Scylletium or Skylletion or Scolacium was an ancient seaside city in Calabria , southern Italy . Its ruins can be found at the frazione of Roccelletta, near Catanzaro , facing the Gulf of Squillace .
120-504: Skylletion may originally have been founded in the 7th c. BC on the Punta di Staletti promontory. In any case Scylletium was situated from the 6th c. BC on the east coast of Calabria (ancient Bruttium), on the shores of an extensive bay, to which it gave the name of Scylleticus Sinus. According to a tradition generally received in ancient times, Scylletium ( Ancient Greek : Σκυλλήτιον ) was founded by an Athenian colony of Magna Graecia ,
240-708: A brief period in the early 1700s under the Austrian Habsburgs, Calabria came into the control of the Spanish Bourbons in 1735. It was during the 16th century that Calabria would contribute to modern world history with the creation of the Gregorian calendar by the Calabrian doctor and astronomer Luigi Lilio . In 1466, King Louis XI decided to develop a national silk industry in Lyon and called
360-414: A century. The earlier works were mainly dedicated to the evolution of the basement rocks of the area. The Neogene sedimentary successions were merely regarded as "post-orogenic" infill of "neo-tectonic" tensional features. In the course of time, however, a shift can be observed in the temporal significance of these terms, from post- Eocene to post-Early Miocene to post-middle Pleistocene . The region
480-710: A considerable town after it received the Roman colony, and continued such throughout the Roman Empire . Towards the close of this period it was distinguished as the birthplace of the Roman statesman Cassiodorus , founder of the Vivarium , a monastery dedicated to the coexistence of coenobitic monks and hermits, who has left us a detailed but rhetorical description of the beauty of its situation dated to around 530 AD, and fertility of its territory. Cassiodorus also mentioned production of highly priced terra cotta . His villa
600-784: A history of the Goths, the Variae and account of his administrative career and the Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum, an introduction to the study of the sacred scriptures and the liberal arts which was very influential in the Middle Ages. Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor Justinian I, retook Italy from the Ostrogoths between 535 and 556. They soon lost much of Italy to the Lombards between 568 and 590, but retained
720-472: A large number of Italian workers, mainly from Calabria. The fame of the master weavers of Catanzaro spread throughout France and they were invited to Lyon to teach the techniques of weaving. In 1470, one of these weavers, known in France as Jean Le Calabrais, invented the first prototype of a Jacquard -type loom. He introduced a new kind of machine which was able to work the yarns faster and more precisely. Over
840-531: A large scale. In 1442, the Aragonese took control under Alfonso V of Aragon who became ruler under the Crown of Aragon . In 1501 Calabria came under the control of Ferdinand II of Aragon , whose wife Queen Isabella of Castille is famed for sponsoring the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Calabria suffered greatly under Aragonese rule with heavy taxes, feuding landlords, starvation and sickness. After
960-474: A link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults . It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy . During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk theatre ( Mimos and Pantomimos ), despite the hostility of the official state. Later, during
1080-431: A long tradition and its flavors change with the season and its geography. Greek cookery, historically a forerunner of Western cuisine, spread its culinary influence – via ancient Rome – throughout Europe and beyond. Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality and was founded on the "Mediterranean triad": wheat , olive oil , and wine , with meat being rarely eaten and fish being more common. It
1200-779: A maximum width of 110 km (68 mi). Some 42% of Calabria's area, corresponding to 15,080 km , is mountainous, 49% is hilly, while plains occupy only 9% of the region's territory. It is surrounded by the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas. It is separated from Sicily by the Strait of Messina , where the narrowest point between Capo Peloro in Sicily and Punta Pezzo in Calabria is only 3.2 km (2 mi). Three mountain ranges are present: Pollino , La Sila , and Aspromonte , each with its own flora and fauna. The Pollino Mountains in
1320-507: A more symbolic approach. The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies . The term Cretan School describes an important school of icon painting, also known as Post-Byzantine art, which flourished while Crete was under Venetian rule during the late Middle Ages , reaching its climax after the Fall of Constantinople , becoming the central force in Greek painting during
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#17327661181141440-575: A part of the followers who had accompanied Menestheus to the Trojan War . Solinus also mention that the Scylaceum was established by Athenians. Another tradition was, however, extant, which ascribed its foundation to Ulysses . However, it did not display any friendship towards the Athenians. It appears during this period to have been a minor place and a mere dependency of Crotona until it
1560-759: A system of rules for all buildings known as the orders : the Doric , the Ionic , and the Corinthian . They are most easily recognised by their columns (especially by the capitals ). The Doric column is stout and basic, the Ionic one is slimmer and has four scrolls (called volutes ) at the corners of the capital, and the Corinthian column is just like the Ionic one, but the capital is completely different, being decorated with acanthus leafs and four scrolls. Following
1680-480: Is also certain that Byzantine music included an extensive tradition of instrumental court music and dance; any other picture would be both incongruous with the historically and archaeologically documented opulence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There survive a few but explicit accounts of secular music. A characteristic example is the accounts of pneumatic organs, whose construction was further advanced in
1800-780: Is formed by the Apulia Platform, which is part of the Adriatic Plate, and the Ragusa or Iblean Platform, which is an extension of the African Plate. These platforms are separated by the Ionian Basin . The Tyrrhenian oceanized basin is regarded as the back-arc basin . This subduction system therefore shows the southern plates of African affinity subducting below the northern plates of European affinity. The geology of Calabria has been studied for more than
