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76-397: A ship is scuttled when its crew deliberately sinks it, typically by opening holes in its hull. Scuttling may be performed to dispose of an abandoned, old, or captured vessel; to prevent the vessel from becoming a navigation hazard; as an act of self-destruction to prevent the ship from being captured by an enemy force; as a blockship to restrict navigation through a channel or within

152-581: A Soviet inspection team from examining surrendered Imperial Japanese Navy submarines after World War II, the United States Navy conducted Operation Road's End , in which it scuttled 24 of the submarines in the East China Sea off Fukue Island on 1 April 1946. Nine more Japanese submarines followed on 5 April, and another six went down by early May. In addition, U.S. Navy submarines sank four surrendered Japanese submarines as targets in

228-459: A harbor ; to provide an artificial reef for divers and marine life; or to alter the flow of rivers. The Skuldelev ships , five Viking ships , were sunk to prevent attacks from the sea on the Danish city of Roskilde . The scuttling blocked a major waterway, redirecting ships to a smaller one that required considerable local knowledge. In 2012, a cog preserved from the keel up to the decks in

304-401: A high mortality rate , on average 15% and up to a third of captives. Often, the ships carried hundreds of slaves, who were chained tightly to plank beds. For example, the slave ship Henrietta Marie carried about 200 slaves on the long Middle Passage . They were confined to cargo holds, with each slave chained with little room to move. The most significant routes of the slave ships led from

380-733: A national hero in the Netherlands. During the Crimean War , in anticipation of the siege of Sevastopol , the Russians scuttled ships of the Black Sea Fleet to protect the harbour, to use their naval cannon as additional artillery, and to free up the ships' crews as marines. Those ships that were deliberately sunk included Grand Duke Constantine , City of Paris (both with 120 guns ), Brave , Empress Maria , and Chesme. The Clotilda (slave ship) (often misspelled Clotilde)

456-569: A protective reef for the Mulberry harbours at Arromanches and Omaha Beach for the Normandy landings . The sheltered waters created by these scuttled ships were called "Gooseberries" and protected the harbours so transport ships could unload without being hampered by waves. Of the 156 German submarines (" U-boats ") surrendered to the Allies at the end of World War II , 116 were scuttled by

532-458: A salvage crew and a small collection of specialized tools and began methodically correcting the damage. His salvage efforts yielded significant results in just 5½ weeks. American divers sealed the hulls underwater, and air was pumped in to float the hulls. The divers defused a booby trap in Brenta , which contained an armed naval mine sitting on three torpedo warheads in the hold . Another danger

608-438: A separate self-destruct since they were intended to detonate in the air after a set time. A form of self-destruct system can also be observed in deep-sea oil drilling. In the event of an oil well becoming disconnected from its oil rig, a dead man's switch may trigger activation of a blowout preventer blind shear ram, which cuts the drill pipe and permanently seals the well to prevent an oil leak. The oil spill that followed

684-399: Is considered a different mechanism from self-destruction. Another form of a self-destruct system can be seen in the naval procedure of scuttling , which is used to destroy a ship or ships to prevent them from being seized and/or reverse engineered . Generally the scuttling of a ship uses strategically-placed explosive charges by a demolition crew and/or the deliberate cutting open of

760-451: Is important for the data to be destroyed to prevent compromise. Similarly, some online social media platforms are equipped with a Stories feature, where posted content is automatically erased after a predetermined time, commonly 24 hours. This concept has been popularized by Snapchat and later adapted by Instagram and YouTube . Some artworks may have mechanisms in them to destruct themselves in front of many eyes watching. An example

836-458: Is said to have been coined on Mission: Impossible . Self-destruct mechanisms are frequent plot devices in science fiction stories, such as those in the Star Trek or Alien fictional universes. They are generally found on military installations and starships too valuable to allow an enemy to capture. In many such stories, these mechanisms not only obliterate the object protected by

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912-451: Is the painting Love is in the Bin by Banksy , which shredded itself right after a £1 million auction at Sotheby's London on 5 October 2018. In the 1960s television series The Man from U.N.C.L.E. and Mission: Impossible , sensitive intelligence or equipment is shown to self-destruct in order to prevent it from falling into enemy hands. Notably, the usage of "self-destruct" as a verb

