting. The remnants of the Bornu Empire were conquered in 1902 and the Sokoto Caliphate and was defeated in the Battle of Kano . Fighting continued in 1904 in Bassa . In 1906,
7396-481: Was the spread of Islam among the local populations. The Sokoto Caliphate was intensely Islamic, and it actively sought to convert the peoples of the territories it conquered. As a result, Islam became the dominant religion in the region, with profound implications for local cultures, legal systems, and social norms. The imposition of Islamic law (Sharia) brought about changes in areas such as property rights, marriage, and criminal justice. Not all local populations accepted
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