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116-716: Paul Kenneth Bernardo (born August 27, 1964), also known as Paul Jason Teale , is a Canadian serial rapist and serial killer dubbed the Scarborough Rapist , the Schoolgirl Killer and, together with his former wife Karla Homolka , one of the Ken and Barbie Killers . He is known for initially committing a series of rapes in Scarborough , Ontario , a district of Toronto , between 1987 and 1990, before committing three murders with Homolka; among these victims
232-481: A DNA examiner could establish patterns in unknown DNA. These patterns were a part of inherited traits that could be used to advance the field of relationship analysis. These discoveries led to the first use of DNA profiling in a criminal case. The process, developed by Jeffreys in conjunction with Peter Gill and Dave Werrett of the Forensic Science Service (FSS), was first used forensically in
348-575: A DNA sample had two contributors, it would be easy to interpret individual profiles if the ratio of DNA contributed by one person was much higher than the second person. When a sample has three or more contributors, it becomes extremely difficult to determine individual profiles. Fortunately, advancements in probabilistic genotyping may make that sort of determination possible in the future. Probabilistic genotyping uses complex computer software to run through thousands of mathematical computations to produce statistical likelihoods of individual genotypes found in
464-515: A DNA sample, Toronto police were informed that it matched that of the Scarborough Rapist and immediately placed him under 24-hour surveillance. Metro Toronto Sexual Assault Squad investigators interviewed Homolka on February 9, 1993. Despite hearing their suspicions about Bernardo, she focused on his abuse of her. Later that night Homolka told her aunt and uncle that Bernardo was the Scarborough Rapist, that she and Bernardo were involved in
580-534: A DNA testing method which utilizes restriction enzymes to "cut" the DNA at short and specific sequences throughout the sample. To start off processing in the laboratory, the sample has to first go through an extraction protocol, which may vary depending on the sample type or laboratory SOPs (Standard Operating Procedures). Once the DNA has been "extracted" from the cells within the sample and separated away from extraneous cellular materials and any nucleases that would degrade
696-561: A controversial plea bargain ; she was released from prison in 2005. Paul Bernardo was born in Scarborough , Ontario , near Toronto , on August 27, 1964, the third and youngest child of Kenneth Walter Bernardo and Marilyn Elizabeth Bernardo ( née Eastman). Bernardo's father often sexually abused his older sister, Debra, in front of other family members, and would eventually be charged with crimes involving voyeurism and pedophilia . Bernardo's mother often withdrew from her family due to depression and agoraphobia , eventually moving into
812-471: A database, that link is often referred to as a cold hit . A cold hit is of value in referring the police agency to a specific suspect but is of less evidential value than a DNA match made from outside the DNA Databank. FBI agents cannot legally store DNA of a person not convicted of a crime. DNA collected from a suspect not later convicted must be disposed of and not entered into the database. In 1998,
928-462: A heterozygous individual. It is especially important to take low-template DNA into account when dealing with a mixture of DNA sample. This is because for one (or more) of the contributors in the mixture, they are more likely to have less than the optimal amount of DNA for the PCR reaction to work properly. Therefore, stochastic thresholds are developed for DNA profile interpretation. The stochastic threshold
1044-455: A higher success rate with highly degraded samples was first reported in 1995, when miniSTR technology was used to identify victims of the Waco fire. Mixtures are another common issue faced by forensic scientists when they are analyzing unknown or questionable DNA samples. A mixture is defined as a DNA sample that contains two or more individual contributors. That can often occur when a DNA sample
1160-575: A lab and being instantly analyzed, followed by the pulling up of a picture of the suspect within minutes. However, the reality is quite different, and perfect DNA samples are often not collected from the scene of a crime. Homicide victims are frequently left exposed to harsh conditions before they are found, and objects that are used to commit crimes have often been handled by more than one person. The two most prevalent issues that forensic scientists encounter when analyzing DNA samples are degraded samples and DNA mixtures. Before modern PCR methods existed, it
1276-399: A least 100 ng of DNA in order to carry out an analysis. Low-template DNA can happen when there is less than 0.1 ng( ) of DNA in a sample. This can lead to more stochastic effects (random events) such as allelic dropout or allelic drop-in which can alter the interpretation of a DNA profile. These stochastic effects can lead to the unequal amplification of the 2 alleles that come from
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#17327919258621392-498: A man residing in the UK was arrested on accusation of burglary. His DNA was taken and tested, and he was later released. Nine months later, this man's DNA was accidentally and illegally entered in the DNA database. New DNA is automatically compared to the DNA found at cold cases and, in this case, this man was found to be a match to DNA found at a rape and assault case one year earlier. The government then prosecuted him for these crimes. During
1508-506: A map, pretending to need assistance. When French looked at the map, Bernardo attacked from behind and forced her into the front seat of the car at knifepoint. From the back seat, Homolka subdued French by pulling her hair. After French failed to arrive home, her parents became convinced that she met with foul play and notified police. Within twenty-four hours the Niagara Regional Police Service (NRP) assembled
1624-603: A mixture is often obtained is in the case of sexual assault. A sample may be collected that contains material from the victim, the victim's consensual sexual partners, and the perpetrator(s). Mixtures can generally be sorted into three categories: Type A, Type B, and Type C. Type A mixtures have alleles with similar peak-heights all around, so the contributors cannot be distinguished from each other. Type B mixtures can be deconvoluted by comparing peak-height ratios to determine which alleles were donated together. Type C mixtures cannot be safely interpreted with current technology because