988-512: The Deepwater Horizon explosion is an example where the self-destruct system failed to operate correctly (due to the pipe buckling and moving outside of the blind shear ram's reach). Self-destruct mechanisms are sometimes employed to prevent an apparatus or information from being used by unauthorized persons in the event of loss or capture. For example, they may be found in high-security data storage devices (e.g. IronKey ), where it

1064-589: The Battle of the Falkland Islands . She eluded her British pursuers for several more months, until she put into Más a Tierra in March 1915. Her engines were worn out and she had almost no coal left for her boilers. There, she was trapped by British cruisers, which violated Chilean neutrality and opened fire on the ship. Dresden ' s Executive Officer – the future Admiral Wilhelm Canaris – negotiated with

1140-658: The British and Commonwealth cruisers HMS  Ajax , HMS  Cumberland , and HMNZS  Achilles waiting in international waters outside the mouth of the Río de la Plata , Captain Hans Langsdorff sailed Graf Spee just outside the harbour and scuttled the vessel to avoid risking the lives of his crew in what he expected would be a losing battle. Langsdorff shot himself three days later. When British and Commonwealth land forces attacked Tobruk on 21 January 1941,

1216-802: The Guinea coast in West Africa. In the early 1600s, more than a century after the arrival of Europeans to the Americas , demand for unpaid labor to work plantations made slave-trading a profitable business. The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the last two decades of the 18th century, during and following the Kongo Civil War . To ensure profitability , the owners of the ships divided their hulls into holds with little headroom, so they could transport as many slaves as possible. Unhygienic conditions, dehydration , dysentery , and scurvy led to

1292-734: The Ministry of the Environment and the Federal Public Ministry . The term "scuttling" is also used in science fiction to describe intentionally destroying a spacecraft . For example, in The Expanse , this is done by intentionally overloading the ship's fusion reactor . In the 13th episode of Bob’s Burgers 12th season , Teddy and the family attend a scuttling ceremony for the USS Gertrude Stein ,

1368-834: The Pacific Ocean near Hawaii in May and June 1946, and the Royal Australian Navy sank six or seven (sources differ) surrendered Japanese submarines in the Seto Inland Sea on 8 May 1946 in Operation Bottom . Today, ships (and other objects of similar size) are sometimes sunk to help form artificial reefs , as was done with the former USS  Oriskany in 2006. It is also common for military organizations to use old ships as targets , in war games , or for various other experiments. As an example,

1444-623: The Royal Navy in Operation Deadlight . Plans called for them to be scuttled in three areas in the North Atlantic Ocean west of Ireland , but 56 of the submarines sank before reaching the designated areas due to their poor material condition. Most of the submarines were sunk by gunfire rather than with explosive charges. The first sinking took place on 17 November 1945 and the last on 11 February 1946. To prevent

1520-625: The Spanish–American War , a volunteer crew of United States Navy personnel attempted to scuttle the collier USS  Merrimac in the entrance to the harbor at Santiago de Cuba in Cuba on the night of 2–3 June 1898 in an attempt to trap the Spanish Navy squadron of Vice Admiral Manuel de la Cámara y Libermoore in port there. The attempt failed when she came under fire by Spanish ships and fortifications and sank without blocking

1596-592: The Thetis to scuttle prematurely; the other two cruisers sank themselves successfully in the narrowest part of the canal. Within three days, however, the Germans had broken through the western bank of the canal to create a shallow detour for their submarines to move past the blockships at high tide. In 1919, over 50 warships of the German High Seas Fleet were scuttled by their crews at Scapa Flow in

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1672-496: The United States Army scuttled SS Corporal Eric G. Gibson and SS Mormactern with VX nerve gas rockets aboard as part of Operation CHASE — "CHASE" being Pentagon shorthand for "Cut Holes and Sink 'Em." Other ships have been "chased" containing mustard agents , bombs , land mines , and radioactive waste . In Somalian waters, pirate ships captured are scuttled. Most nations have little interest in prosecuting

