Academy of Fine Arts (Budapest)
96-473: (Redirected from Schoeffer ) Schöffer is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include: Nicolas Schöffer (1912–1992), Hungarian-born French artist Peter Schöffer (c. 1425 – c. 1503), German printer Peter Schöffer the Younger (c. 1480 – 1547), German printer, son of Peter Schöffer [REDACTED] Surname list This page lists people with
192-543: A microphone built into the sculpture caught all the variations in the fields of color, light and sound intensity. All these changes occasioned reactions on the part of the responsive sculpture. The sculpture was first presented in 1956 at the Sarah Bernhardt Theater in Paris during a night of poetry. That same year, at the avant-garde art festival, the dancers of Maurice Béjart 's ballet company performed
288-421: A participatory art in which the recipient changes the work of art, redesigns it and thus becomes the creator of the work himself. He did not shy away from having some of his artworks mass-produced. He questioned the traditional function of art and designed a cybernetic city where art plays the major role and is the organisational principle of its functioning. After a few initial sculptural works, Schöffer gave up
384-403: A 30% increase in output simply from changing over to electric motors. Electrification enabled modern mass production, as with Thomas Edison's iron ore processing plant (about 1893) that could process 20,000 tons of ore per day with two shifts, each of five men. At that time it was still common to handle bulk materials with shovels, wheelbarrows and small narrow-gauge rail cars, and for comparison,
480-643: A backbone "main" assembly line. A diagram of a typical mass-production factory looks more like the skeleton of a fish than a single line. Vertical integration is a business practice that involves gaining complete control over a product's production, from raw materials to final assembly. In the age of mass production, this caused shipping and trade problems in that shipping systems were unable to transport huge volumes of finished automobiles (in Henry Ford's case) without causing damage, and also government policies imposed trade barriers on finished units. Ford built
576-548: A ballet with CYSP1 on the terrace of Le Corbusier 's Cité Radieuse complex in Marseille . The sculpture reacted to the movements of the dancers. The spectacle was accompanied by concrete music by Pierre Henry. Further performances followed in the studio of the artist at the Villa des Arts in Paris. SCAM1 was the first automobile sculpture of the art history. Traditionally, sculptures were site-specific, immobile works of art. At
672-585: A canal digger in previous decades typically handled five tons per 12-hour day. The biggest impact of early mass production was in manufacturing everyday items, such as at the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing Company , which electrified its mason jar plant in Muncie, Indiana , U.S., around 1900. The new automated process used glass-blowing machines to replace 210 craftsman glass blowers and helpers. A small electric truck
768-420: A city scale. During this last period he created graphic works, using his left hand or with the computer. This was not a return to the ideas of the first period, which is also characterized by graphic and painterly work, but rather a synthesis of his entire career. With CYSP1 Schöffer created the first cybernetic sculpture in art history in 1956. The name CYSP1 refers to the cybernetic and spatiodynamic features of
864-403: A company to produce a larger quantity of one product at a lower cost than using traditional, non-linear methods. However, mass production is inflexible because it is difficult to alter a design or production process after a production line is implemented. Also, all products produced on one production line will be identical or very similar, and introducing variety to satisfy individual tastes
960-421: A construction with horizontal and vertical square profiles and of the permanently fixed discs and plates. The ratio of the structure is based on the golden section . The construction is illuminated by colored and white light sources and the shadows on the walls are considered as part of the work. Schöffer also used a semi-transparent screen. This resulted in multiple possible readings of the work. Schöffer submitted
1056-535: A couple of hours, were highly successful: over 100,000 Nissen huts were produced during World War I alone, and they would go on to serve in other conflicts and inspire a number of similar designs. Following World War II, in the United States, William Levitt pioneered the building of standardized tract houses in 56 different locations around the country. These communities were dubbed Levittowns , and they were able to be constructed quickly and cheaply through
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#17327726987451152-454: A cultural asset equally to everyone without limitations. The playful and spectacular aspects of his works served the goal of gaining the attention of the audience and involving the viewer through participation in the creative processes. To make art universally available, he explored the possibilities of serial production . Schöffer was born in Kalocsa in the south of Hungary. His mother was
1248-429: A main view and the parts stand out only moderately. A back surface supports the relief. The influence of Mondrian 's Neoplasticism can already be felt in these relief images. The elements of this artistic language were the pairs of opposites horizontal/vertical, large/small, light/dark and the reduction of colours to the three primary colours : red, yellow and blue as well as the non-colours: black, gray and white. Later