1920-430: Is influenced by the sea and mountains. The Mediterranean climate is typical of the coastal areas with considerable differences in temperature and rainfall between the seasons, with an average low of 8 °C (46 °F) during the winter months and an average high of 30 °C (86 °F) during the summer months. Mountain areas have a typical mountainous climate with frequent snow during winter. The erratic behavior of
2040-483: Is seismically active and is generally ascribed to the re-establishment of an equilibrium after the latest (mid-Pleistocene) deformation phase. Some authors believe that the subduction process is still ongoing, which is a matter of debate. Calabria has one of the oldest records of human presence in Italy, which date back to around 700,000 BC when a type of Homo erectus evolved leaving traces around coastal areas. During
2160-472: Is the term created for the Eastern Roman Empire from about the 5th century AD until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract," or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of
2280-567: The 2004 Olympic Games , with a conception that reflected the classical influences on modern and experimental Greek dance forms. There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias , were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described as panel paintings . Also,
2400-513: The Academy of Athens , Lazaros Sochos , Georgios Vitalis , Dimitrios Filippotis , Ioannis Kossos , Yannoulis Chalepas , Georgios Bonanos and Lazaros Fytalis . Theatre was born in Greece . The city-state of Classical Athens , which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called
2520-510: The Acropolis of Athens , and theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios. Classical Ancient Greek temples usually consist of a base with stairs at each edges (known as crepidoma ), a cella (or naos ) with a cult statue in it, columns , an entablature , and two pediments , one on the front side and another in the back. By the 4th century BC, Greek architects and stonemasons had developed
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#17327661181142640-520: The Asty Films Company was founded, which started the production of long films in Greece. Golfo (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is the first Greek long movie, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931, Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe ( Δάφνις και Χλόη ), contained the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it
2760-797: The Byzantine Empire created the Duchy of Calabria from the Salento and the Ionian part of Bruttium. Even though the Calabrian part of the duchy was conquered by the Lombards during the eighth and ninth centuries AD, the Byzantines continued to use the name Calabria for their remaining territory in Bruttium. Originally the Greeks used Italoi to indicate the native population of modern Calabria, which according to some ancient Greek writers
2880-587: The Dionysia , which honoured the god Dionysus . Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a common cultural identity . The word τραγῳδία ( tragoidia ), from which the word " tragedy " is derived, is a compound of two Greek words: τράγος ( tragos ) or "goat" and ᾠδή ( ode ) meaning "song", from ἀείδειν ( aeidein ), "to sing". This etymology indicates
3000-610: The Greek Civil War , the massive construction of apartment buildings in major Greek city centres, was a major contributory factor for the Greek economy and the post-war recovery. The first skyscrapers were also constructed during the 1960s and 1970s, such as the OTE Tower and the Athens Tower Complex . Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896, but the first actual cine-theatre was opened in 1907. In 1914,
3120-824: The Ionian Islands (notable composers include Spyridon Samaras , Nikolaos Mantzaros and Pavlos Carrer ), while Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School . Greece is one of the few places in Europe where the day-to-day role of folk dance is sustained. Rather than functioning as a museum piece preserved only for performances and special events, it is a vivid expression of everyday life. Occasions for dance are usually weddings, family celebrations, and paneyeria (Patron Saints' name days). Dance has its place in ceremonial customs that are still preserved in Greek villages, such as dancing
3240-674: The Kingdom of Greece is mostly influenced by architects like Theophil Hansen , Ernst Ziller , Panagis Kalkos , Lysandros Kaftanzoglou , Anastasios Metaxas and Stamatios Kleanthis . Meanwhile, churches in Greece, on the other hand, experienced a Neo-Byzantine revival. In 1933, the Athens Charter , a manifesto of the modernist movement, was signed and published by Le Corbusier . The primary architects of this movement were: Ioannis Despotopoulos, Dimitris Pikionis , Patroklos Karantinos and Takis Zenetos. Following World War II , and
3360-524: The Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first significant depiction of secular subjects. The school was based in the Ionian islands , which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century. Modern Greek painting, after the independence and
3480-656: The Paleolithic period Stone Age humans created the " Bos Primigenius ", a figure of a bull on a cliff which dates back around 12,000 years in the Romito Cave in the town of Papasidero . When the Neolithic period came the first villages were founded around 3,500 BC. Around 1500 BC a tribe called the Oenotri ("vine-cultivators"), settled in the region. Ancient sources state they were Greeks who were led to
3600-585: The Parthenon , which was built in dedication to the Ancient Greek religion , the Hagia Sophia was considered an iconic church of Christianity . The temples of both religions differ substantially in terms of their exterior and interior aspect. In Antiquity, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, because in the interior, where the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built
3720-529: The Peloritano Mountains (although some authors extend this domain from Naples in the north to Palermo in the southwest). The Calabrian area shows basement (crystalline and metamorphic rocks) of Paleozoic and younger ages, covered by (mostly Upper) Neogene sediments. Studies have revealed that these rocks comprise the upper part of a pile of thrust sheets which dominate the Apennines and