1740-646: A mixture. DNA profiling in plant: Plant DNA profiling (fingerprinting) is a method for identifying cultivars that uses molecular marker techniques. This method is gaining attention due to Trade Related Intellectual property rights (TRIPs) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Advantages of Plant DNA profiling: Identification, authentication, specific distinction, detecting adulteration and identifying phytoconstituents are all possible with DNA fingerprinting in medical plants. DNA based markers are critical for these applications, determining
1856-707: A riot squad used gas to disperse them. On February 21, 2006, the Toronto Star reported that Bernardo had admitted sexually assaulting at least ten other women in attacks not previously attributed to him. Most were in 1986, a year before the spree attributed to the Scarborough Rapist. Authorities suspected Bernardo in other crimes, including a string of rapes in Amherst , New York , and the drowning of Terri Anderson in St. Catharines, but he has never acknowledged his involvement. His lawyer, Anthony G. Bryant, reportedly forwarded
1972-515: A serial rapist is possible, according to law enforcement organizations. DNA profiling DNA profiling (also called DNA fingerprinting and genetic fingerprinting ) is the process of determining an individual's deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) characteristics. DNA analysis intended to identify a species, rather than an individual, is called DNA barcoding . DNA profiling is a forensic technique in criminal investigations , comparing criminal suspects' profiles to DNA evidence so as to assess
2088-484: A short tandem repeat that is 1 repeat less than the template. During PCR, if DNA Polymerase happens to bind to a locus in stutter and starts to amplify it to make lots of copies, then this stutter product will appear randomly in the electropherogram, leading to allelic drop-in. In instances in which DNA samples are degraded, like if there are intense fires or all that remains are bone fragments, standard STR testing on those samples can be inadequate. When standard STR testing
2204-451: A single case of rape, serial rapists often go unrecognized due to the slow process of analyzing the backlog of rape kits. It may take many years for a past rape to be identified as being committed by one person. Case Western Reserve University has identified the tendency of sexual offenders of being previously arrested. 26% had previously been arrested for sexual assault. 60% were arrested for at least one other sexual assault unrelated to
2320-473: A single locus, then it is possible to have a single contributor who is tri-allelic at that locus. Two person mixtures will have between two and four peaks at each locus, and three person mixtures will have between three and six peaks at each locus. Mixtures become increasingly difficult to deconvolute as the number of contributors increases. As detection methods in DNA profiling advance, forensic scientists are seeing more DNA samples that contain mixtures, as even
2436-489: A single-victim rapist and may be used by law enforcement as an investigative aid. Serial rapists are more likely to target sex workers than are single-victim rapists. They have also been described as being able to improve their ability and expertise to commit their assault through the "study" of serial rape. This includes rehearsal by viewing films, pornography, and reading relevant literature, using sexual fantasies, growth in knowledge in assault-related skills, learning from
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#17327919258622552-400: A single-victim rapist. A serial rapist is more prone to exhibit "criminally sophisticated behaviors" such as using a condom and gloves. Serial rapists are more likely to control physical resistance by gagging , binding , blindfolding , and smothering . They are more likely to question the victim. Awareness of investigative , forensic methodology characterizes a serial rapist rather than
2668-559: A team, searched French's after-school route and found several witnesses who had seen the abduction from different locations. French's shoe, recovered from the parking lot, underscored the seriousness of the abduction. Over the Easter weekend, Bernardo and Homolka videotaped themselves torturing, raping and sodomizing French, forcing her to drink large amounts of alcohol and submit to Bernardo. At his trial, Crown prosecutor Ray Houlahan said that Bernardo always intended to kill French because she
2784-466: A variety of applications. PCR, or Polymerase Chain Reaction, is a widely used molecular biology technique to amplify a specific DNA sequence. Amplification is achieved by a series of three steps: 1- Denaturation : In this step, the DNA is heated to 95 °C to dissociate the hydrogen bonds between the complementary base pairs of the double-stranded DNA. 2-Annealing : During this stage
2900-481: Is a modified version of extraction in which DNA from two different types of cells can be separated from each other before being purified from the solution. Each method of extraction works well in the laboratory, but analysts typically select their preferred method based on factors such as the cost, the time involved, the quantity of DNA yielded, and the quality of DNA yielded. RFLP stands for restriction fragment length polymorphism and, in terms of DNA analysis, describes
3016-569: Is an open source web server and free software based plant international DNA fingerprinting system. It manages huge amount of microsatellite DNA fingerprint data, performs genetic studies, and automates collection, storage and maintenance while decreasing human error and increasing efficiency. The system may be tailored to specific laboratory needs, making it a valuable tool for plant breeders, forensic science, and human fingerprint recognition. It keeps track of experiments, standardizes data and promotes inter-database communication. It also helps with
3132-511: Is collected and deposited into the CODIS database, which is maintained by the FBI . CODIS enables law enforcement officials to test DNA samples from crimes for matches within the database, providing a means of finding specific biological profiles associated with collected DNA evidence. When a match is made from a national DNA databank to link a crime scene to an offender having provided a DNA sample to
3248-401: Is complicated, invasive, time-consuming and may re-traumatize victims. The FBI maintains a DNA database and comparisons between cases can be made. Unfortunately, the backlog of analyzing rape kits can allow the perpetrator to continue their crime before being identified with other assaults. Though no victim of a serial rapist can be blamed for the crime, reducing the risk of becoming raped by
