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104-612: The town is perhaps best known for being the site of the Battle of Sarikamish , one of the major battles of the Caucasus front of World War I . For most of the 19th century, Sarikamish was an insignificant settlement that was divided into two parts: upper Sarikamish and lower Sarikamish. Obsidian from Sarikamish was found at several Neolithic sites in South Caucasus, such as at Aratashen , and at Khramis Didi-gora dating from

208-685: A Csa climate well inland to ensure hot summers and cold winters. They are generally found in the highly elevated areas of south-eastern Turkey ( Hakkâri ), north-western Iran, northern Iraq, parts of Central Asia , parts of the High Atlas mountain range in central Morocco and very small parts of the Intermountain West in the United States. This climate zone does not exist at all in the Southern Hemisphere, where

312-470: A cavalry regiment on 27 December, occupied Selim station and destroyed the Sarikamish-Kars railway from there. On the same day, Stange Bey, who had an infantry regiment and Special Organization irregulars under his command, captured Ardahan, which was defended by three battalions of the 3rd Plaston Brigade (2,000 soldiers). On December 24, Nasuhi Bey, chief of staff of the X Corps, was captured by

416-499: A cavalry regiment, 34 cannons and several score of machine guns under commander of 1st Plastun Brigade General Przevalski. Muratoff says that Russian force defending Sarıkamish has increased to 13–14.000 soldiers., 30th and 31st Divisions took on task of attacking Sarıkamish as the IX Corps number decreased to 1000 soldiers. According to the sources, the 30th and 31st Divisions were around 2000 soldiers, too. Although 93rd Regiment of

520-401: A commander-in-chief in his place. General Yudenich appointed to command 2nd Turkestan Corps and six battalions of 1st Caucasus Corps while remaining forces were commanded by General Bergmann. So many frictions broke out between General Bergmann and Yudenich for this appointment. For this reason, just after the victory was won (January 5, 1915), General Bergmann was dismissed and General Yudenich

624-506: A cuneiform inscription made during the reign of Urartian king Argishti I . To the east and south of the town, in the forests of Soğanlı, there were many medieval Armenian monasteries, but most were in ruins by 1878. Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan invaded the Sarikamish area including Allahüekber and Soğanlı mountains in 1064, only a few years prior to the battle of Manzikert between the armies of Alp Arslan and Byzantines . The area

728-455: A fierce offensive until evening. Turkish commanders persuaded Enver Pasha to stop the attack, which was made as a result of Enver's excessive insistence. Russian sources claimed that if this offensive had continued, Sarıkamish would have fallen. On the other hand, Turk sources claimed Turkish army had suffered heavy casualties as a result of Enver Pasha's offensive orders described in short " attack without considering casualties", and in addition,

832-643: A half battalions of Frontier Guards. The six battalions of the 3rd Kuban Plastun Brigade were echeloned along the coast of the Black Sea. (e) Detachment in Persian Azerbaijan: 2nd Caucasian Rifle Brigade, 4th Caucasian Cossack Division, total: 8 battalions, 24 sotni, 24 guns under General Chernozubov. The garrison of Kars composed of the 263rd Infantry Regiment (of 66th Division): 4 battalions. The Russian Caucasian Army in Battle of Sarikamish, which

936-516: A marked reduction in wintry precipitation, which increases the chances of a wintertime drought ( w ). Snowfall occurs in all areas with a humid continental climate and in many such places is more common than rain during the height of winter. In places with sufficient wintertime precipitation, the snow cover is often deep. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms , and in North America and Asia an occasional tropical cyclone (or

1040-476: A severe snowstorm. On 24 December, General Vorontsov sent his deputy General Myshlayevsky and chief of staff General Yudenich with officers to meet with General Bergmann in Micingirt (now İnkaya). Bergmann said that an offensive on Istomin's detachment only had local significance, as Istomin would repel and retake Oltu from Turks once his troops were reinforced by 3rd Caucasus Rifle Brigade. He also said that on

1144-520: A snowstorm. According to İlden, 10.000 soldiers died from frostbite in the Allahu Ekber Mountains. Number of these two divisions decreased to 3200 when they got off from Allahu Ekber on night of 26 December. X Corps lost 90% of troops before engaging in a major battle. Hafız Hakkı thought number of soldiers can be increased to 10.000 in two days from deserted soldiers, therefore he decided to continue offensive. On morning of 26 December,

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1248-616: A spectator". However, on 18 November, Hasan İzzet Pasha telegraphed Enver Pasha: IX Corps, X Corps' pioneers would arrive on the Kötek-Kars road in eight to nine days, meanwhile it is doubtful that the XI Corps, left alone, would not be crushed. When the pioneers come out of the great mountains, they will be in a difficult position against the enemy, who are not less than themselves. I see the outcome of this offensive field battle as doubtful according to our preparation. In case of failure,

1352-424: A strong Turkish force. Therefore, Myshlayevsky changed his order of the day and issued a new order, rejecting Bergmann's offensive aims and accepting Yudenich's defensive idea. On night of 24 December, Enver and his headquarters (Bronsart Pasha , Feldmann Bey and Colonel Guse, all of which were German officers) reached Bardız village from Narman in 14 hours on horseback. He declared that the IX Corps should attack

1456-739: A subarctic climate. In the Southern Hemisphere , it exists in well-defined areas only in the Southern Alps of New Zealand , in the Snowy Mountains of Australia in Kiandra, New South Wales and the Andes Mountains of Argentina and Chile . Since climate regimes tend to be dominated by vegetation of one region with relatively homogenous ecology, those that project climate change remap their results in