1748-689: The capital ships proving impossible to repair. Legally, the scuttling of the fleet was allowed under the terms of the 1940 Armistice with Germany . Anticipating a German seizure of all units of the Danish Navy as part of Operation Safari , mostly in Copenhagen but also at other harbours and at sea in Danish waters, the Danish Admiralty had instructed its captains to resist, short of outright fighting, any German attempts to assume control over their vessels, by scuttling if escape to Sweden

1824-678: The Allied landing in North Africa. On 27 November they reached Toulon , where the majority of the French Navy was anchored. To avoid capture by the Nazis (Operation Lila), the French admirals-in-command ( Laborde and Marquis ) decided to scuttle the 230,000 tonne fleet , most notably, the battleships Dunkerque and Strasbourg . Eighty percent of the fleet was utterly destroyed, all of

1900-709: The Allies advanced toward Eritrea during their East African Campaign in World War II , Mario Bonetti —the Italian commander of the Red Sea Flotilla based at Massawa —realized that the British would overrun his harbor. In the first week of April 1941, he began to destroy the harbor's facilities and ruin its usefulness to the Allies. Bonetti ordered the sinking of two large floating dry docks and supervised

1976-543: The British and bought time for his crew to scuttle the Dresden . The Zeebrugge Raid involved three outdated British cruisers chosen to serve as blockships in the German-held Belgian port of Bruges-Zeebrugge from which German U-boat operations threatened British shipping. Thetis , Intrepid and Iphigenia were filled with concrete then sent to block a critical canal. Heavy defensive fire caused

2052-464: The British, as he and his men marched, inland, in the unsuccessful defense of Washington D.C. During the Belgian war of independence , Dutch gunboat commander Jan van Speijk came under attack from a mob of Antwerp labourers. When they forced him and his crew to surrender, he ignited a barrel of gunpowder, thereby sinking his ship and killing himself and most of the crew. Van Speijk went on to become

2128-588: The English scuttled the vessel on 11 September 1696. HMS Endeavour was Captain James Cook 's ship upon which he travelled to Australia . After being sold into private hands, she was finally scuttled in a blockade of Narragansett Bay , Rhode Island in 1778. The British sank one ship on 10 October 1781 to prevent it from being captured by the French fleet. Furthermore, the York River, while protected by

2204-613: The French Navy, also contained a few scuttled ships, which were meant to serve as a blockade should any British ships enter the river. HMS Bounty , after her crew mutinied, was scuttled by the mutineers in Bounty Bay off Pitcairn Island on 23 January 1790. During the War of 1812 , Commodore Joshua Barney , of the U.S. Navy, Chesapeake Bay Flotilla , sank all nineteen of his fighting vessels, to prevent them from being captured by

2280-479: The Italian cruiser San Giorgio turned its guns against the attacking force, repelling an attack by tanks. As British forces were entering Tobruk, San Giorgio was scuttled at 4:15 AM on 22 January. San Giorgio was awarded the Gold Medal of Military Valor for her actions in the defence of Tobruk. The ship was salvaged in 1952, but while being towed to Italy, her tow rope failed and she sank in heavy seas. As

2356-484: The Italian steamers Adua , Brenta , Arabia , Romolo Gessi , Vesuvio , XXIII Marzo , Antonia C. , Riva Ligure , Clelia Campenella , Prometeo and the Italian tanker Giove . The largest scuttled vessel was the 11,760-ton Colombo , an Italian steamer. Thirteen coastal steamers and small naval vessels were also scuttled. The British seized the harbor and initiated marine salvage operations under Commander Joseph Stenhouse to restore navigation in and out. Stenhouse

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2432-512: The Netherlands also agreed to abolish their slave trade. The trade did not end on legal abolition; between 1807 and 1860 British vessels captured 1,600 slave ships and freed 160,000 slaves. After abolition, slave ships adopted quicker, more maneuverable forms to evade capture by naval warships, one favorite form being the Baltimore Clipper . Some had hulls fitted with copper sheathing , which significantly increased speed by preventing