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3840-845: The Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire . Other cultures and states such as the Frankish states , the Ottoman Empire , the Venetian Republic and Bavarian and Danish monarchies have also left their influence on modern Greek culture. Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history, philosophy, and physics. They introduced important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In their pursuit of order and proportion,
3960-514: The Roman Empire , and Byzantine liturgical chants and secular music influencing middle eastern music and the Renaissance . Modern Greek music combines these elements, to carry Greeks' interpretation of a wide range of musical forms. The history of music in Greece begins with the music of ancient Greece, largely structured on the Lyre and other supporting string instruments of the era. Beyond
4080-572: The Salento peninsula in modern Apulia . In the late first century BC this name came to extend to the entirety of the Salento, when the Roman emperor Augustus divided Italy into regions. The whole region of Apulia received the name Regio II Apulia et Calabria . By this time modern Calabria was still known as Bruttium , after the Bruttians who inhabited the region. Later in the seventh century AD,
4200-686: The Tyrrhenian coast of Lucania), Laüs (on the border with Lucania) and Scidrus (on the Lucanian coast in the Gulf of Taranto ). Locri was renowned for being the town where Zaleucus created the first Western Greek law, the "Locrian Code" and the birthplace of ancient epigrammist and poet Nossis . The Greek cities of Calabria came under pressure from the Lucanians who conquered the north of Calabria and pushed further south, taking over part of
4320-466: The Veroli casket , hardstone carvings , enamels, jewelry, metalwork, and figured silks were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era. Many of these were religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or non-representational decoration were produced: for example, ivories representing themes from classical mythology. Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery
4440-542: The "Giants of the Sila" and can reach up to 40 m (130 ft) in height. The Sila National Park is also known to have the purest air in Europe. The Aspromonte massif forms the southernmost tip of the Italian peninsula bordered by the sea on three sides. This unique mountainous structure reaches its highest point at Montalto, at 1,995 m (6,545 ft), and is full of wide, man-made terraces that slope down toward
4560-421: The "Great Wood of Italy", is a vast mountainous plateau about 1,200 m (3,900 ft) above sea level and stretches for nearly 2,000 km (770 sq mi) along the central part of Calabria. The highest point is Botte Donato , which reaches 1,928 m (6,325 ft). The area boasts numerous lakes and dense coniferous forests. La Sila also has some of the tallest trees in Italy which are called
4680-587: The 1060s the Normans , under the leadership of Robert Guiscard 's brother, Roger I of Sicily , established a presence in this borderland , and organized a government modeled on the Eastern Roman Empire and was run by the local magnates of Calabria. Of note is that the Normans established their presence here, in southern Italy (namely Calabria), 6 years prior to their conquest of England, (see The Battle of Hastings ). The purpose of this strategic presence in Calabria
4800-523: The 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements. The most famous product of the school, El Greco , was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe. The Heptanese School of painting succeeded the Cretan school as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to
4920-680: The 1970s and 1980s Theo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His film Eternity and a Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival . There were also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora such as the Greek-American Elia Kazan . Greece has a diverse and highly influential musical tradition, with ancient music influencing
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5040-620: The Byzantine Emperor. Therefore, during the sixth century, under the Ostrogoths' rule, Romans could still be at the center of government and cultural life, such as the Roman Cassiodorus who, like Boethius and Symmachus, emerged as one of the most prominent men of his time. He was an administrator, politician, scholar and historian who was born in Scylletium (near Catanzaro). He spent most of his career trying to bridge
5160-552: The Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art . The first great ancient Greek civilization were the Minoans, a Bronze Age Aegean civilization on Crete and other Aegean Islands , that flourished from c. 3000 BC to c. 1450 BC and, after a late period of decline, finally ended around 1100 BC during the early Greek Dark Ages . At the height of their power, they built architecture ranging from city houses and Minoan palaces . Exemplary of this construction
5280-622: The Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas ' The Parliamentary Candidate (based on an exclusively Greek libretto ) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues , musical comedies , operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras , Dionysios Lavrangas , Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others. The National Theatre of Greece
5400-846: The Lucanians and Bruttii sided with Pyrrhus and provided contingents which fought with his army. After Pyrrhus was eventually defeated, to avoid Roman revenge the Bruttii submitted willingly and gave up half of the Sila, a mountainous plateau valuable for its pitch and timber. Rome subjugated southern Italy by means of treaties with the cities. During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) the Bruttii allied with Hannibal , who sent Hanno , one of his commanders, to Calabria. Hanno marched toward Capua (in Campania) with Bruttian soldiers to take them to Hannibal's headquarters there twice, but he
5520-413: The Normans previously constructed. After the death of Frederick II in 1250, Calabria was controlled by the Capetian House of Anjou , under the rule of Charles d’Anjou after being granted the crown of the Sicilian Kingdom by Pope Clement IV . In 1282, under Charles d’Anjou, Calabria became a domain of the newly created Kingdom of Naples , and no longer of the Kingdom of Sicily, after he lost Sicily due to