1560-526: A thermal profile, but because of semi-arid precipitation portions of it are grouped into the BSk category. In Europe , it is found in much of Central Europe : Germany (in the east and southeast part of the country), Austria (generally below 700 m (2,297 ft)), Poland , Czech Republic , Slovakia , Hungary (generally above 100 m (328 ft)), Croatia (mostly Slavonia region), in much of Eastern Europe : Ukraine (the whole country except

1664-521: Is found in northern Kazakhstan , southern Siberia , parts of Mongolia , northern China , and highland elevations in the Koreas . Like its hot-summer counterpart, these climates are typically dry in the winter and bitterly cold due to the Siberian High (often with winter temperatures comparable to their nearby subarctic climates ), while summers are warm and long enough to avoid classification as

1768-467: Is less extreme than the most inland hyper-continental variety. Using the Köppen climate classification , a climate is classified as humid continental when the temperature of the coldest month is below 0 °C [32.0 °F] or −3 °C [26.6 °F] and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 °C (50 °F). These temperatures were not arbitrary. In Europe,

1872-565: Is less seasonally uniform in the west. The western states of the western United States (namely Montana , Wyoming , parts of southern Idaho , most of Lincoln County in Eastern Washington , parts of Colorado , parts of Utah , isolated parts of northern New Mexico , western Nebraska , and parts of western North and South Dakota ) have thermal regimes which fit the Dfa climate type, but are quite dry, and are generally grouped with

1976-724: Is noted during the autumn of deciduous forests. In the poleward direction, these climates transition into subarctic climates featuring short summers (and usually very cold winters) allowing only conifer trees. Moving equatorword, the hot-summer continental climates grade into humid subtropical climates (chiefly in North America and Asia) while the warm-summer continental climates grade into oceanic climates (chiefly in Europe), both of which have milder winters where average temperatures stay above 0°C (or -3°C). Some continental climates with lower precipitation (chiefly in Central Asia and

2080-701: Is to be found in northern China including Manchuria and parts of North China , south-east Russia , and over much of the Korean Peninsula ; it has the Köppen classification Dwa . Much of central Asia , northwestern China , and southern Mongolia has a thermal regime similar to that of the Dfa climate type, but these regions receive so little precipitation that they are more often classified as steppes ( BSk ) or deserts ( BWk ). Dsa climates are rare; they are generally restricted to elevated areas adjacent to mid-latitude Mediterranean climate regions with

2184-499: Is very likely that the majority of Turkish soldiers died because of inadequate winter clothing and field shelters during the attack and retreat. In any event, this was an extraordinarily costly defeat for the Turks; in losses this was the worst single defeat they suffered in the entire war. Turkish soldiers reached their targets but they were too weak to win. The Russian casualties were estimated at 35,000. As one German officer attached to

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2288-648: The Allahuekber Mountains . Around 25,000 Ottoman soldiers froze to death before the start of the battle. After the battle, Ottoman Minister of War Enver Pasha , who had planned the Ottoman strategy in Sarikamish, blamed his defeat on the Armenians , and the battle served as a prelude to the Armenian genocide . Some sources estimate the significance of the battle as one of the most important in

2392-698: The Black Sea coast), Belarus , Russia (mostly central part of European Russia ), south and central parts of the Nordic countries not bathed by the Atlantic Ocean or North Sea : Sweden (historical regions of Svealand and Götaland ), Denmark , Finland (south end, including the three largest cities ), Norway (most populated area), all Baltic States : Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania and also in parts of: Romania (generally above 100 m (328 ft)), Bosnia and Herzegovina , Turkey and in

2496-482: The Cairngorm Mountains of Scotland , (generally above 100 m (328 ft)). It has little warming or precipitation effects from the northern Atlantic. The cool summer subtype is marked by mild summers, long cold winters and less precipitation than the hot summer subtype; however, short periods of extreme heat are not uncommon. Northern Japan has a similar climate. In Asia, this climate type

2600-484: The Dfa climate type is present near the Black Sea in southern Ukraine , the Southern Federal District of Russia , southern Moldova , Serbia , parts of southern Romania , and Bulgaria , but tends to be drier and can be even semi-arid in these places. In East Asia, this climate exhibits a monsoonal tendency with much higher precipitation in summer than in winter, and due to the effects of

2704-538: The Korean Peninsula , parts of Eastern Europe , parts of southern Ontario , much of the American Midwest , and the Northeast US , the climate combines hotter summer maxima and greater humidity (similar to those found in adjacent humid subtropical climates ) and moderately cold winters and more intermittent snow cover (averaging somewhat below freezing, too cold for a more temperate classification), and

2808-530: The Russian and Ottoman empires during World War I . It took place from December 22, 1914, to January 17, 1915, as part of the Caucasus campaign . The battle resulted in a Russian victory. The Ottomans employed a strategy which demanded highly mobile troops, capable of arriving at specified objectives at precise times. This approach was based both on German and Napoleonic tactics. The Ottoman troops, ill-prepared for winter conditions, suffered major casualties in

2912-479: The Sarikamish railway, since captive soldiers said that Sarikamish was defended by only 2-3 scratch companies. He asked IX Corps commander Ali İhsan Paşa for his opinion. Ali İhsan Paşa said that "... According to this (The 17th and 28th divisions could not reach Bardız yet), it means that the IX Corps has no forces at hand for now, other than the 29th Division. I do not know the operational requirements concerning