1344-463: A multiple head milling machine that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture. All of these machine tools were arranged systematically in the production flow and some had special carriages for rolling heavy items into machining position. Production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools. The process of prefabrication, wherein parts are created separately from
1440-425: A satisfying speed of artistic production. The perception of the viewer was central to the concept of the works. His artistic practise is characterized by a harmonious combination of art, technology and science which requires teamwork. He left part of the creative process to his colleagues. In several cases he only created the algorithm and let the program conjure up the spectacle . On the other hand, he also envisaged
1536-424: A spectacle on a monumental scale that would have been accompanied by strong sound effects. The purpose of the works called Les Percussonor (1984–85) was to relieve mental tension caused by stress as a consequence of urban life. They are participatory works of art where the audience is encouraged to hit parts of the sculpture to produce sound effects. These plans have remained in different stages of development but
1632-513: A spindle cutting machine, which could produce multiple parts at the same time. Terry hired Silas Hoadley and Seth Thomas to work the Assembly line at the facilities. The Porter Contract was the first contract which called for mass production of clock movements in history. In 1815, Terry began mass-producing the first shelf clock. Chauncey Jerome , an apprentice of Eli Terry mass-produced up to 20,000 brass clocks annually in 1840 when he invented
1728-591: A system of process control which uses various instruments to measure variables such as temperature, pressure, volumetric and level, providing feedback. Bulk materials such as coal, ores, grains and wood chips are handled by belt, chain, slat, pneumatic or screw conveyors, bucket elevators and mobile equipment such as front-end loaders . Materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes , sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production
1824-401: A tremendous amount of useless handling and hauling. The belt and line shaft were also tremendously wasteful – so wasteful indeed that no factory could be really large, for even the longest line shaft was small according to modern requirements. Also high speed tools were impossible under the old conditions – neither the pulleys nor the belts could stand modern speeds. Without high speed tools and
1920-480: A very large amount of trees. In order to speed up such efforts, fast propagation of trees may be useful. Some automated machines have been produced to allow for fast (vegetative) plant propagation . Also, for some plants that help to sequester carbon (such as seagrass ), techniques have been developed to help speed up the process . Mass production benefited from the development of materials such as inexpensive steel, high strength steel and plastics. Machining of metals
2016-456: A violinist and took care of his musical education, and encouraged him to draw. He took piano lessons from the age of seven. The father was a lawyer. After elementary school, Schöffer continued to study with the Jesuits , despite his Jewish descent. This duality of religious education led to an openness towards other religious attitudes that is expressed by his idea of a universal religion in
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#17327726987452112-607: A worker work on a whole product from start to finish. The emergence of mass production allowed supply to outstrip demand in many markets, forcing companies to seek new ways to become more competitive . Mass production ties into the idea of overconsumption and the idea that we as humans consume too much. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves piping with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors (augers) to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels. Fluid flow processes such as oil refining and bulk materials such as wood chips and pulp are automated using
2208-656: Is Jikji , printed in Korea in the year 1377. Johannes Gutenberg , through his invention of the printing press and production of the Gutenberg Bible , introduced movable type to Europe. Through this introduction, mass production in the European publishing industry was made commonplace, leading to a democratization of knowledge , increased literacy and education, and the beginnings of modern science . French artillery engineer Jean-Baptiste de Gribeauval introduced
2304-405: Is capital-intensive and energy-intensive, for it uses a high proportion of machinery and energy in relation to workers. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased. However, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line (such as robots and machine presses ) is so expensive that in order to attain profits there must be some assurance that
2400-448: Is a reduction of non-productive effort of all types. In craft production , the craftsman must bustle about a shop, getting parts and assembling them. He must locate and use many tools many times for varying tasks. In mass production, each worker repeats one or a few related tasks that use the same tool to perform identical or near-identical operations on a stream of products. The exact tool and parts are always at hand, having been moved down