2508-548: The U.S Navy monitor USS  Monitor in the Battle of Hampton Roads in March 1862, the Confederates scuttled Virginia to keep her from being captured by Union forces. In December 1861 and January 1862, Union forces scuttled a number of former whalers and other merchant ships in an attempt to block access to Confederate ports during the American Civil War . Loaded with stone before being scuttled,

2584-418: The abolition of slavery. For the first time, limits were placed on the number of slaves that could be carried. Under the terms of the act, ships could transport 1.67 slaves per ton up to a maximum of 207 tons burthen, after which only one slave per ton could be carried. The well-known slave ship Brookes was limited to carrying 454 people; it had previously transported as many as 609 enslaved. Olaudah Equiano

2660-476: The area very popular amongst undersea diving enthusiasts. Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, the great naval powers were required to limit the size of their battlefleets, resulting in the disposal of some older or incomplete capital ships . During 1924 and 1925, the treaty resulted in the scuttling of the Royal Australian Navy battlecruiser HMAS  Australia and

2736-420: The battery dies, the land mine self-destructs. The self-destruct system never failed in over 67,000 tested landmines in a variety of conditions. Not all self-destruct mechanisms are absolutely reliable, and most landmines that have been laid throughout history are not equipped to self-destruct. Landmines can also be designed to self-deactivate, for instance by a battery running out of a charge, but deactivation

2812-416: The burning tracer material can trigger a self-destruct fuse at the end. Other self-destruct types are mechanical where a spring is held back by the centrifugal force of the rotating projectile; as the drag slows down the rotation the force is eventually no longer able to prevent the spring from triggering the self-destruct fuse. Heavy anti-aircraft cannons typically fired time fused shells which did not need

2888-596: The calculated scuttling of eighteen large commercial ships in the mouths of the north Naval Harbor, the central Commercial Harbor and the main South Harbor. This blocked navigation in and out. He also had a large floating crane scuttled. These actions rendered the harbor useless by 8 April 1941, when Bonetti surrendered it to the British. Scuttled ships included the German steamers Liebenfels , Frauenfels , Lichtenfels , Crefeld , Gera and Oliva . Also scuttled were

2964-601: The conflict's end. The Amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW), amended in 1996, requires that anti-personnel land mines deactivate and self-destruct, and sets standards for both. Landmines currently used by the United States military are designed to self-destruct after between 4 hours and 15 days depending upon the type. The landmines have a battery and when

3040-471: The crew were far better than those of the slaves, they remained harsh and contributed to a high death rate. Sailors often had to live and sleep without shelter on the open deck for the entirety of the Atlantic voyage, as the space below deck was occupied by slaves. Disease, specifically malaria and yellow fever, was the most common cause of death among sailors. A high crew mortality rate on the return voyage

3116-507: The deaths of slaves on board slave ships. Firsthand accounts from former slaves, such as Olaudah Equiano , describe the horrific conditions that slaves were forced to endure. The Slave Trade Act 1788 , also known as Dolben's Act, regulated conditions on board British slave ships for the first time since the slave trade started. It was introduced to the United Kingdom Parliament by Sir William Dolben , an advocate for

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3192-483: The decommissioned aircraft carrier USS  America was subjected to surface and underwater explosions in 2005 as part of classified research to help design the next generation of carriers (the Gerald R. Ford class ), before being sunk with demolition charges. Ships are increasingly being scuttled as a method of disposal. The economic benefit of scuttling a ship includes removal of ongoing operational expense to keep

3268-507: The device, but cause massive destruction in a large surrounding area. Often, the characters have a limited amount of time to escape the destruction, or to disable the mechanism, creating story tension. In some cases, an artificial intelligence will invoke self-destruct due to cognitive dissonance . Usually the method required to initiate a self-destruct sequence is lengthy and complex, as in Alien , or else requires multiple officers aboard

3344-469: The entrance in March 1904 in an attempt to defend the harbor from Japanese intrusion. During the siege of Port Arthur , the Russians scuttled the surviving ships of their Pacific Squadron that were trapped in port at Port Arthur in late 1904 and early January 1905 to prevent their capture intact by the Japanese. In December 1914, SMS  Dresden was the only German warship to escape destruction in