5640-417: The Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the Karagiozis . The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete . Significant dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis . The modern Greek theatre was born after the Greek independence , in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as
5760-548: The Pythian Games, nine events in the Nemean Games and ten events in the Isthmian Games and also Astylos of Croton , who won six running events in three Olympics in a row. Through Alcmaeon of Croton (a philosopher and medical theorist) and Pythagoras (a mathematician and philosopher), who moved to Kroton in 530 BC, the city became a renowned center of philosophy, science and medicine. The Greeks of Sybaris created "Intellectual Property." The Sybarites founded at least 20 other colonies, including Poseidonia ( Paestum in Latin, on
5880-446: The Romans and Calabria was put under a military commander. Nearly a decade after the war, the Romans set up colonies in Calabria: at Tempsa and Kroton (Croto in Latin) in 194 BC, Copiae in the territory of Thurii (Thurium in Latin) in 193 BC, and Vibo Valentia in the territory of Hipponion in 192 BC. Starting in the third century BC, the name Calabria was given to the Adriatic coast of the Salento peninsula in modern Apulia . In
6000-432: The Sicilian Maghrebides . The Neogene evolution of the Central Mediterranean system is dominated by the migration of the Calabrian Arc to the southeast, overriding the African Plate and its promontories. ) The main tectonic elements of the Calabrian Arc are the southern Apennines fold-and-thrust belt, the "Calabria-Peloritani", or simply Calabrian block and the Sicilian Maghrebides fold-and-thrust belt. The foreland area
6120-496: The Sun " and would later defend Galileo Galilei during his first trial with his work "A Defense of Galileo", which was written in 1616 and published in 1622. In 1613 philosopher and economist Antonio Serra wrote "A Short Treatise on the Wealth and Poverty of Nations" and was a pioneer in the Mercantilist tradition. During the 17th century, silk production in Calabria begin to suffer by the strong competition of new-raising competitors in Italian Peninsula and Europe (France), but also
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#17327661181146240-422: The Tyrrhenian Sea can bring heavy rainfall on the western slopes of the region, while hot air from Africa makes the east coast of Calabria dry and warm. The mountains that run along the region also influence the climate and temperature of the region. The east coast is much warmer and has wider temperature ranges than the west coast. The geography of the region causes more rain to fall along the west coast than that of
6360-464: The ancient Greek doctor Claudius Aelius Galenus . The modern Greek cuisine has also influences from the Ottoman and Italian cuisine due to the Ottoman and Venetian dominance through the centuries. Greece is one of the oldest wine - producing regions in the world. The earliest evidence of Greek wine has been dated to 6,500 years ago where wine was produced on a household or communal basis. In ancient times, as trade in wine became extensive, it
6480-442: The ancient period and are still enacted in some form today. A range of domestically and internationally known composers and performers across the musical spectrum have found success in modern Greece, while traditional Greek music is noted as a mixture of influences from indigenous culture with those of west and east. A few Ottoman as well as medieval Italian elements can be heard in the traditional songs, dhimotiká , as well as in
6600-454: The art of silk in Calabria and made it the main silk production area in Europe . In the 11th century, the Norman conquest started a slow process of Latinization. In Calabria there are three historical ethnolinguistics minorities: the Grecanici , speaking Calabrian Greek ; the Arbëreshë people ; and the Occitans of Guardia Piemontese . This extraordinary linguistic diversity makes the region an object of study for linguists from all over
6720-430: The beginning of the tenth century ( c. 903 ), the city of Catanzaro was occupied by the Muslim Saracens , who founded an emirate and took the Arab name of قطنصار – Qaṭanṣār. An Arab presence is evidenced by findings at an eighth-century necropolis which had items with Arabic inscriptions. Around the year 1050, Catanzaro rebelled against Saracen dominance and returned to a brief period of Byzantine control. In
6840-511: The bride during a wedding and dancing the trousseau of the bride during the wedding preparations. The carnival and Easter offer more opportunities for family gatherings and dancing. Greek taverns providing live entertainment often include folk dances in their program. Regional characteristics have developed over the years because of variances in climatic conditions , land morphology and people's social lives. Kalamatianos and Syrtos are considered Pan-Hellenic dances and are danced all over
6960-513: The central figure of 20th-century European modernism Iannis Xenakis , a composer, architect and theorist. Maria Callas , Nikos Skalkottas , Mikis Theodorakis , Dimitris Mitropoulos , Manos Hadjidakis and Vangelis also lead twentieth-century Greek contributions, alongside Demis Roussos , Nana Mouskouri , Yanni , Georges Moustaki , Eleni Karaindrou and others. The birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music ( Heptanesean or Ionian School , Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή ) came through
7080-402: The coast of Calabria with his fleet, took Hipponium and forced the Bruttii into unfavourable peace terms. However, they soon seized Hipponium again. After Agathloces' death in 289 BC the Lucanians and Bruttii pushed into the territory of Thurii and ravaged it. The city sent envoys to Rome to ask for help in 285 BC and 282 BC. On the second occasion, the Romans sent forces to garrison the city. This
7200-430: The commenced in a circle and ended with the dancers facing one another. When not dancing in a circle the dancers held their hands high or waved them to the left and right. They held cymbals (very like the zilia of today) or a kerchief in their hands, and their movements were emphasized by their long sleeves. As they danced, they sang, either set songs or extemporized ones, sometimes in unison, sometimes in refrain, repeating
7320-434: The creation of the modern Greek state, began to be developed around the time of Romanticism and the Greek artists absorbed many elements from their European colleagues, resulting in the culmination of the distinctive style of Greek Romantic art. Notable painters of the era include Nikolaos Gyzis , Georgios Jakobides , Nikiphoros Lytras , Konstantinos Volanakis and Theodoros Vryzakis . Ancient Greek monumental sculpture