3364-472: Is consistent with file information that suggests [he] has been keen over the years to come up with [his] own unsubstantiated reasons for [his] criminal behaviour." Serial rapist A serial rapist is someone who commits multiple rapes , whether with multiple victims or a single victim repeatedly over a period of time. Some serial rapists target children. The terms sexual predator , repeat rape and multiple offending can also be used to describe
3480-412: Is done on highly degraded samples, the larger STR loci often drop out, and only partial DNA profiles are obtained. Partial DNA profiles can be a powerful tool, but the probability of a random match is larger than if a full profile was obtained. One method that has been developed to analyse degraded DNA samples is to use miniSTR technology. In the new approach, primers are specially designed to bind closer to
3596-433: Is homozygous and is not missing its heterozygous partner allele that otherwise would have dropped out due to having low-template DNA. Allelic dropout can occur when there is low-template DNA because there is such little DNA to start with that at this locus the contributor to the DNA sample (or mixture) is a true heterozygote but the other allele is not amplified and so it would be lost. Allelic drop-in can also occur when there
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3712-483: Is in its statistical power of discrimination. Because the 20 loci that are currently used for discrimination in CODIS are independently assorted (having a certain number of repeats at one locus does not change the likelihood of having any number of repeats at any other locus), the product rule for probabilities can be applied. This means that, if someone has the DNA type of ABC, where the three loci were independent, then
3828-489: Is low-template DNA because sometimes the stutter peak can be amplified. The stutter is an artifact of PCR. During the PCR reaction, DNA Polymerase will come in and add nucleotides off of the primer, but this whole process is very dynamic, meaning that the DNA Polymerase is constantly binding, popping off and then rebinding. Therefore, sometimes DNA Polymerase will rejoin at the short tandem repeat ahead of it, leading to
3944-542: Is swabbed from an item that is handled by more than one person or when a sample contains both the victim's and the assailant's DNA. The presence of more than one individual in a DNA sample can make it challenging to detect individual profiles, and interpretation of mixtures should be performed only by highly trained individuals. Mixtures that contain two or three individuals can be interpreted with difficulty. Mixtures that contain four or more individuals are much too convoluted to get individual profiles. One common scenario in which
4060-399: Is the minimum peak height (RFU value), seen in an electropherogram where dropout occurs. If the peak height value is above this threshold, then it is reasonable to assume that allelic dropout has not occurred. For example, if only 1 peak is seen for a particular locus in the electropherogram but its peak height is above the stochastic threshold, then we can reasonably assume that this individual
4176-748: Is the only place in the world with this type of computerized case-management network. Since 2002, all municipal police services and the Ontario Provincial Police have had access to this network, known as PowerCase. Bernardo scored 35 out of 40 on the Psychopathy Checklist , a psychological assessment tool used to assess the presence of psychopathy in individuals. This is classified as clinical psychopathy. Homolka, by contrast, scored 5 out of 40. At his October 17, 2018, parole meeting, evidence from expert psychiatric reports found that he had "deviant sexual interests and [he] met
4292-661: The University of Toronto Scarborough (UTSC), where another notorious Canadian murderer, Russell Williams , was coincidentally two academic years behind him. As his day job, Bernardo worked for Amway , the sales culture of which deeply affected him. Bernardo and his college friends practised pickup techniques on young women they met in bars and were fairly successful. Bernardo delighted in humiliating his dates in public and engaging in aggressive anal intercourse in bed. His relationships became increasingly violent and unstable, and he threatened to kill his partners if they disclosed
4408-518: The DNA or multiple locations on the DNA). Incorporating the multi-locus probes allowed for higher discrimination power for the analysis, however completion of this process could take several days to a week for one sample due to the extreme amount of time required by each step required for visualization of the probes. This technique was developed in 1983 by Kary Mullis. PCR is now a common and important technique used in medical and biological research labs for
4524-554: The DNA template . The system of DNA profiling used today is based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and uses simple sequences. From country to country, different STR-based DNA-profiling systems are in use. In North America, systems that amplify the CODIS 20 core loci are almost universal, whereas in the United Kingdom the DNA-17 loci system is in use, and Australia uses 18 core markers. The true power of STR analysis
4640-420: The DNA, the sample can then be introduced to the desired restriction enzymes to be cut up into discernable fragments. Following the enzyme digestion, a Southern Blot is performed. Southern Blots are a size-based separation method that are performed on a gel with either radioactive or chemiluminescent probes. RFLP could be conducted with single-locus or multi-locus probes (probes which target either one location on
4756-627: The Homolka house to a rented bungalow in Port Dalhousie to allow Karla's parents to grieve. In 2001, the magazine Elm Street published an article in which it implied that forensic evidence proved that Tammy's death was not an accident and that her sister had deliberately administered an overdose of Halothane. The publication described Karla as a " malignant narcissist " who was so incensed by her fiancé's attraction to her sister that she removed Tammy from his affections permanently. Early in
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4872-526: The Internet effectively nullified the court's order, as did proximity to the U.S.-Canada border. American journalists, not subject to the publication ban, published details of Homolka's testimony which were distributed by "electronic ban-breakers". Newspapers in Buffalo , Detroit , Washington, D.C. , New York City and the United Kingdom, as well as radio and television stations close to the border, divulged