3016-506: The 11th Corps alone on January 2. Attack of the 32nd Division and the 82nd Regiment, which lasted for four days, was able to be repelled by five Turkestan battalions with six battalions of reinforcements. 32nd Division and 82nd Regiment, which started the attack with 7000 soldiers, decreased to 500 soldiers on 30 December due to snowstorm and desertion of soldiers. Number of IX Corps in Sarıkamish had decreased to 1000 soldiers. Number of X Corps

3120-454: The 29th Division moved to Sarikamish. The path was covered with 30 cm of snow. The 29th Division reached Kızılkilise village 8 kilometers northwest of Sarikamish. The 29th Division prepared to bivouac in Kızılkilise. However, Enver Pasha ordered an attack on Bardız Pass and to capture Sarikamish, behind Bardız Pass. On the evening of 25 December, two regiments of the 29th Division, under

3224-483: The 30th and 32nd Division from the west. The 32rd Division opened dense artillery and rifle fire on the 31st Division, thinking the 32nd Division was Russian troops. The battle continued for 2 hours, and General Istomin withdrew his army with few losses from Oltu. İlden, based on information from a friend who fought in the battle, claimed that the Turks suffered 2.000 casualties in this accidental battle. However, when Fahri Belen asked multiple multiple officers on duty during

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3328-572: The 31st Division attacked İd (now, Narman). On both sides, the Russians retreated cautiously after rearguard battle. Istomin's Brigade retreated around Oltu Town. The 31st Division spent the night in Narman (Now Rus Narmanı in Turkish), 15 kilometers South of Oltu. On 23 December, the 31st Division captured 750 soldiers and Colonel Kutatedza with 2 guns. The 31st Division attacked Oltu from the south and

3432-580: The 31st Division managed to enter Sarıkamish with 600 soldiers with night attack on 29 December, it had to retreat from Sarikamish due to dispersal of the soldiers in town and attack of the superior Russian forces. The soldiers who had captured the barracks in Sarıkamish were also taken prisoner by the Russian soldiers besieging the barracks on morning of 30 December. On December 30, Russians brought six mortars from Mecingirt and started hitting Turkish positions with them. Colonel Bukretov could not take Turks in

3536-492: The 3rd army as he couldn't persuade Hasan İzzet Pasha. Enver Pasha's chief of staff Bronsart von Schellendorf and operation department manager (in Turkish: Harekat Şubesi Müdürü ) Major Feldmann continued their service in the 3rd army under Enver Pasha. The war zone was nearly 1,250–1,500 kilometers (780–930 miles) wide from the Black Sea to Lake Van , which made military concentration difficult. The operation

3640-821: The 66th Division in Kars and the newly formed 3rd Caucasian Rifle Brigade (8 battalions) and the Siberian Cossack Brigade (12 sotni) in Tbilisi, which totaled 14,000 soldiers brought as reinforcement in the Battle of Sarikamish. Apart from these forces, 12 battalions of Russian troops were in Batumi and its surroundings, 8 battalions and 30 cavalry companies were in Ağrı , 8 battalions and 24 cavalry companies were in Iranian Azerbaijan and did not participate in

3744-467: The 6th millennium BC. Obsidian from Meydan Dağ (to the south of Sarikamish) was also found in South Caucasus. During the later history, nearby archaeological sites date from Urartian times : there is a Urartian fortress on a hill beside upper Sarikamish, another, 12 km (7.5 mi) away, beside Chatak village, and a third, 15 km (9.3 mi) away, at a site known as Yedikilise. In 1878, archaeologist Alexander Yeritsian discovered near Sarıkamış

3848-591: The Canadian Prairie Provinces and below 40°N in the high Appalachians . In Europe, this subtype reaches its most northerly latitude in Bodø at the 67°N . High-altitude locations such as Flagstaff, Arizona , Aspen, Colorado and Los Alamos, New Mexico in the western United States exhibit local Dfb climates. The south-central and southwestern Prairie Provinces also fits the Dfb criteria from

3952-522: The Caucasian heights was the high mountain passes in which lay the cities Kars and Sarikamish. Beyond, the upper valleys of the Aras River and Euphrates extended westward. Everywhere else the roads were mere tracks which were impenetrable to artillery. The forces were concentrated about 80 kilometres (50 mi) on each side of the border at the fortresses of Kars on the Russian side and Erzurum on

4056-466: The Erzurum Fortress totaling 118,000. The total manpower including transportation units, deport regiments, and military police was 200,000. There were 73 machine guns and 218 (it was equal to Russians ) artillery pieces. Ottoman forces were inadequately prepared for the campaign. IX and X Corps began a long trek with no winter clothing and only dry bread and olives for rations. XI Corps left at

4160-770: The Ottoman Empire entered the war in October 1914 on the side of the Central Powers , Russia now feared a Caucasus Campaign aimed at retaking Kars and the port of Batum . From the point of view of the Central Powers, a campaign in the Caucasus would have a distracting effect on Russian forces. The immediate strategic goal of the Caucasus Campaign was to retake Artvin , Ardahan , Kars, and

4264-767: The Ottoman side. The 3rd Army, under the command of Enver, was composed of the IX, X and XI Corps. A detachment unit (1 infantry regiment and the Special Organization (Teşkilat-I Mahsusa) volunteers) known as Ştanke Bey Müfrezesi under the command of the German Lieutenant Colonel Stange embarked Artvin to reinforce the offense and pin down the Russians. The fighting power of 90,000 regular troops (Russian Sarikamish detachment consisted of 60,000 infantry, 4,000 Cavalry (Cossacks), 14,000 Reserves totaling 78,000 soldiers), reserves, and personnel from