3420-648: The entrance. In 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War , the Imperial Japanese Navy made three attempts to block the entrance to the Imperial Russian Navy base at Port Arthur , Manchuria , China , by scuttling transports . Although the Japanese scuttled five transports on 23 February, four on 27 March, and eight on 3 May, none of the attacks succeeded in blocking the entrance. The Russians also scuttled four steamers at

3496-400: The era not anticipating the issues soon to be raised by the easy affordability of fast computer hardware for conducting brute-force attacks ). Slave ship Slave ships were large cargo ships specially built or converted from the 17th to the 19th century for transporting slaves . Such ships were also known as " Guineamen " because the trade involved human trafficking to and from

3572-547: The final torpedoing redundant. After the Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway , the heavily damaged American aircraft carrier Lexington and the Japanese carriers Hiryū , Sōryū , Akagi , and Kaga were all scuttled to prevent their preservation and use by their respective enemies. In November 1942, in an operation codenamed Case Anton , Nazi German forces occupied the so-called " Free Zone " in response to

3648-515: The floor beneath bunks with little to no room to move. Some captains assigned slave guardians to watch over and keep the other slaves in check. They spent a large portion of time pinned to floorboards, which would wear skin on their elbows down to the bone. Diseases such as dysentery , diarrhea , ophthalmoparesis , malaria , smallpox, yellow fever, scurvy, measles, typhoid fever, hookworm, tapeworm, sleeping sickness, trypanosomiasis , yaws, syphilis, leprosy, elephantiasis, and melancholia resulted in

3724-405: The growth of marine weed on the hull, which would otherwise cause drag. This was very expensive, and at the time was only commonly fitted to Royal Navy vessels. The speed of slave ships made them attractive ships to repurpose for piracy, and also made them attractive for naval use after capture; USS  Nightingale and HMS  Black Joke were examples of such vessels. HMS Black Joke had

3800-409: The hull rather than an in-built self-destruct system. Launch vehicles self-destruct when they go errant, to prevent the endangerment of nearby ground personnel, spectators, buildings and infrastructure. When a rocket flies outside of a prescribed safety zone, personnel monitoring the launch or onboard computers activate the rocket's flight termination system. This usually detonates explosives mounted on

3876-506: The incomplete Imperial Japanese Navy battleship Tosa , while four old Japanese battleships, the Royal Navy battleship HMS  Monarch , and the incomplete United States Navy battleship USS  Washington  (BB-47) all were disposed of as targets . Following the Battle of the River Plate the damaged German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee sought refuge in the port of Montevideo . On 17 December 1939, with

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3952-568: The north of Scotland , following the deliverance of the fleet as part of the terms of the German surrender. Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered the sinkings, denying the majority of the ships to the Allies . Von Reuter was made a prisoner-of-war in Britain but his act of defiance was celebrated in Germany. Though most of the fleet was subsequently salvaged by engineer Ernest Cox , a number of warships (including three battleships) remain, making

4028-681: The north-western and western coasts of Africa to South America and the south-east coast of what is today the United States, and the Caribbean . As many as 20 million Africans were transported by ship. The transportation of slaves from Africa to America was known as the Middle Passage of the triangular trade . The owners of slave ships embarked as many slaves as possible to make the voyage more profitable. They did so by cramming, chaining, and selectively grouping slaves to maximize

4104-429: The overcrowding on slave ships may have reduced the on-board death rate, but this is disputed by some historians. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, the sailors on slave ships were often poorly paid and subject to brutal discipline and treatment. Furthermore, a crew mortality rate of around 20% was expected during a voyage, with sailors dying as a result of disease, flogging, or slave uprisings. While conditions for

4180-604: The pirates, thus this is usually the only repercussion. In March 2022, Ukraine scuttled the Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny , a Krivak-class frigate, due to encroaching Russian offensive operations that threatened to capture the frigate. In February 2023, the Brazilian Navy scuttled the decommissioned aircraft carrier São Paulo into the Atlantic Ocean , following the rejections of injunctions from