4988-584: The STR region. In normal STR testing, the primers bind to longer sequences that contain the STR region within the segment. MiniSTR analysis, however, targets only the STR location, which results in a DNA product that is much smaller. By placing the primers closer to the actual STR regions, there is a higher chance that successful amplification of this region will occur. Successful amplification of those STR regions can now occur, and more complete DNA profiles can be obtained. The success that smaller PCR products produce
5104-474: The UK, where police have wide-ranging powers to take samples and retain them even in the event of acquittal. The Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition partially addressed these concerns with part 1 of the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 , under which DNA samples must be deleted if suspects are acquitted or not charged, except in relation to certain (mostly serious or sexual) offenses. Public discourse around
5220-524: The abuse. In 1986, Bernardo was served with restraining orders by two women after he made obscene phone calls . In October 1987, Bernardo met Karla Homolka while she was visiting Scarborough to attend a pet store conference. The two shared an immediate attraction, as Homolka encouraged Bernardo's sadistic sexual behavior . Between 1987 and 1990, Bernardo committed increasingly vicious serial rapes in and around Scarborough. He attacked most of his victims after stalking them as they got off buses late in
5336-532: The activities of those who commit a number of consecutive rapes, but remain unprosecuted when self-reported in research. Others will commit their assaults in prisons . In some instances, a group of serial rapists will work together. These rapists can have a pattern of behavior that is sometimes used to predict their activities and aid in their arrest and conviction . Serial rapists also differ from one-time offenders because "serial rapists more often involved kidnapping , verbally and physically threatening
5452-414: The after-school hours of April 16, 1992, Bernardo and Homolka drove through St. Catharines to look for potential victims. Although students were still going home, the streets were generally empty. As they passed Holy Cross Secondary School , the couple spotted 15-year-old Kristen French walking home. After they pulled into the parking lot of nearby Grace Lutheran Church, Homolka got out of the car carrying
5568-407: The anesthetic agent halothane from the clinic. On December 23, 1990, Karla and Bernardo administered sleeping pills to 15-year-old Tammy in a rum-and- eggnog cocktail. When Tammy lost consciousness, Karla and Bernardo undressed her and Karla applied a halothane-soaked cloth to her sister's nose and mouth. Karla wanted to "give Tammy's virginity to Bernardo for Christmas"; according to her, Bernardo
5684-557: The assault escalated. Mahaffy cried out in pain and begged Bernardo to stop. In the Crown description of the scene, he was sodomizing her while her hands were bound with twine. Mahaffy later told Bernardo that her blindfold seemed to be slipping, which signaled the possibility that she could identify her attackers if she lived. The following day, Bernardo claimed, Homolka fed her a lethal dose of Halcion ; Homolka claimed that Bernardo strangled her. They put Mahaffy's body in their basement
5800-544: The ban, which was imposed on July 5 by Francis Kovacs of the Ontario Court of Justice . Through her lawyers, Homolka supported the ban; Bernardo's lawyers argued that he would be prejudged by the ban, since Homolka had been portrayed as his victim. Four media outlets and one author also opposed the ban. Some lawyers argued that rumours could damage the future trial process more than the publication of evidence. In February 1994, Homolka divorced Bernardo. Public access to
5916-441: The basement. Bernardo presented himself as being a happy and well-adjusted child despite his family's dysfunction, and was an active member of Scouts Canada . Beneath the charming façade , however, he gradually developed pyromaniac inclinations and dark sexual fantasies , one of which involved creating a "virgin farm" where he would breed virgin girls to rape . After a fight between his parents in 1981, Bernardo, then aged 16,
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#17327919258626032-486: The book was reportedly an Amazon bestseller , but was removed from the website due to a public outcry. In October 2018, Bernardo had been set to go to trial for possession of a " shank " weapon while incarcerated. However, the prosecution dropped the charges due to their determination that there was no reasonable probability of conviction. Bernardo became eligible for parole in February 2018. On October 17 of that year, he
6148-443: The car, drove her to Port Dalhousie, and informed Homolka that they had a victim. Bernardo and Homolka videotaped themselves torturing and sexually abusing Mahaffy while they listened to pop music. At one point, Bernardo said, "You're doing a good job, Leslie, a damned good job", adding: "The next two hours are going to determine what I do to you. Right now, you're scoring perfect." On another segment of tape played at Bernardo's trial,
6264-596: The couple made a number of trips to dump the cement blocks in Lake Gibson , 18 kilometres (11 mi) south of Port Dalhousie. At least one of the blocks weighed 90 kg (200 pounds) and was beyond their ability to sink. It lay near the shore, where it was found on June 29, 1991, coincidentally on Bernardo and Homolka's wedding day. Mahaffy's orthodontic appliance was instrumental in identifying her. Several days before Homolka's release from prison in July 2005, Bernardo
6380-527: The crimes, and the subsequent conviction of Colin Pitchfork on January 2, 1988. Pitchfork, a local bakery employee, had coerced his coworker Ian Kelly to stand in for him when providing a blood sample—Kelly then used a forged passport to impersonate Pitchfork. Another coworker reported the deception to the police. Pitchfork was arrested, and his blood was sent to Jeffreys' lab for processing and profile development. Pitchfork's profile matched that of DNA left by
6496-400: The day before Homolka's family had dinner at the house. Following the dinner party, Bernardo and Homolka decided to dismember Mahaffy's body and encase each part of her remains in cement. Bernardo bought a dozen bags of cement at a hardware store the following day; he kept the receipts, which were damaging at his trial. After Bernardo cut apart the body using his grandfather's circular saw ,
6612-552: The details. Canadians brought copies of The Buffalo News across the border, prompting orders to the NRP to arrest all those with more than one copy at the border; extra copies were confiscated. Copies of other newspapers, including The New York Times , were turned back at the border or not accepted by distributors in Ontario. Gordon Domm, a retired police officer who defied the publication ban by distributing details from foreign media,