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4368-587: The Russian attacks against both the 28th Division defending Bardız Pass and the 29th and 17th Divisions. The 17th Division machine gun company were engaged until all its soldiers were killed and its machine guns was taken back by a squad of soldiers sent from the rear. Humid continental climate A humid continental climate is a climatic region defined by Russo-German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1900, typified by four distinct seasons and large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers, and cold (sometimes severely cold in

4472-480: The Russians. A copy of the attack order given by Enver Pasha was found on Nasuhi Bey. The Russian commanders understood from this order that the Turkish forces attacking Sarikamish were the IX and X Corps General Myslayesvki, who knew that he could not stop two corps with weak Russian forces defending Sarikamish, was sure that if the Russian army did not withdraw, it would be destroyed. However, General Msylayevski

4576-913: The Sarikamish Offensive, Chief of staff of 9th Corps Şerif İlden estimated Russian army as 60,000 soldiers fitting information of 64.000 soldiers given by Paul Muratoff. 9th and 10th Corps of Turkish 3rd Army consisted of well-trained soldiers but Ottoman Army was poorly equipped with winter clothes. Casualties in Ottoman Army from frostbite is recorded as extremely high in Ottoman Sources though any particular number isn't given. Big part of 50–60,000 non-combat losses of Ottomans stems from frostbite and typhus epidemic while Russians lost 6.000 soldiers from frostbite and another 12,000 patient from typhus, war injuries and typhus . Another reason for greater number of non-combat loss of Ottomans

4680-442: The Sarikamish garrison was reinforced by the 80th Kabardinsky Regiment (4 infantry battalions, one thousand infantry per battalion) and Zaporojski Cossack Regiment (6 cavalry divisions). With this reinforcement, the Russian force defending Sarikamish increased to 10.000 soldiers supported by weak artillery. On Turkish side, after the 26 December offensive was stopped, deserters dispersed into forests were tried to be gathered and only on

4784-510: The Sarikamish-Kars line opposite of the initially planned Kars-Kötek line. This change of path caused 40 kilometers lengthening between the X Corps and the 30th and 31st Divisions. On 23 December, the 39th Division attacked the Turkish XI Corps and captured a large number of prisoners. On 22–24 December, the IX Corps reached Bardız village from Toygarlı village. The IX Corps didn't engage in combat like The X Corps, except to disperse

4888-552: The Turkish side every day. The number of soldiers who died in the hospital was more than 10 thousand, and yet more soldiers died from frostbite and a Typhus epidemic outside the hospitals as well. Turk soldiers used to not go hospitals because they knew they had a greater chance of survival outside the hospitals. In the farthest left flank, Hafız Hakkı with X Corps, numbering 40.000 fresh troops, attacked General Istomin's Brigade (8.000 infantry, 1.000 cavalry) on 22 December. The 30th and 32nd Divisions attacked Kaleboğazı, west of Oltu, and

4992-547: The Western United States) grade into semi-arid climates with similar temperatures but low precipitation. A hot summer version of a continental climate features an average temperature of at least 22 °C (71.6 °F) in its warmest month. Since these regimes are restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, the warmest month is usually July or August. High temperatures during the warmest month tend to be in

5096-511: The XI Corps remained inactive against the Russian forces from the beginning to the end of the battle. The plan of the Russians was to stay on the defensive against the XI Corps, to pull the forces against XI Corps to Sarıkamish and to protect Sarıkamish against Turks with these forces. On 28 December, 155th Kubinski Regiment (four battalions) and 1st Plastun Brigade (five battalions) arrived in Sarıkamish from Yudenich's front. Therefore, Russian force in Sarıkamish increased to 20 infantry battalions,

5200-725: The afternoon of 26 December, 83rd and 84th Regiments of the 28th Division arrived. This division, too, had lost most of its force on the way, as it had been brought in by forced night marches. Numbers of Turkish troops isn't recorded in Turkish sources. Considering that Turks had 3,000 soldiers on 26 December, it can be estimated that there would not be more than 5,000 soldiers on 27 December. Enver Pasha renewed his "attack without considering casualties" decree for 27 December. 29th Division managed to enter Upper Sarikamish Village (in Turkish sources, Çerkezköy (Circassianvillage)) at midday. Colonel Bukretov counterattacked to village and encircled Turkish soldiers in village. Meanwhile, Hafız Hakkı Bey sent

5304-404: The army wrote later, the Ottoman 3rd army had "suffered a disaster which for rapidity and completeness is without parallel in military history." Sarıkamış has a humid continental climate ( Köppen : Dfb ), with cool summers and very cold winters. Battle of Sarikamish [REDACTED] Russian Empire Russian Caucasus Army The Battle of Sarikamish was an engagement between

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5408-432: The army, by using the Sarikamish-Kars railway. 5 Turkestan battalions appointed by Yudenich attacked towards Bardız and defeated the 82nd Regiment of the 28th Division, which was defending the Çakırtepe hills, with a bayonet charge. Observing this, the 32nd Division Commander Lieutenant Colonel Abdülkerim Bey gave up the idea of moving to Sarikamish and went to battle against Turkestan battalions. On evening of December 26,