2496-526: Is different from Wikidata All set index articles Nicolas Sch%C3%B6ffer SCAM1 automobile sculpture Plan of a Cybernetic Light Tower for Paris Plan of a cybernetic city 2. Period: kinetic art, cybernetic art, neoplasticism Officer in the Légion d'Honneur (1983) Frank J. Malina Leonardo Award for lifetime achievement (1986) Officer in the Ordre des Arts et Lettres (1985) Commander in
2592-409: Is difficult to establish a chronology, but a development from figurative to abstract works and an approach from the surface into space can be discovered. The transition went from figurative works through a phase of lyric abstraction to geometric abstraction. About the end of this phase Schöffer experimented with a painting pendulum and with a paint gun. On his way from the surface of a canvas into space
2688-506: Is striking. This comes from a desire to try different techniques and subjects. Cathedrals, depictions of Jesus, nude scenes with Turkish figures, portraits of men, surrealistic creatures with double faces, animals that are only depicted with their characteristic features, various still lifes and rare humorous drawings can be found in the repertoire. He did not make exact copies but he imitated masters of art history to understand their creative methods. Since works of this period were rarely dated it
2784-524: Is that while Taylor focused mostly on efficiency of the worker, Ford also substituted for labor by using machines, thoughtfully arranged, wherever possible. In 1807, Eli Terry was hired to produce 4,000 wooden movement clocks in the Porter Contract. At this time, the annual yield for wooden clocks did not exceed a few dozen on average. Terry developed a milling machine in 1795, in which he perfected Interchangeable parts . In 1807, Terry developed
2880-514: Is the production of substantial amounts of standardized products in a constant flow, including and especially on assembly lines . Together with job production and batch production , it is one of the three main production methods. The term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopædia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company . The New York Times used
2976-616: The Aveyron area until his return after the liberation of Paris. During this period he met his first wife, Marie Rose Marguerite Orlhac. They married on February 22, 1945 in Capdenac . After the war Schöffer and his wife returned to Paris. They lived at 12 rue de Paris in Clichy, and his wife ran an antique shop. Between 1945 and 1949 Schöffer experimented with painting and graphics until he came across Norbert Wiener's book. Schöffer lived in
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3072-506: The Eiffel Tower and an information source for the inhabitants of Paris. It took ten years to design. The first oil crisis and the death of Pompidou thwarted the plan. Schöffer began to plan several series of cybernetic sculptures and Hydro-Thermo-Chronos Fountains to socialize art and enhance the aesthetic quality of the surroundings in the city. Several of these new ideas remained in the planning phase, after he fell ill. He planned
3168-620: The Ford River Rouge Complex with the idea of making the company's own iron and steel in the same large factory site where parts and car assembly took place. River Rouge also generated its own electricity. Upstream vertical integration, such as to raw materials, is away from leading technology toward mature, low-return industries. Most companies chose to focus on their core business rather than vertical integration. This included buying parts from outside suppliers, who could often produce them as cheaply or cheaper. Standard Oil ,
3264-646: The Galerie Harriet Hubbard Ayer presented the work of Schöffer and J.M. Savage entitled Les mobiles de l'Amour . In 1951 Schöffer took part in the Salon de la Jeune Sculpture . In 1952, the Gallery Mai showed an exhibitionthe to the public the title of which, Oeuvres Spatiodynamic , already contains the expression Spatiodynamic. He worked out the extensive theory of Spatiodynamism (1950-1957) that he explains in his first book. Most of
3360-560: The Henry Ford Company which was rebranded as Cadillac and later was awarded the Dewar Trophy in 1908 for creating interchangeable mass-produced precision engine parts, Henry Ford downplayed the role of Taylorism in the development of mass production at his company. However, Ford management performed time studies and experiments to mechanize their factory processes, focusing on minimizing worker movements. The difference
3456-517: The Industrial Revolution by many centuries; however, it was not until the introduction of machine tools and techniques to produce interchangeable parts were developed in the mid-19th century that modern mass production was possible. Mass production involves making many copies of products, very quickly, using assembly line techniques to send partially complete products to workers who each work on an individual step, rather than having
3552-863: The Légion d'Honneur in 1983. He was promoted to the rank of officer in the Ordre des Arts et Lettres in 1985. The award of the rank of commander in the Ordre National du Mérite followed in 1990. In 1986, the artist suffered a brain haemorrhage and never recovered. During the last seven years of his life he used a wheelchair. He was cared for by his second wife, Eléonore de Lavandeyra, whom he married after Orlhac's death. Schöffer died in 1992, but his artworks were kept for decades in his original studio and Schöffer's intellectual legacy maintained. Eléonore de Lavandeyra Schöffer died on 15 January 2020. Schöffer's artistic career can be divided into three major periods by two clear turning points. He experimented and systematically sought his own artistic position during