6728-452: The detectives asked Bernardo why he thought he was being investigated for the rapes, he admitted that he resembled the composite. Reportedly, detectives found Bernardo more credible than Smirnis. By 1990, Bernardo had lost his job as an accountant and was smuggling cigarettes across the nearby Canada–United States border . He spent long periods of time with Homolka's family, who liked him and were unaware of his criminal activities. Although he
6844-414: The diagnostic criteria of sexual sadism, voyeurism, and paraphilia not otherwise specified ." The reports furthermore stated that he "met the criteria for narcissistic personality disorder and [met the requirement for] a diagnosis of psychopathy," meaning he was thereby "more likely to repeat violent sexual offending." The reports concluded that Bernardo "showed minimal insight into [his] offending, which
6960-524: The direct use of DNA variation for forensics ( US5593832A ) was filed by Jeffrey Glassberg in 1983, based upon work he had done while at Rockefeller University in the United States in 1981. British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys independently developed a process for DNA profiling in 1984 while working in the Department of Genetics at the University of Leicester . Jeffreys discovered that
7076-569: The end of May, John Motile, an acquaintance of Smirnis and Bernardo, reported Bernardo as a possible suspect in the murders. In December 1992, the Centre of Forensic Sciences finally began testing DNA samples provided by Bernardo two years earlier. On 27 December, Bernardo severely beat Homolka with a flashlight, leaving multiple bruises. Claiming that she had been in an automobile accident, Homolka returned to work on 4 January 1993. Her skeptical co-workers called her parents, and although they rescued her
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#17327919258627192-465: The evening. Known incidents are: In July 1990, two months after police received tips that Bernardo resembled the Scarborough Rapist composite, he was interviewed by two police detectives. From May to September 1990, Toronto police submitted more than 130 suspects' samples for DNA testing . Investigators received two tips pointing to Bernardo. The first, in June, had been filed by a bank employee. The second
7308-412: The examples of other serial rapists, and their own past experiences of physical or sexual abuse. Rachel Lovell, Case Western University describes her research: "Our findings suggest it is very likely that a sexual offender has either previously sexually assaulted or will offend again in the future...Investigating each sexual assault as possibly perpetrated by a serial offender has the potential to reduce
7424-464: The first one. In order to curb and catch such offenders, the FBI created its Behavioral Science Unit in 1974. A serial rapist can use online dating sites to identify potential victims. Threatening harm to the victim and their family is another tactic used. Drugging the victim is sometimes employed. Some serial rapists are specific in identifying their targets and their schedules. A serial rapist may describe their activities on websites, describing
7540-564: The following day by physically removing her from Bernardo's house, Homolka went back in to frantically search for something. Homolka's parents took her to St. Catharines General Hospital, where she gave a statement to the NRP that she was a battered spouse and filed charges against Bernardo. He was arrested, and later released on his own recognizance. A friend who found Bernardo's suicide note intervened, and Homolka moved in with relatives in Brampton . Twenty-six months after Bernardo submitted
7656-485: The future of scientific study in pharmacognosy. It also helps with determining the traits (such as seed size and leaf color) are likely to improve the offspring or not. An early application of a DNA database was the compilation of a Mitochondrial DNA Concordance, prepared by Kevin W. P. Miller and John L. Dawson at the University of Cambridge from 1996 to 1999 from data collected as part of Miller's PhD thesis. There are now several DNA databases in existence around
7772-681: The genetic ancestry of the male population. To investigate this population history, and to provide estimates for haplotype frequencies in criminal casework, the "Y haplotype reference database (YHRD)" has been created in 2000 as an online resource. It currently comprises more than 300,000 minimal (8 locus) haplotypes from world-wide populations. mtDNA can be obtained from such material as hair shafts and old bones/teeth. Control mechanism based on interaction point with data. This can be determined by tooled placement in sample. When people think of DNA analysis, they often think about television shows like NCIS or CSI , which portray DNA samples coming into
7888-401: The house. Damage had to be kept to a minimum; police could not tear down walls looking for the tapes. The search of the house (including updated warrants) lasted 71 days, and the only tape found by police had a brief segment of Homolka performing oral sex on "Jane Doe". During a call from jail, Bernardo told his lawyer, Ken Murray, that the rape videos were hidden in a ceiling light fixture in
8004-550: The information to legal authorities in November 2005. In 2006, Bernardo gave a prison interview in which he claimed that he had reformed and would make a good parole candidate. He became eligible to petition a jury for early parole in 2008 under the faint hope clause (since he committed multiple murders before the 1997 criminal-code amendment) but did not do so. In 2015, Bernardo applied for day parole in Toronto. According to
8120-452: The introduction of advanced forensic techniques (such as genetic genealogy using public genealogy databases and DNA phenotyping approaches) has been limited, disjointed, unfocused, and raises issues of privacy and consent that may warrant the establishment of additional legal protections. The U.S. Patriot Act of the United States provides a means for the U.S. government to get DNA samples from suspected terrorists. DNA information from crimes
8236-417: The investigation. Evidence can consist of DNA , saliva and fingerprints , hair, vaginal swabs, fingernail scrapings, and bed linens. Those investigating serial rapes often identify the rapist with a "nickname" before an arrest is made by characterizing the tactics or patterns of the rapes. Serial rapists are more likely to be convicted than a rapist who is known by the victim. Unlike those convicted for