5512-418: The army. It is said that there is no information from the X Corps. If your aim can be realized with the strength of a division tomorrow, the 29th Division is ready for action and command.“ Bronsart Pasha and Major Feldman also stated that they agreed with İhsan Pasha's opinion. After 3 days of marching, the IX Corps needed rest. Communication between the 9th and 10th Corps was cut after the X Corps deviated from

5616-482: The battle about casualties, he received different answers from each officer, although the maximum amount of loss was said to be 250. In next days, 250 Russian soldiers, 4 guns, and 4 machine guns got captured by the X Corps. By midday, Istomin had evacuated Oltu. Hafız Hakkı allowed soldiers to pillage the town in order to raise their morale. The Turks lost provisions that could feed Turks army for days due to this pillage. Following this, Hafız turned X Corps' direction to

5720-399: The battles of Sarikamish. The Turks, on the other hand, had put forward all their troops (90,000 soldiers, 218 guns) in order to get a decided result in the battle. Another advantage of the Russians was that all of the Russian soldiers were equipped with winter clothes, and their medical organization was much better than the Turks. From the beginning of the war, 500 soldiers died in hospitals on

5824-1420: The beginning of the war consisted of 100 infantry battalions (100 thousand infantry), 117 cavalry companies (15 thousand cavalry) and 256 cannons: (a) Erzurum - Kars : 39th Infantry Division (16 battalions, 48 guns) and one brigade of 20th Infantry Division (24 battalions, each battalion has 1250-1300 soldiers), 1 Caucasian Cossack Division, 6 of 5 battalions 1st Plastun Brigade (each battalion has 600-800 soldiers), total: 29 battalions, 30 sotni and 96 guns, 2nd Turkestan Corps (21 battalions, 42 guns, each battalion has 600-800 soldiers like Plaston Brigades, it reached Battlefield on 16 November). (b) Erzurum - Oltu : one brigade of 20th Infantry Division, one Cossack (cavalry) regiment (6 sotni), total: 8 battalions, 6 sotni, 24 guns (Erzurum-Kars aka Sarikamish detachment borrowed 6 guns from Oltu detachment considering each Russian battalions 3 guns, Cossack divisions had 12 horsed guns, Plastuns (infantry Cossacks) had no guns. Both group under General Bergman in command of I Caucasian Army Corps.). (c) Erevan - Bayazit : one brigade of 66th Division (8 battalions), 2nd Kuban Plastun Brigade (6 battalions), 2nd Caucasian Cossack Division, Transcaspian Cossack Brigade, total: 14 battalions, 36 sotni, 52 guns. (d) Batum region: 264th Infantry Regiment (of 66th Division), 1 of 6 1st Kuban Plastun Brigade (6 battalions), total: 5 battalions with 8 guns-to which were added one and

5928-466: The best way for the Russians to withdraw is the Sarikamish-Kars railway. General Myshlayevski and Bergmann panicked at the encirclement maneuver of the Turks and had already admitted defeat. Since the Karakurt-Kağızman road was not suitable for the passage of wheeled vehicles, it was not possible to withdraw from this road. That's why General Myshlayevski thought to save the army, or at least a part of

6032-665: The city in late December 1914-January 1915 as part of the Caucasus Campaign of World War I . Enver Pasha , the leader of the Ittihat ve Terakki party in Istanbul, personally led the army along with Hafiz Hakki Pasha , who was his brother in-law, to scale the Mount Allahu Ekber and afterwards attack the Russian army in Sarikamish. Enver Pasha intended to occupy the town in order to halt logistic support to

6136-468: The city of Kars , which the Turks lost to the Russians in 1878, and which he was planning to reoccupy. In mid December, Enver Pasha entered the Caucasus region through Armenia. Enver ordered his forces to attack along many routes with the goal of arriving suddenly at Sarikamis at the same time. The chief German military advisor, Liman von Sanders strongly argued against this plan but was ignored. Governor General Vorontsov planned to withdraw his forces to

6240-406: The city of Kars. But General Yudenich , in charge of the defense of the area, ignored Vorontsov's wishes to withdraw and instead stayed to defend Sarikamis. Enver's forces lost touch with one another and arrived at Sarakamis at different times from December 29 through 3 January. The first divisions to arrive briefly took control of the barracks in the western part of the city but were driven off. In

6344-459: The classification symbol defines seasonal rainfall as follows: while the third letter denotes the extent of summer heat: Within North America, moisture within this climate regime is supplied by the Great Lakes , Gulf of Mexico and adjacent western subtropical Atlantic . Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate ( f ), while others may see

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6448-1055: The command of Hasan Izzet . On 30 October 1914, the 3rd Army headquarters was informed by High Command in Constantinople about the Ottoman navy's bombardment of the Russian ports of Novorossiysk, Odessa and Sevastopol in the Black Sea . High Command expected the Russian Army to cross the Ottoman border at any time. The Bergmann Offensive (November 2, 1914 – November 16, 1914) ended with the defeat of Russian troops under Bergmann. Turks reinforced their Caucasian 3rd Army (50,000 soldiers) with 10th Corps (40,000 fresh troops) after partial victory in Bergmann Offensive, and they correctly estimated that Russian Caucasian Army did not get any reinforcement other than Plastun brigades (11 Battalions) and 2nd Turkestan Corps (21 infantry battalions: 700 soldiers per battalion. 12 Cavalry Squadron: 130 cavalry per battalion. ). Before devising