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#17327661181147440-479: The cultivation of mulberry was difficult in Northern and Continental Europe, merchants and operators used to purchase in Calabria raw materials to finish the products and resell them for a better price. The Genoese silk artisans used fine Calabrian silk for the production of velvets. In particular, the silk of Catanzaro supplied almost all of Europe and was sold in a large market fair to Spanish, Venetian , Genoese , Florentine and Dutch merchants. Catanzaro became
7560-411: The divides of East and West, Greek and Latin cultures, Romans and Goths, and official Christianity and Arian Christianity , which was the form of Christianity of the Ostrogoths and which had earlier been banned. He set up his Vivarium (monastery) in Scylletium. He oversaw the collation of three editions of the Bible in Latin. Seeing the practicality of uniting all the books of the Bible in one volume, he
7680-470: The duchy of Calabria. Around the year 800, Saracens began invading the shores of Calabria, attempting to wrest control of the area from the Byzantines. This group of Arabs had already been successful in Sicily and knew that Calabria was another key spot. The people of Calabria retreated into the mountains for safety. Although the Arabs never really got a stronghold on the whole of Calabria, they did control some villages while enhancing trade relations with
7800-498: The early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th and early 21st century that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact. Using high-intensity lamps, ultraviolet light , specially designed cameras, plaster casts, and certain powdered minerals, Brinkmann proved that
7920-437: The east coast, which occurs mainly during winter and autumn and less during the summer months. Below are the two extremes of climate in Calabria, the warm mediterranean subtype on the coastline and the highland climate of Monte Scuro. Calabria is commonly considered part of the "Calabrian Arc", an arc-shaped geographic domain extending from the southern part of the Basilicata Region to the northeast of Sicily , and including
8040-404: The eastern empire prior to their development in the west following the Renaissance. Byzantine instruments included the guitar, single, double or multiple flute, sistrum, timpani (drum), psaltirio, Sirigs, lyre, cymbals, keras and kanonaki. Popular dances of this period included the Syrtos , Geranos , Mantilia , Saximos , Pyrichios , and Kordakas . Some of these dances have their origins in
8160-417: The eastern world. In 918, Saracens captured Reggio (which was renamed Rivà ), holding many of its inhabitants to ransom or keeping them prisoners as slaves. It is during this time of Arab invasions that many staples of today's Calabrian cuisine came into fashion: Citrus fruits and eggplants for example. Exotic spices such as cloves and nutmeg were also introduced. Under the Byzantine dominion, between
8280-438: The end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th century, Calabria was one of the first regions of Italy to introduce silk production to Europe. According to André Guillou, mulberry trees for the production of raw silk were introduced to southern Italy by the Byzantines at the end of the ninth century. Around 1050 the theme of Calabria had 24,000, mulberry trees cultivated for their foliage, and their number tended to expand. At
8400-626: The entire Parthenon , including the actual structure as well as the statues, had been painted. The Byzantines inherited the early Christian distrust of monumental sculpture in religious art, and produced only reliefs , of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived from Carolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief. The so-called "minor arts" were very important in Byzantine art and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentation Consular diptychs or caskets such as
8520-506: The extensive use of mosaics with golden backgrounds. The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which was highly appreciated and utilised by the Ancient Greeks, instead opting for mostly stone and brick while using thin alabaster sheets for windows. After the independence of Greece and during the nineteenth century, Neoclassical architecture was heavily used for both public and private buildings. The 19th-century architecture of Athens and other cities of
8640-440: The first King of Sicily and formed what would become the Kingdom of Sicily , which lasted nearly 700 years. Under the Normans southern Italy was united as one region and started a feudal system of land ownership in which the Normans were made lords of the land while peasants performed all the work on the land. In 1147, Roger II of Sicily attacked Corinth and Thebes , two important centers of Byzantine silk production, capturing
8760-632: The home of key figures in history such as Pythagoras , Herodotus and Milo . In Roman times, it was part of the Regio III Lucania et Bruttii , a region of Augustan Italy . After the Gothic War , it became and remained for five centuries a Byzantine dominion, fully recovering its Greek character. Cenobitism flourished, with the rise throughout the peninsula of numerous churches, hermitages and monasteries in which Basilian monks were dedicated to transcription. The Byzantines introduced
8880-555: The increasing import from Ottoman Empire and Persia. Foundation of the historical Italo-Albanian College and Library in 1732 by Pope Clement XII transferred from San Benedetto Ullano to San Demetrio Corone in 1794. Culture of Greece The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Minoan and later in Mycenaean Greece , continuing most notably into Classical Greece , while influencing
9000-399: The instigation of C. Gracchus , sent a colony to Scylletium, which appears to have assumed the name of Minervium or Colonia Minervia . The name is written by Velleius Scolatium ; and the form Scolacium is found also in an inscription of the reign of Antoninus Pius , from which it appears that the place must have received a fresh colony under Nerva . Scylletium appears to have become
9120-613: The interior, probably after they defeated the Thurians near Laus in 390 BC. A few decades later the Bruttii took advantage of the weakening of the Greek cites caused by wars between them and took over Hipponium, Terina and Thurii. The Bruttii helped the Lucanians fight Alexander of Epirus (334–32 BC), who had come to the aid of Tarentum (in Apulia ), which was also pressured by the Lucanians. After this, Agathocles of Syracuse ravaged