8352-407: The investigation. In his 1996 report, Campbell found that a lack of coordination, cooperation and communications by police and other elements of the judicial system contributed to a serial predator "falling through the cracks". One of Campbell's key recommendations was for an automated case-management system for Ontario's police services to use in investigations of homicides and sexual assaults. Ontario
8468-648: The legislation was inconsequential, while Pierre Poilievre , the Leader of the Opposition , said that this was an example of the soft-on-crime policies of the Trudeau government. On March 6, 2024, MP Frank Caputo learnt there was an inmate hockey rink on the premises of La Macaza. Caputo said "the cherry on top was seeing this beautiful gymnasium and next to that is a weight room. Much nicer than 95 per cent of Canadians have access to." Bernardo's next parole hearing
8584-458: The likelihood of their involvement in the crime. It is also used in paternity testing , to establish immigration eligibility, and in genealogical and medical research. DNA profiling has also been used in the study of animal and plant populations in the fields of zoology, botany, and agriculture. Starting in the mid 1970s, scientific advances allowed the use of DNA as a material for the identification of an individual. The first patent covering
8700-541: The middle of the night, and despite a chemical burn on Tammy's face, the Regional Municipality of Niagara coroner and Karla's family accepted the couple's version of events. The official cause of Tammy's death was ruled accidental, the result of choking on vomit after consumption of alcohol. After Tammy's death, Bernardo and Karla videotaped themselves engaging in sexual intercourse, with Karla wearing Tammy's clothing and pretending to be her. They moved out of
8816-456: The morning on June 15, 1991, while detouring through Burlington to steal licence plates , Bernardo came across 14-year-old Leslie Mahaffy. Mahaffy had been locked out of her house for missed curfew after attending a friend's wake . Bernardo left his car and approached Mahaffy, saying that he wanted to break into a neighbour's house. Unfazed, she asked if he had any cigarettes. When Bernardo led her to his car, he blindfolded her, forced her into
8932-423: The murderer which confirmed Pitchfork's presence at both crime scenes; he pleaded guilty to both murders. After some years, a chemical company named Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) introduced the first ever commercially available kit to the world. Despite being a relatively recent field, it had a significant global influence on both criminal justice system and society. Although 99.9% of human DNA sequences are
9048-463: The number of sexual assaults if investigations focus more on the offender than on single incidents." Investigation of the offender instead of the crime has been proposed to prevent serial rapes. The backlog of analyzing rape kits impedes the identification of serial rapists. Hundreds of thousands of rape kits remain untested across the US. Most law enforcement agencies do not track or count them. The process
9164-425: The offer, and Homolka later agreed to it. On May 14, Homolka's plea bargain was finalized, and she began giving statements to police investigators. She told police that Bernardo boasted that he had raped as many as thirty women, twice as many as the police suspected. Citing the need to protect Bernardo's right to a fair trial , a publication ban was imposed on Homolka's preliminary inquiry. The Crown had applied for
9280-561: The passage of Bill C-83, An Act to amend the Corrections and Conditional Release Act and another Act . On July 26, 2023, Public Safety Minister Marco Mendicino was dropped from cabinet and replaced by Dominic LeBlanc during a cabinet shuffle with the media attributing his demotion to the controversy around the Bernardo transfer. The day after LeBlanc was installed, The Globe and Mail wrote an article covering his opinion that
9396-448: The probability of that individual having that DNA type is the probability of having type A times the probability of having type B times the probability of having type C. This has resulted in the ability to generate match probabilities of 1 in a quintillion (1x10 ) or more. However, DNA database searches showed much more frequent than expected false DNA profile matches. Due to the paternal inheritance, Y-haplotypes provide information about
9512-529: The rape and murder of Mahaffy and French, and that the rapes were recorded. The NRP subsequently reopened its investigation of Tammy Homolka's death. Two days later Homolka met with Niagara Falls lawyer George Walker, who sought legal immunity from Crown prosecutor Houlahan in exchange for her cooperation. She was also placed under 24-hour surveillance. The couple's name change was approved on February 13, 1993. The next day, Walker met with Crown Criminal Law Office director Murray Segal. After Walker told Segal about
9628-404: The rape occurs was found to be further with the single-victim rapists. Single-victim rapists use a "capture" method, sometimes using the tactic of being a hitch hiker , or a "con" method by meeting at a bar or party and engaging in social interaction. Conversely, serial rapists have a tendency to ambush or use a "blitz" approach of a victim. A serial rapist is more likely to target a stranger than
9744-411: The reaction is cooled to 50-65 °C . This enables the primers to attach to a specific location on the single -stranded template DNA by way of hydrogen bonding. 3-Extension : A thermostable DNA polymerase which is Taq polymerase is commonly used at this step. This is done at a temperature of 72 °C . DNA polymerase adds nucleotides in the 5'-3' direction and synthesizes the complementary strand of
9860-406: The reason for the transfer was not provided to the public. Bernardo had successfully applied to be moved there. In light of the scandal and dismay raised by the transfer, on June 5, 2023, Correctional Service Canada announced it was to review the decision and on July 20, Commissioner Anne Kelly explained in a 30-minute press conference that the review board found the transfer to be "sound" in view of
9976-479: The same VNTRs. Before VNTRs and STRs, people like Jeffreys used a process called restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) . This process regularly used large portions of DNA to analyze the differences between two DNA samples. RFLP was among the first technologies used in DNA profiling and analysis. However, as technology has evolved, new technologies, like STR, emerged and took the place of older technology like RFLP. The admissibility of DNA evidence in courts
10092-537: The same basic procedure. The cell and nuclear membranes need to be broken up to allow the DNA to be free in solution. Once the DNA is free, it can be separated from all other cellular components. After the DNA has been separated in solution, the remaining cellular debris can then be removed from the solution and discarded, leaving only DNA. The most common methods of DNA extraction include organic extraction (also called phenol chloroform extraction), Chelex extraction , and solid phase extraction . Differential extraction