6552-430: The commander of the division and officers overcame frostbite by covering themselves in oilcloth together. The situation of soldiers was naturally more difficult. As for the X Corps, Hafız Hakkı pursued Istomin's brigade for two days, the 24–25 December. Istomin gradually retreated, engaging in a successful distraction battle. Istomin retreated to Merdenek (now Göle ) village. Eventually, the 30th and 31st Divisions reached

6656-604: The company, as a result of which the 3rd army was so defeated that it was forced to stop fighting for a while. Russia viewed the Caucasus Front as secondary to the Eastern Front , which enjoyed the major share of Russian resources. Russia had taken the fortress of Kars from the Turks during the Russo-Turkish War in 1877 , when it was incorporated into the militarily administered Kars Oblast . After

6760-425: The continents either do not penetrate low enough in latitude or taper too much to have any place that gets the combination of snowy winters and hot summers. Marine influences are very strong around 40°S and such preclude Dfa , Dwa , and Dsa climates from existing in the southern hemisphere. Also known as hemiboreal climate , areas featuring this subtype of the continental climate have an average temperature in

6864-438: The following days, as more Ottoman forces arrived at the battle, they attacked without coordination and the Russians under the skillful command of Yudenich fought off the attacks one by one. The battle finally ended on January 4 and the Ottoman army retreated in complete disorganization back through the mountains in the middle of winter. The number of Turkish losses is estimated to be 60,000-80,000 dead out of an army of 90,000. It

6968-651: The freezing mark (too cold for such a classification). More extreme and inland humid continental climates, sometimes known as "hyper-continental" climates, are found in northeast China , southern Siberia , Mongolia , Kazakhstan , most of the southern interior of Canada , and the Upper Midwest , where temperatures in the winter resemble those of adjacent subarctic climates (with long, drier, generally very cold winters) but have longer and generally warmer summers (in occasional cases, hot summers). A more moderate variety, found in places like Honshu , east-central China,

7072-538: The front, also was in same situation. The Russians sent the 2nd and 3rd Caucasian and 1st Turkestan Corps to the Western front to reinforce this front. Therefore, the Russian Caucasian Army consisted of the 1st Caucasian Corps (32 battalions), 2nd Turkestan Corps (21 battalions), 3 Plastun brigades (18 battalions), the 66th Division (16 battalions) and some independent detachments. The Russian force at

7176-526: The high 20s to low 30s °C (80s °F), while average January afternoon temperatures are near or well below freezing. Frost-free periods typically last 4 to 7 months in this climate regime. Within North America , this climate includes portions of the central and eastern United States from east of 100°W to south of about the 44°N to the Atlantic . Precipitation increases further eastward in this zone and

7280-439: The humid continental climate covers a much larger area than the hot subtype. In North America, the climate zone covers from about 42°N to 50°N latitude mostly east of 100°W , including parts of Southern Ontario , the southern half of Quebec , The Maritimes , and Newfoundland , as well as the northern United States from eastern North Dakota east to Maine . However, it can be found as far north as 54°N , and further west in

7384-451: The initial plan by entering Oltu-Ardahan road in pursuit of Istomin's unit. Therefore, the commanders under Enver Pasha suggested waiting in Bardız until the X Corps reached their map objective. Enver Pasha, on the other hand, thought that if Sarikamish, where the railway passed, was captured, the Russians would have no way to retreat and would surrender themselves. On the morning of 25 December,

7488-582: The larger ocean area at that latitude, smaller land mass, and the consequent greater maritime moderation. In the Northern Hemisphere, some of the humid continental climates, typically in around Hokkaido , Sakhalin Island , northeastern mainland Europe , Scandinavia , Nova Scotia , and Newfoundland are closer to the sea and heavily maritime-influenced and comparable to oceanic climates , with relatively cool summers, significant year-round precipitation (including high amounts of snow) and winters being just below

7592-458: The left flank, X (40,000 soldiers) under Colonel Hafız Hakkı and IX Corps (28,000 soldiers) under brigadier Ali İhsan Pasha would reach Kötek (30 kilometers southwest of Sarikamish), 15 kilometers northeast of main Russian Army numbered 50,000, and drive the Russians to the Aras Valley, where the Russian forces would be destroyed by all three Corps attacking in concert. Hasan İzzet Pasha

7696-422: The location in question must not be semi-arid or arid . The cooler Dfb , Dwb , and Dsb subtypes are also known as hemiboreal climates. Although amount of snowfall is not a factor used in defining the humid continental climate, snow during the winter in this type of climate is almost a guarantee, either intermittently throughout the winter months near the poleward or coastal margins, or persistently throughout

7800-658: The long expedition will turn against us. Let's not give a pitched battle and be content with expelling the enemy in Id (Narman). For the future, hope is left for attack and invasion... In sources, Enver Pasha's answer isn't found. Then, Hasan İzzet Pasha telegraphed Enver Pasha again on the evening of 18 December. I ask for forgiveness from my duty as I do not see the strength and confidence in myself to carry out these movements, and I am actually disturbed by an extraordinary nervousness". Enver Pasha returned Köprüköy in order to persuade Hasan İzzet Pasha. He temporarily took command of

7904-421: The main front was unnecessary. He believed that they should stay defensive and reinforce Sarikamish. General Myshlayevsky incorporated both Bergmann and Yudenich's proposals into his order of the day, which was attacking Oltu town for the purpose of retaking it and covering roads to Sarikamish for a possible Turkish attack at the same time. At 11.30 am, Myshlayevsky learned that Bardız village was already occupied by