9240-519: The lace capital of Europe with a large silkworm breeding facility that produced all the laces and linens used in the Vatican . The city was known for its fabrication of silks, velvets, damasks and brocades. In the 15th century, Catanzaro was exporting both its silk cloth and its technical skills to neighbouring Sicily . By the middle of the century, silk spinning was taking place in Catanzaro, on
9360-550: The late first century BC this name came to extend to the entirety of the Salento, when the Roman emperor Augustus divided Italy into regions and modern Calabria was known as Regio III Lucania et Bruttii. After sacking Rome in 410, Alaric I (King of the Visigoths) went to Calabria with the intention of sailing to Africa. He contracted malaria and died in Cosentia ( Cosenza ), probably of fever. Legend has it that he along with
9480-735: The majority having film noir elements. Notable films were The Counterfeit Coin ( Η κάλπικη λίρα , 1955, directed by Giorgos Tzavellas ), Bitter Bread ( Πικρό Ψωμί , 1951, directed by Grigoris Grigoriou), The Ogre of Athens ( O Drakos , 1956, directed by Nikos Koundouros ), Stella (1955, directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis). Cacoyannis also directed Zorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations. Finos Film also contributed to this period with movies such as Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο , The Auntie from Chicago ( Η Θεία από το Σικάγο ), Maiden's Cheek ( Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο ), and many more. During
9600-431: The modern bluesy rembétika music. A well-known Greek musical instrument is the bouzouki . "Bouzouki" is a descriptive Turkish name, but the instrument itself is probably of Greek origin (from the ancient Greek lute known as pandoura , a kind of guitar, clearly visible in ancient statues, especially female figurines of the "Tanagraies" playing cord instruments). Famous Greek musicians and composers of modern era include
9720-598: The most development of the churches that were built in the empire. Through modifications and adaptations of local inspiration, the Byzantine style of architecture was used as the main source of inspiration for architectural styles in Eastern Orthodox countries. For example, in Romania, the Brâncovenesc style is highly based on Byzantine architecture, but also has individual Romanian characteristics. As with
9840-487: The most senior administrative officials) in 523. He was praetorian prefect (chief minister) under the successors of Theodoric: under Athalaric (Theodoric's grandson, reigned 526–34) in 533 and, between 535 and 537, under Theodahad (Theodoric's nephew, reigned 534–36) and Witiges (Theodoric's grandson-in-law, reigned, 536–40). The major works of Cassiodorus, besides the mentioned bibles, were the Historia Gothorum,
9960-514: The north of the region are rugged and form a natural barrier separating Calabria from the rest of Italy. Parts of the area are heavily wooded, while others are vast, wind-swept plateaus with little vegetation. These mountains are home to a rare Bosnian Pine variety and are included in the Pollino National Park , which is the largest national park in Italy, covering 1,925.65 square kilometres. La Sila , which has been referred to as
10080-475: The rebellion of the Sicilian Vespers . During the 14th century, would emerge Barlaam of Seminara who would be Petrarch 's Greek teacher and his disciple Leonzio Pilato , who would translate Homer's works for Giovanni Boccaccio . While the cultivation of mulberry was moving first steps in northern Italy , silk made in Calabria reached the peak of 50% of the whole Italian/European production. As
10200-859: The region by their king, Oenotrus . However it is believed they were an ancient Italic people who spoke an Italic language. During the eighth and seventh centuries BC, Greek settlers founded many colonies (settlements) on the coast of southern Italy. In Calabria they founded Chone ( Pallagorio ), Cosentia ( Cosenza ), Clampetia ( Amantea ), Scyllaeum ( Scilla ), Sybaris ( Sibari ), Hipponion ( Vibo Valentia ), Locri Epizephyrii ( Locri ), Kaulon ( Monasterace ), Krimisa ( Cirò Marina ), Kroton ( Crotone ), Laüs ( comune of Santa Maria del Cedro ), Medma ( Rosarno ), Metauros ( Gioia Tauro ), Petelia ( Strongoli ), Rhégion ( Reggio Calabria ), Scylletium ( Borgia ), Temesa ( Campora San Giovanni ), Terina ( Nocera Terinese ), Pandosia ( Acri ) and Thurii , (Thurio, comune of Corigliano Calabro ). Rhegion
10320-639: The region. The 10th-century church in Rossano, together with the "twin" church of Sant'Adriano in San Demetrio Corone (foundation 955, rebuilt by the Normans on the, still, visible foundations of the previous Byzantine church), are considered between the best preserved Byzantine churches in Italy. They were both built by St. Nilus the Younger as a retreat for the monks who lived in the tufa grottos underneath. The present name of Calabria comes from
10440-616: The relocation of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople in 330 AD, and the fall of the Western Roman Empire some 150 years later, the architects of the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, built city walls, palaces, hippodromes, bridges, aqueducts , and churches. One of the more famous type of church constructed by the Byzantines was the basilica , which was very widespread and received
10560-500: The sea. Most of the lower terrain in Calabria has been agricultural for centuries, and exhibits indigenous scrubland as well as introduced plants such as the prickly pear cactus . The lowest slopes are rich in vineyards and orchards of citrus fruit, including the Diamante citron . Further up, olives and chestnut trees appear while in the higher regions there are often dense forests of oak, pine, beech and fir trees. Calabria's climate
10680-544: The simultaneous growth of prices, and became one of the most important Mediterranean markets for silk. In 1563 philosopher and natural scientist Bernardino Telesio wrote "On the Nature of Things according to their Own Principles" and pioneered early modern empiricism. He would also influence the works of Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Giordano Bruno, Tommaso Campanella and Thomas Hobbes. In 1602 philosopher and poet Tommaso Campanella wrote his most famous work, " The City of
10800-494: The south for around 500 years until 1059–1071, where they thrived and where the Greek language was the official and vernacular language. In Calabria and towns such as Stilo and Rossano and San Demetrio Corone achieved great religious status. From the 7th Century many monasteries were built in the Amendolea and Stilaro Valleys and Stilo was the destination of hermits and Basilian monks. Many Byzantine churches are still seen in