4256-781: The practice continued illegally, especially through slave traders based in New York in the 1850s and early 1860. In the case of the Clotilda, the voyage's sponsors were based in the South and planned to buy Africans in Kingdom of Whydah , Dahomey . After the voyage, the ship was burned and scuttled in Mobile Bay in an attempt to destroy the evidence. In April 1861, the United States Navy steam frigate USS  Merrimack

4332-432: The rocket, which sever its propellant tanks or solid fuel casing, leading to a controlled breakup of the vehicle. Since anti-aircraft weapons are used in the home front or in the rear of friendly forces anti-aircraft cannon shells are often equipped with self-destruct mechanisms to prevent missed shots from falling down and causing damage to friendly targets. Different self-destruct types exists: in tracer ammunition

4408-425: The scuttled ships were known as the " Stone Fleet ." Those scuttled in December 1861 sometimes are called the "First Stone Fleet," while those sunk in January 1862 sometimes are termed the "Second Stone Fleet." During the War of the Pacific , as Chilean troops entered Lima and El Callao , the Peruvian naval officer Germán Astete ordered the whole Peruvian fleet to be scuttled to prevent capture by Chile. During

4484-469: The secretly planned return to Cuba by those loyal to Cuban Governor Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar . Their success would have halted his inland march and conquest of the Aztec Empire . HMS Sapphire was a 32-gun, fifth-rate sailing frigate of the Royal Navy in Newfoundland Colony to protect the English migratory fishery. The vessel was trapped in Bay Bulls harbour by four French naval vessels led by Jacques-François de Brouillan. To avoid its capture,

4560-437: The ship Teddy worked on during his Navy service. Self destruct Self-destruct mechanisms are typically found on devices and systems where malfunction could endanger large numbers of people. Some types of modern land mines are designed to self-destruct, or chemically render themselves inert after a period of weeks or months to reduce the likelihood of friendly casualties during the conflict or civilian casualties after

4636-494: The ship with individual passcodes to concur, while audible and/or visible countdown timers allow audiences to track the growing urgency of the characters' escape. Passwords in 1970s and 1980s movies are often clearly insecure for their purposes as self-destruct triggers, considering accounts with even low-level security—let alone the high-security measures which would come for a self-destruct mechanism—in modern times generally have far more complex password requirements (the writers of

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4712-438: The silt was discovered alongside two smaller vessels in the river IJssel in the city of Kampen , in the Netherlands . The ship, dating from the early 15th century, was suspected to have been deliberately sunk into the river to influence its current. The Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés , who led the first expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire , ordered his men to strip and scuttle his fleet to prevent

4788-503: The use of space. Slaves began to die of lack of oxygen due to these cramped conditions. Portuguese lawmakers passed the Tonnage Act of 1684 in order to slightly improve conditions. Slaves on board were underfed and brutally treated, causing many to die before even arriving at their destination; dead or dying slaves were dumped overboard. An average of one to two months was needed to complete the journey. The slaves were naked and shackled together with several different types of chains, stored on

4864-450: The vessel seaworthy. Controversy surrounds the practice. The USS Oriskany was scuttled with 700 pounds of PCBs remaining on board as a component in cable insulation, contravening the Stockholm Convention on safe disposal of persistent organic pollutants , which has zero tolerance for PCB dumping in marine environments. The planned scuttling of the Australian frigate HMAS  Adelaide at Avoca Beach, New South Wales in March 2010

4940-515: The war-weary 15th Cruiser Squadron . Many of the harbor's sunken ships were patched by Ellsberg's divers, refloated, repaired and taken into service. Ostia and Brenta were successfully salvaged, despite their armed mines. All of this occurred while the British civil contractor struggled and failed to refloat one ship. In 1941, the battleship Bismarck , heavily damaged by the Royal Navy, leaking fuel, listing , unable to steer and with no effective weapons, but still afloat and with engines running,