8008-408: The main front, the 39th Division should continue a successful offensive. General Yudenich opposed Bergmann's idea. He said that an attack on Istomin's detachment was a signal of the Turks' outflanking maneuver. He claimed that since Turks were encircling their right flank, they should occupy Bardız Village in order to cover the road to Sarikamish where the Russian railway passed, and that an offensive on

8112-408: The morning of 26 December IX Corps had a force of only the size of an infantry regiment, or 3,000 soldiers. Only 29th Division (nine battalions) and four battalions of 17th Division (nine battalions) from the 9th Corps (27 battalions) were able to catch up with 26 December attack. Battalions of 17th Division was 300 soldiers (4 battalion: 1200 soldiers on 26 December), hence it appears that 29th Division

8216-467: The northern areas) and snowy winters. Precipitation is usually distributed throughout the year, but often these regions do have dry seasons. The definition of this climate in terms of temperature is as follows: the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below 0 °C (32.0 °F) or −3 °C (26.6 °F) depending on the isotherm, and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 °C (50 °F). In addition,

8320-574: The northern slopes of the Allahuekber Mountains . Hafız Hakkı left a regiment to fight against Istomin's detachment and entered the Allahekber Mountains to cut the Sarıkamış - Kars railway line. The Allahu Ekber track was a rugged and snowcapped path, where soldiers were not able to get off from Allahu Ekber in fewer than 19 hours. In 26 December 02.00 a.m., the 30th and 31st Divisions entered Allahu Ekber Mountain. Two divisions got caught by

8424-428: The number of Sarikamish detachment increased from a scratch 2.000 soldiers to 3.500-4.000 soldiers (1.5000 seasoned soldiers, 1.000 railwaymen, 1.000 militia with some hundreds of volunteers from the rear services). On 26 December, Muratoff claimed that the IX Corps had 10,000 soldiers, but Şerif İlden , chief of staff of 9th Turkish Corps says that after the Turkish army dispersed in the night attack on 25 December, on

8528-442: The number of the Turkish army was less than the Russian troops defending Sarikamish and was very tired after days of marching. On night of 26 December, General Voropanof, commander of the Sarikamish garrison, demanded from General Myshlayevski that the warehouses be destroyed and Sarikamish be abandoned, due to large number of casualties in the garrison. General Myshlayevski stated that Sarikamish should definitely not be left because

8632-450: The orders of Enver Pasha, entered the forest to encircle the Russian troops defending Bardız Pass. Hundreds of soldiers froze to death in the forest filled with ditches and cliffs, reducing the 29th Division's number by 50 percent. Turks took Bardız Pass from 1000 railwaymen at 12:00 p.m.. Only one battalion could pursue the escaping Russian troops due to exhaustion. It could not be successful in its attacks on Sarikamish alone. That night,

8736-429: The other hut surrendered. While the Russians give the number of surrendered soldiers as 300, the Turkish side says this number as 20. Since the number of prisoners taken from the Turks until January 2 was 3,000, it appears that the Russian sources exaggerated the number of prisoners they took. The Russians, who claimed to take 300-400 soldiers every day from the XI Corps alone, should have taken more than 3000 prisoners from

8840-492: The patrolling front guards. The 29th Division captured Bardız from its front guards on night of December 24. As the Russians did not have time to destroy the supplies, there were supplies in Bardız that could feed the corps for days. Enver Pasha set up guards in the supply depots to prevent looting of the village, thus the mistake in Oltu didn't happen. However, on the same day, 40% of the 17th Division's troops became stragglers due to

8944-523: The port of Batum. As a longer-term goal, head of the Ottoman war ministry İsmail Enver hoped a success would facilitate opening the route to Tbilisi and beyond, which in turn would trigger a revolt of Caucasian Muslims . Another Turkish strategic goal was to cut Russian access to its hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea . The headquarters of the Ottoman 3rd Army was in Erzurum , under

9048-537: The remnants thereof). Though humidity levels are often high in locations with humid continental climates, the "humid" designation means that the climate is not dry enough to be classified as semi-arid or arid . By definition, forests thrive within this climate. Biomes within this climate regime include temperate woodlands, temperate grasslands, temperate deciduous or evergreen forests, coniferous forests, and coniferous swamps. Within wetter areas, maple , spruce , pine , fir , and oak can be found. Fall foliage

9152-585: The steppe ( BSk ) climates. In the eastern and Midwestern United States, Pennsylvania , Ohio , Illinois , Indiana , southern New York , most of Connecticut and Rhode Island , and eastern Massachusetts fall into the hot-summer humid continental climate. In Canada, this climate type exists only over portions of Southern Ontario . In the Eastern Hemisphere, this climate regime is found within interior Eurasia and east-central Asia. Within Europe,

9256-488: The strong Siberian High much colder winter temperatures than similar latitudes around the world, however with lower snowfall, the exception being western Japan with its heavy snowfall. Tōhoku , between Tokyo and Hokkaidō and Western coast of Japan also has a climate with Köppen classification Dfa , but is wetter even than that part of North America with this climate type. A variant which has dry winters and hence relatively lower snowfall with monsoonal type summer rainfall

9360-526: The village prisoner due to strong resistance of Turks and fires of other Turkish troops from hills to the north of the Upper Sarikamish for three days. Fire of mortars drove back Turkish troops in hills to north of the Upper Sarikamish. Russians placed the demolition mold they brought from Castle of Kars on the roof of the nearest hut and blew up this hut. All of the Turkish soldiers in the hut were killed. The Turkish soldiers who saw this explosion in