10920-538: The students, however, can start from the age of 2.5 years (pre-school education) in institutions (private and public) called "Vrefonipiakoi Paidikoi Stathmi" (creches). In some Vrefonipiakoi Stathmoi there are also Nipiaka Tmimata (nursery classes) which operate along with the Nipiagogeia (kindergartens). Post-compulsory Secondary Education , according to the reforms of 1997 and 2006, consists of two main school types: Genika Lykeia (General Upper Secondary Schools) and
11040-407: The town had about 16,000 inhabitants, its silk industry kept 1,000 looms, and at least 5,000 people, busy. The silk textiles of Catanzaro were not only sold at the kingdom 's markets, they were also exported to Venice, France, Spain and England. In the 16th century, Calabria was characterized by a strong demographic and economic development, mainly due to the increasing demand of silk products and
11160-541: The tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age , with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos , Tiryns and Mycenae . Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome (from Greek πολυχρωμία , πολύ = many and χρώμα = colour). Due to intensive weathering, polychromy on sculpture and architecture has substantially or totally faded in most cases. Byzantine art
11280-813: The treasure of Rome were buried under the bed of the River Busento. With the fall of the western part of the Roman Empire in 476, Italy was taken over by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer and later became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in 489. The Ostrogothic kings ruled officially as Magistri Militum of the Byzantine Emperors and all government and administrative positions were held by the Romans, while all primary laws were legislated by
11400-473: The verse sung by the lead dancer. The onlookers joined in, clapping the rhythm or singing. Professional singers, often the musicians themselves, composed lyrics to suit the occasion. The Byzantine music is also of major significance to the history and development of European music, as liturgical chants became the foundation and stepping stone for music of the Renaissance (see: Renaissance Music ). It
11520-509: The weavers and their equipment and establishing his own silkworks in Calabria, thereby causing the Norman silk industry to flourish. In 1194, Frederick II , took control of the region, after inheriting the Kingdom from his mother Constance, Queen of Sicily . He created a kingdom that blended cultures, philosophy and customs and would build several castles, while fortifying existing ones which
11640-564: The well-known structural legacies of the Pythagorean scale , and the related mathematical developments it upheld to define western classical music, relatively little is understood about the precise character of music during this period; we do know, however, that it left, as so often, a strong mark on the culture of Rome . What has been gleaned about the social role and character of ancient Greek music comes largely from pottery and other forms of Greek art . Ancient Greeks believed that dancing
11760-473: The west. It has almost 2 million residents across a total area of 15,222 km (5,877 sq mi). Catanzaro is the region's capital. Calabria is the birthplace of the name of Italy , given to it by the Ancient Greeks who settled in this land starting from the 8th century BC . They established the first cities, mainly on the coast, as Greek colonies and during this period Calabria became
11880-544: The world in diaspora communities. Others have also crossed boundaries and are known beyond the regions where they originated; these include the Pentozali from Crete , Hasapiko from Constantinople, Zonaradikos from Thrace , Serra from Pontos and Balos from the Aegean islands . The avant-garde choreographer, director and dancer Dimitris Papaioannou was responsible for the critically successful opening ceremony of
12000-657: The world. Calabria is famous for its crystal clear sea waters and is dotted with ancient villages, castles and archaeological parks. Three national parks are found in the region: the Pollino National Park (which is the largest in Italy), the Sila National Park and the Aspromonte National Park . Starting in the third century BC, the name Calabria was originally given to the Adriatic coast of
12120-441: The years, improvements to the loom were ongoing. Charles V of Spain formally recognized the growth of the silk industry of Catanzaro in 1519 by allowing the city to establish a consulate of the silk craft, charged with regulating and check in the various stages of a production that flourished throughout the sixteenth century. At the moment of the creation of its guild, the city declared that it had over 500 looms . By 1660, when
12240-425: Was Archestratos in 320 B.C. who wrote the first cookbook in history. Greece has a culinary tradition of some 4,000 years. The Byzantine cuisine was similar to the classical cuisine including however new ingredients that were not available before, like caviar, nutmeg and lemons, basil, with fish continuing to be an integral part of the diet. Culinary advice was influenced by the theory of humors, first put forth by
12360-825: Was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944, Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell Tolls . The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many as the Golden age of Greek cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognized as important historical figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: Michael Cacoyannis , Alekos Sakellarios , Melina Mercouri , Nikos Tsiforos , Iakovos Kambanelis , Katina Paxinou , Nikos Koundouros , Ellie Lambeti , Irene Papas , etc. More than sixty films per year were made, with
12480-584: Was born in San Marco Argentano , would be one of the leaders in the first crusade. Of particular note is the Via Francigena , an ancient pilgrim route that goes from Canterbury to Rome and southern Italy, reaching Calabria, Basilicata and Apulia, where the crusaders lived, prayed and trained, respectively. In 1098, Roger I of Sicily was named the equivalent of an apostolic legate by Pope Urban II . His son Roger II of Sicily later became
12600-494: Was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze ; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are fortunately easy to form and very durable. Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold , most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. By