5016-419: Was Regia Marina minelayer Ostia , which had been sunk by the Royal Air Force with several of its mines still racked. On 8 May 1942, SS Koritza , an armed Greek steamer, had drydocked for cleaning and minor hull repairs. Massawa's first major surface fleet "customer" was HMS  Dido , which needed repairs to a heavily damaged stern in mid-August 1942, the beginning of a repair and maintenance period for

5092-442: Was among several ships Union forces set afire or scuttled at the Gosport Navy Yard (now Norfolk Naval Shipyard ) in Portsmouth , Virginia , to keep them from falling into Confederate hands at the outbreak of the American Civil War . The unsuccessful attempt at scuttling Merrimack enabled the Confederate States Navy to raise and rebuild her as the broadside ironclad CSS Virginia . Shortly after her famous engagement with

5168-435: Was among the supporters of the act, but it was opposed by some abolitionists, such as William Wilberforce , who feared it would establish the idea that the slave trade simply needed reform and regulation, rather than complete abolition. Slave counts can also be estimated by deck area rather than registered tonnage, which results in a lower number of errors and only 6% deviation from reported figures. This limited reduction in

5244-414: Was in the captain's interests, as it reduced the number of sailors who had to be paid on reaching the home port. Crew members who survived were frequently cheated out of their wages on their return. These aspects of the slave trade were widely known; the notoriety of slave ships amongst sailors meant those joining slave ship crews did so through coercion or because they could find no other employment. This

5320-420: Was not possible and suitable preparations were made. Of the fifty-two vessels in the Danish Navy on 29 August, two were in Greenland, thirty-two were scuttled, four reached Sweden and fourteen were taken undamaged by the Germans. Nine Danish sailors lost their lives and ten were wounded. Subsequently, major parts of the Naval personnel were interned for a period. Old ships code-named "Corn cobs" were sunk to form

5396-525: Was often the case for sailors who had spent time in prison. Black sailors are known to have been among the crews of British slave ships. These men came from Africa or the Caribbean, or were British-born. Dozens of individuals have been identified by researchers from surviving records. Knowledge of this is incomplete, though, as many captains did not record the ethnicity of crew members in their ship's muster roll . African men (and occasionally African women) also served as translators. The African slave trade

5472-689: Was outlawed by the United States and the United Kingdom in 1807. The 1807 Abolition of the Slave Trade Act outlawed the slave trade throughout the British Empire . The U.S. law took effect on 1 January 1808. After that date, all U.S. and British slave ships leaving Africa were seen by the law as pirate vessels subject to capture by the U.S. Navy or Royal Navy . In 1815, at the Council of Vienna , Spain, Portugal, France, and

5548-407: Was placed on hold after resident action groups aired concerns about possible impact on the area's tides and that the removal of dangerous substances from the ship was not thorough enough. Further cleanup work on the hulk was ordered, and despite further attempts to delay, Adelaide was scuttled on 13 April 2011. Scuttled ships have been used as conveyance for dangerous materials. In the late 1960s,

5624-603: Was scuttled by its crew to avoid capture. This was supported by survivors' reports in Pursuit: the Sinking of the Bismarck , by Ludovic Kennedy , 1974 and by a later examination of the wreck itself by Dr. Robert Ballard in 1989. A later, more advanced examination found torpedoes had penetrated the second deck, normally always above water and only possible on an already sinking ship, thus further supporting that scuttling had made

5700-624: Was slowed by heat exhaustion but his team refloated the oil tanker Giove ; he died in September 1941 when the salvage tug Tai Koo bearing him as a passenger was sunk by a naval mine in the Red Sea. His death left a civilian contractor to open a channel, but this crew made no progress. It was not until a year later that headway was made in the effort to return Massawa to military duties. U.S. Navy Commander Edward Ellsberg arrived in April 1942 with

5776-600: Was the last known U.S. slave ship to bring captives from Africa to the United States, arriving at Mobile Bay , in autumn 1859 or on July 9, 1860, with 110 African men, women, and children. The ship was a two-masted schooner , 86 feet (26 m) long with a beam of 23 ft (7.0 m). U.S. involvement in the Atlantic slave trade had been banned by Congress through the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves enacted on March 2, 1807 (effective January 1, 1808), but

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