9464-435: The warmest month below 22 °C (72 °F). Summer high temperatures in this zone typically average between 21–28 °C (70–82 °F) during the daytime and the average temperatures in the coldest month are generally well or far below the −3 °C (27 °F) (or 0 °C (32.0 °F)) isotherm. Frost-free periods typically last 3–5 months. Heat spells lasting over a week are rare. The warm summer version of

9568-430: The winter months elsewhere in the climate zone. Humid continental climates are generally found between latitudes 40° N and 60° N , within the central and northeastern portions of North America , Europe , and Asia . Occasionally, they can also be found at higher elevations above other more temperate climate types. They are rare in the Southern Hemisphere , limited to isolated high altitude locations, due to

9672-455: The −3 °C (27 °F) average temperature isotherm (line of equal temperature) was near the southern extent of winter snowpack . In the United States, it is more common to use the 0 °C [32.0 °F] isotherm instead. The 10 °C (50 °F) average temperature was found to be roughly the minimum temperature necessary for tree reproduction and growth. Wide temperature ranges are common within this climate zone. Second letter in

9776-469: Was 1,800 in total (200 soldiers per battalions). According to Ziya Yergök, battalions of 28th Division was 300 soldiers except 82th regiment. These memoirs concurred with Ali İhsan Pasha's (IX Corps commander at that time) interview with the Russian newspaper after his captivity where he stated that he had a total of 6,000 soldiers. Initial strength of IX corps was 28,000 soldiers. 22,000 casualties are made up of fugitives, frosbite and disease. Turks went on

9880-427: Was also around 2000. Therefore, commander of IX Corps, Ali İhsan Pasha, wrote to Enver Pasha in his report that we should abandon offensive and IX Corps could reach 10,000 after 10 days of recovery. Two days later, Hafız Hakkı Pasha also informed Enver Pasha that X Corps could reach 10,000 soldiers by gathering fugitives. While a withdrawal order was expected on 31 December, Enver Pasha's general attack order for X Corps

9984-404: Was appointed as the commander of all forces (it was named as Sarikamish Group since outbreak of war)., It took 29 December for the 30th and 31st Divisions to gather and reach Sarikamish from Başköy-Beyköy. Plan to capture Russian troops, who were thought to have come from Kars, lost one day to the 30th Division. After Russians put an end to their offensive against the XI Corps on 24 December,

10088-500: Was executed at a plateau averaging 1,500–2,000 meters (4,900–6,600 ft) above sea level. The main difficulty with the region was the roads, with the transportation infrastructure on the Ottoman side far from adequate. Russia's main advantage was the Kars Gyumri Akhalkalaki railway line and a terminal at Sarikamish. The railway was 24 kilometres (15 mi) from the border. The only way for an army to get through

10192-458: Was firstly in favor of outflanking maneuver and offensive due to high trust to Enver Paşa and Hasan İzzet Pasha gave the final shape of the outflanking plan. On 17 December, Enver Pasha returned Erzurum after inspecting the army and seeing Hasan İzzet Pasha accepted his plan. In the presence of other officers, Enver Pasha said to Hasan İzzet Pasha "I am going to Erzurum . Either I will go back to Istanbul from there, or I will look at your actions as

10296-460: Was inadequate rear services, logistic and sanitary measures. The war minister, Ismail Enver, devised an operation plan while he was at the Department of War in Istanbul. His strategy was based on German principles copied from Napoleon. Enver's plan involved a single envelopment using three Corps. On the right flank , XI Corps would fix the Russians in place and conduct feint attacks . In

10400-403: Was met with astonishment. Although X Corps was able to penetrate the enemy's first lines in this attack, the last attack towards Sarıkamish, which was withdrawn due to heavy machine gun fire and counter-attacks from the rear lines, also ended in failure. On January 1, IX Corps, which consisted of 900 soldiers, most of whom were wounded and with their hands and feet frozen, was reduced by half due to

10504-611: Was reinforced by Armenian and Georgian volunteers and newly formed 3rd Caucasian Rifle Brigade (8 battalions), numbered around 130 thousand soldiers. In the Bergmann Offensive , the Russian army suffered 7,000 casualties. The Russian Army, which was fighting against the Turk 3rd Army, consisted of 30 battalions of the 1st Caucasus Corps, the 2nd Turkestan Corps (21 battalions) and 11 Plaston battalions totaling 58,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. In addition, there were 4 battalions of

10608-418: Was renowned for the extreme ethnic diversity of its population. Lower Sarikamish developed into a small, modern town. Being close to the Ottoman border, it was also a military station with barracks for two regiments. It had a railway station that was the railhead for the line running from Kars and Alexandropol . An important battle took place between the armies of the Ottoman and Russian empires in and around

10712-556: Was then taken by Selim I in 1514 and became a liva of Kars sancak of the Ottoman Empire . In the 19th century, the region around Sarikamish became a conflict zone between the Ottoman and Russian empires. Battles took place at nearby Zivin in 1829, 1855 and 1877. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Sarikamish became part of the Russian empire, incorporated within the militarily administered Kars Oblast , which

10816-531: Was unaware that the number of Turkish troops hastily sent to Sarikamish by forced marches had been reduced by 80%. As a result of Yudenich's insistence, he remained as commander of the Caucasian army until 28 December but news of the fall of Ardahan and cutting of the Sarikamish-Kars railway shook General Myshlayevsky deeply, and thought that he would be captured together with the army. On morning of 28 December, he left Mecingirt riding horses and set off first to Kağızman, then from Gyumri to Tbilisi., He did not appoint

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