12720-533: Was covered with highly decorated frescos . Later, the Mycenaean civilization erected palatial structures at Mycenae , Tiryns and Pylos . After the Greek Dark Ages , architecture developed into a style that, together with Roman , inspired Classical architecture and later Neoclassical . Examples of this style were their temples , such as the Parthenon and Erectheion which are both based in
12840-453: Was defeated on both occasions. When his campaign in Italy came to a dead end, Hannibal took refuge in Calabria, whose steep mountains provided protection against the Roman legions. He set up his headquarters in Kroton and stayed there for four years until he was recalled to Carthage. The Romans fought a battle with him near Kroton, but its details are unknown. Many Calabrian cities surrendered to
12960-650: Was derived from a legendary king of the Oenotri, Italus . Over time the Greeks started to use Italoi for the rest of the southern Italian peninsula as well. After the Roman conquest of the region, the name was used for the entire Italian peninsula and eventually the Alpine region too. The region is generally known as the "toe" of the Italian Peninsula , and is a long and narrow peninsula which stretches from north to south for 248 km (154 mi), with
13080-504: Was founded in 1880. Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Alexandros Rizos Rangavis , Gregorios Xenopoulos , Nikos Kazantzakis , Angelos Terzakis , Pantelis Horn , Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis , while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou , Marika Kotopouli , Aimilios Veakis , Orestis Makris , Katina Paxinou , Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn . Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris , Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun . Greek cuisine has
13200-401: Was invented by the gods and therefore associated it with religious ceremony. They believed that the gods offered this gift to select mortals only, who in turn taught dancing to their fellow-men. Periodic evidence in ancient texts indicates that dance was held in high regard, in particular for its educational qualities. Dance, along with writing, music, and physical exercise, was fundamental to
13320-437: Was kept, only the priest had access. The ceremonies here held outside, and what the worshipers view was the facade of the temple, consisting of columns, with an entablature and two pediments. Meanwhile, Christian liturgies were held in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation. Byzantine architecture often featured marble columns, coffered ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including
13440-651: Was located at Punta di Staletti. In 2006 a sculpture with the title Time Horizon was set up in the park by the English sculptor Antony Gormley . Calabria Calabria is a region in Southern Italy . It is a peninsula bordered by Basilicata to the north, the Ionian Sea to the east, the Strait of Messina to the southwest, which separates it from Sicily , and the Tyrrhenian Sea to
13560-562: Was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off silver. After the establishment of the Greek Kingdom and the western influence of Neoclassicism , sculpture was re-discovered by the Greek artists. Main themes included ancient Greek antiquity, the War of Independence and important figures of Greek history. Notable sculptors of the new state were Leonidas Drosis (his major work was the extensive neo-classical architectural ornament at
13680-591: Was part of the episode which sparked the Pyrrhic war. At the beginning of the 3rd century BC the cities of southern Italy, which had been allies of the Samnites, were still independent but inevitably came into conflict as a result of Rome's continuous expansion as their expansion in central and northern Italy had not been sufficient to provide new arable lands they needed. During the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC)
13800-400: Was the birthplace of one of the famed nine lyric poets , Ibycus and Metauros was the birthplace of another, Stesichorus , who was amongst the first lyric poets of the western world. Kroton spawned many victors during the ancient Olympics and other Panhellenic Games. Amongst the most famous were Milo of Croton , who won six wrestling events in six Olympics in a row, along with seven events in
13920-633: Was the first who produced Latin Bibles in single volumes. The most well-known of them was the Codex Grandior which was the ancestor of all modern western Bibles. Cassiodorus was at the heart of the administration of the Ostrogothic kingdom. Theodoric made him quaestor sacri palatii (quaestor of the sacred palace, the senior legal authority) in 507, governor of Lucania and Bruttium, consul in 514 and magister officiorum (master of offices, one of
14040-418: Was the palace at Knossos , which was composed of two to three levels, had over 500 rooms, and many terraces with porticos and stairs. The interior of this palace included monumental reception halls, vast apartments for the queen and bridesmaids, bathtubs with complete sewage and drainage systems, food deposits, shops, theatres, sport arenas, and other amenities. The walls were built of high-quality masonry that
14160-554: Was to lay the foundations for the Crusades 30 years later, and for the creation of two Kingdoms: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and the Kingdom of Sicily. Ships would sail from Calabria to the Holy Land. This made Calabria one of the richest regions in Europe as princes from the noble families of England, France and other regions, constructed secondary residences and palaces here, on their way to the Holy Land. Guiscard's son Bohemond , who
14280-488: Was transported from end to end of the Mediterranean; Greek wine had especially high prestige in Italy under the Roman Empire. In the medieval period, wines exported from Crete , Monemvasia and other Greek ports fetched high prices in northern Europe. Education in Greece is compulsory for all children 6–15 years old; namely, it includes Primary (Dimotiko) and Lower Secondary (Gymnasio) Education. The school life of
14400-588: Was wrested from its power by the elder Dionysius , who assigned it with its territory to the Locrians . It was still a small and unimportant place at the time of the Second Punic War , as no mention is found of its name during the operations of Hannibal in Bruttium, though he appears to have had his headquarters for some time at Castra Hannibalis very near Scylletium. In 124 BC the Romans , at
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