10208-513: The same in every person, enough of the DNA is different that it is possible to distinguish one individual from another, unless they are monozygotic (identical) twins . DNA profiling uses repetitive sequences that are highly variable, called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs), in particular short tandem repeats (STRs), also known as microsatellites , and minisatellites . VNTR loci are similar between closely related individuals, but are so variable that unrelated individuals are unlikely to have
10324-460: The samples were affected by DNA degradation or having too small a quantity of DNA present. When looking at an electropherogram, it is possible to determine the number of contributors in less complex mixtures based on the number of peaks located in each locus. In comparison to a single source profile, which will only have one or two peaks at each locus, a mixture is when there are three or more peaks at two or more loci. If there are three peaks at only
10440-399: The smallest contributor can now be detected by modern tests. The ease in which forensic scientists have in interpenetrating DNA mixtures largely depends on the ratio of DNA present from each individual, the genotype combinations, and the total amount of DNA amplified. The DNA ratio is often the most important aspect to look at in determining whether a mixture can be interpreted. For example, if
10556-496: The solving of the murder of two teenagers who had been raped and murdered in Narborough, Leicestershire in 1983 and 1986. In the murder inquiry, led by Detective David Baker, the DNA contained within blood samples obtained voluntarily from around 5,000 local men who willingly assisted Leicestershire Constabulary with the investigation, resulted in the exoneration of Richard Buckland, an initial suspect who had confessed to one of
10672-450: The tactics they use to commit the sexual assault. In 2014, an 18-year-old individual accused of serial rapes had used cell phone messaging apps Facebook , Kik , and Snapchat to establish a relationship with girls. Some serial rapists drive victims to remote locations. Perpetrators can be described as "highly manipulative , very charismatic and charming ." Serial rapists differ from single-victim rapists. The distance traveled before
10788-436: The three confirmed murders ascribed to Bernardo and Homolka, suspicions remain about other possible victims or intended victims: Homolka and Bernardo were questioned by police several times in connection with the Scarborough Rapist investigation, Homolka's death, and Bernardo's stalking of other women before French's abduction. On May 12, 1992, Bernardo was briefly interviewed by an NRP sergeant and constable, who decided that he
10904-565: The trial the DNA match was requested to be removed from the evidence because it had been illegally entered into the database. The request was carried out. The DNA of the perpetrator, collected from victims of rape, can be stored for years until a match is found. In 2014, to address this problem, Congress extended a bill that helps states deal with "a backlog" of evidence. DNA profiling databases in Plants: PIDS: PIDS(Plant international DNA-fingerprinting system)
11020-496: The upstairs bathroom. Murray found the tapes and hid them from investigators. After Murray resigned as Bernardo's lawyer, his new attorney, John Rosen, turned the tapes over to police. On May 5, Walker was informed that the government was offering Homolka a plea bargain of twelve years' imprisonment which she had one week to accept. If she declined, the government would charge her with two counts of first-degree murder , one count of second-degree murder and other crimes. Walker accepted
11136-459: The victims' lawyer, Tim Danson, it is unlikely that Bernardo will ever be released in any capacity due to his dangerous offender status. In September 2013, Bernardo was transferred to Millhaven Institution in Bath , where he was reportedly segregated from other inmates. In November 2015, Bernardo self-published A MAD World Order , a violent, fictional, 631-page e-book on Amazon . By November 15,
11252-408: The victims, and using or threatening the use of weapons ." Many times, the evidence that is collected from the physical examinations and testimony of those who were raped is in the possession of numerous law enforcement agencies and may impede the recognition that the rapist has committed the crime over a period of time. Conviction of the rapist can be delayed when victims do not cooperate in
11368-442: The videotapes, Segal advised him that, due to Homolka's involvement in the crimes, full immunity was not a possibility. On February 17, detectives arrested Bernardo on several charges and obtained a search warrant . Because his link to the murders was weak, the warrant was limited; no evidence which was not expected and documented in the warrant could be removed from his property, and all videotapes found by police had to be viewed in
11484-623: The world. Some are private, but most of the largest databases are government-controlled. The United States maintains the largest DNA database , with the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) holding over 13 million records as of May 2018. The United Kingdom maintains the National DNA Database (NDNAD), which is of similar size, despite the UK's smaller population. The size of this database, and its rate of growth, are giving concern to civil liberties groups in
11600-459: Was Karla's younger sister, Tammy Homolka . After his capture and conviction, Bernardo was sentenced to life imprisonment and was declared a dangerous offender , thus making it unlikely that he will ever be released from prison. Following his conviction, Bernardo confessed to ten more rapes committed a year before the spree ascribed to the Scarborough Rapist. Homolka was given a lighter sentence in exchange for testifying against Bernardo as part of
11716-401: Was almost impossible to analyze degraded DNA samples. Methods like Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), which was the first technique used for DNA analysis in forensic science, required high molecular weight DNA in the sample in order to get reliable data. High molecular weight DNA, however, is lacking in degraded samples, as the DNA is too fragmented to carry out RFLP accurately. It
11832-476: Was an unlikely suspect despite his admission that he had previously been questioned in connection to the Scarborough Rapist. Three days later, the Green Ribbon Task Force was created to investigate the murders of Mahaffy and French. Bernardo and Homolka had applied to have their names legally changed to Teale, which Bernardo had taken from the serial killer in the 1988 film Criminal Law . At
11948-535: Was convicted of two counts of contempt of court . Bernardo was tried for the murders of French and Mahaffy in 1995, and his trial included detailed testimony from Homolka and videotapes of the rapes. Bernardo testified that the deaths were accidental, later claiming that Homolka was the actual killer. On September 1, 1995, Bernardo was convicted of a number of offences, including the two first-degree murders and two aggravated sexual assaults, and sentenced to life in prison without parole for at least twenty-five years. He
12064-591: Was denied day and full parole by the Parole Board of Canada . His next parole hearing took place on June 22, 2021; it took only one hour of deliberation by the presiding judge for his application to be turned down. In May 2023, after spending a decade at Millhaven Institution, Bernardo was transferred to La Macaza Institution , a medium-security facility in Quebec, where he will continue to serve his indeterminate sentence. The transfer caused controversy and initially
12180-423: Was designated a dangerous offender , making him unlikely to ever be released. Homolka's plea bargain was criticized by many Canadians since Bernardo's first defence lawyer, Ken Murray, had withheld the videotapes exposing Homolka's culpability for seventeen months. The videotapes were considered crucial evidence, and prosecutors said that they would never have agreed to the plea bargain if they had seen them. Murray
12296-472: Was disappointed that he was not Karla's first sex partner. With Tammy's parents sleeping upstairs, the couple videotaped themselves raping Tammy in the basement. Tammy began to vomit; they tried to revive her and called 9-1-1 after hiding evidence, dressing Tammy and moving her into her bedroom. A few hours later, Tammy was pronounced dead at St. Catharines General Hospital without regaining consciousness. Despite being observed vacuuming and washing laundry in
12412-411: Was disputed in the United States in the 1980s and 1990s, but has since become more universally accepted due to improved techniques. When a sample such as blood or saliva is obtained, the DNA is only a small part of what is present in the sample. Before the DNA can be analyzed, it must be extracted from the cells and purified. There are many ways this can be accomplished, but all methods follow
12528-598: Was engaged to Karla, he had become obsessed with her younger sister Tammy, peering into her window and entering her room to masturbate while she slept. Karla helped Bernardo by breaking the windows in her sister's room, allowing him access. According to Bernardo's testimony at trial, Karla laced spaghetti sauce with crushed valium she had stolen from her employer at an animal clinic . She served it to her sister, who soon lost consciousness. Bernardo then raped Tammy while Karla watched. After one minute, Tammy regained consciousness. Six months before their 1991 wedding, Karla stole
12644-565: Was from Tina Smirnis, wife of one of the three Smirnis brothers who were among Bernardo's closest friends. Smirnis told detectives that Bernardo "had been 'called in' on a previous rape investigation – once in December 1987 – but he had never been interviewed". Bernardo frequently talked about his sex life to Smirnis and said that he liked rough sex. Police interviewed Bernardo on November 20, 1990, for thirty-five minutes. Bernardo voluntarily provided DNA samples for forensic testing. When
12760-525: Was informed by his mother that he was the result of an extramarital affair and that Kenneth was not his biological father. Repulsed, Bernardo began to call his mother a "slut" and a "whore"; she reciprocated by calling him a "bastard from hell". Later, after growing weary of his domineering behavior, Bernardo's first girlfriend left him for one of his friends. In retaliation, Bernardo set fire to all of her belongings to which he had access. Bernardo attended Sir Wilfrid Laurier Collegiate Institute and, in 1982,
12876-451: Was interviewed by police and his lawyer, Tony Bryant. According to Bryant, Bernardo stated that he had always intended to free the girls he and Homolka had kidnapped. However, when Mahaffy's blindfold fell off, Homolka was concerned that Mahaffy would identify Bernardo and report the couple to the police. Bernardo claimed that Homolka planned to murder Mahaffy by injecting an air bubble into her bloodstream, triggering an air embolism . During
12992-463: Was later acquitted of obstruction of justice and faced a disciplinary hearing by the Law Society of Upper Canada . Although Bernardo was kept in the segregation unit at Kingston Penitentiary for his own safety, he was attacked and harassed; he was punched in the face by another inmate when he returned from a shower in 1996. In June 1999, five convicts tried to storm his segregation range and
13108-465: Was never blindfolded and could identify her captors. The following day, Bernardo and Homolka murdered French before going to the Homolkas' for Easter dinner. Homolka testified at her trial that Bernardo strangled French for seven minutes while she watched. Bernardo claimed that Homolka beat French with a rubber mallet because she tried to escape, and French was strangled with a noose around her neck which
13224-466: Was on November 26, 2024. His victims' families were initially barred from attending the hearing in person because of safety concerns, but that decision was reversed by the parole board. Bernardo was denied parole for a third time by the Parole Board of Canada. After Bernardo's 1995 conviction, the Ontario government appointed Archie Campbell to review the roles played by the police services during
13340-464: Was only when Polymerase Chain Reaction techniques were invented that analysis of degraded DNA samples were able to be carried out. Multiplex PCR in particular made it possible to isolate and to amplify the small fragments of DNA that are still left in degraded samples. When multiplex PCR methods are compared to the older methods like RFLP, a vast difference can be seen. Multiplex PCR can theoretically amplify less than 1 ng of DNA, but RFLP had to have
13456-495: Was secured to a hope chest ; Homolka then went to fix her hair. French's nude body was found on April 30, 1992, in a ditch in Burlington, about forty-five minutes from St. Catharines and a short distance from the cemetery where Mahaffy is buried. She had been washed and her hair was cut off. Although it was thought that the hair was removed as a trophy, Homolka testified that it was cut to impede identification. In addition to
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