3648-679: The Olympic Games in Los Angeles that took place in 1984. Les Basculantes (1982–83) (Tumbling Sculptures) are cybernetic sculptures that lean at every moment to one side like the Tower of Pisa but they are continuously changing the direction and angle of their inclination. The idea of the Hydro-Thermo-Chronos Fountains also dates back to 1983. These fountains would have used water, fire and lasers to evoke
3744-513: The Ordre National du Mérite (1990) Nicolas Schöffer ( Hungarian : Schöffer Miklós ; 6 September 1912 — 8 January 1992) was a Hungarian-born French cybernetic artist . Schöffer was born in Kalocsa , Hungary and lived in France from 1936 until his death in Montmartre , Paris in 1992. He built his artworks on cybernetic theories of control and feedback primarily based on
3840-664: The Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars . It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham . The first unmistakable examples of manufacturing operations carefully designed to reduce production costs by specialized labour and the use of machines appeared in
3936-643: The Venetian Arsenal produced nearly one ship every day in what was effectively the world's first factory , which at its height employed 16,000 people. The invention of movable type has allowed for documents such as books to be mass produced. The first movable type system was invented in China by Bi Sheng , during the reign of the Song dynasty , where it was used to, among other things, issue paper money . The oldest extant book produced using metal type
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4032-594: The Villa des Arts from 1954, first on the fourth floor and later on the ground floor. La Villa des Arts was built on a site separated from the Montmartre Cemetery . In 1890, King Louis XV had a series of 67 studios built here for artists using materials dismantled from the Universal Exhibition . The stairs of the old Gare Saint Lazare were reused here. Numerous artists lived and worked in
4128-803: The cybernetic city of the future. Thanks to the influence of his father, Schöffer left home to study law at the Royal Hungarian Pázmány Péter University in Budapest . After graduating as a doctor in law, he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts . In 1932 he took part in the winter exhibition of the national salon in Budapest. It was his only public appearance before the war in Hungary. In 1936 he left Hungary and settled in Paris. Here, Schöffer continued his studies in
4224-482: The spaciodynamic Sculptures were still static, only a few of them were works of kinetic art . Spatiodynamic 27 called CYSP0 was the last piece of the series and a preparation to the creation of the first cybernetic sculpture of art history. The basic concept of the LUX series is similar to that of the light-space-modulator created by Moholy-Nagy , but the structure of the sculpture is different. The sculptures consist of
4320-445: The surname Schöffer . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schöffer&oldid=1076104076 " Categories : Surnames German-language surnames Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description
4416-480: The 18th century in England. The Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery and reorganising the dockyard system. Brunel, a pioneering engineer, and Maudslay, a pioneer of machine tool technology who had developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800 which standardized screw thread sizes for
4512-703: The 1950s. He took part in Documenta II (1959) and Documenta III (1964) in Kassel. In 1968 he took part in the Venice Biennale and was awarded the Grand Prize . He has achieved both international media exposure and institutional recognition. In 1982, in recognition of his rich body of work, he was elected a member of the French Academy of fine arts. He was promoted to the rank of officer in
4608-455: The 20th century's definition of mass production appeared in a 1926 Encyclopædia Britannica supplement. The article was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company and is sometimes credited as the first use of the term. Electrification of factories began very gradually in the 1890s after the introduction of a practical DC motor by Frank J. Sprague and accelerated after the AC motor
4704-601: The Emperor's tomb is also believed to have been created through the use of standardized molds on an assembly line . In ancient Carthage , ships of war were mass-produced on a large scale at a moderate cost, allowing them to efficiently maintain their control of the Mediterranean . Many centuries later, the Republic of Venice would follow Carthage in producing ships with prefabricated parts on an assembly line:
4800-476: The armories designing and building many of their own. Some of the methods employed were a system of gauges for checking dimensions of the various parts and jigs and fixtures for guiding the machine tools and properly holding and aligning the work pieces. This system came to be known as armory practice or the American system of manufacturing , which spread throughout New England aided by skilled mechanics from
4896-894: The armories who were instrumental in transferring the technology to the sewing machines manufacturers and other industries such as machine tools, harvesting machines and bicycles. Singer Manufacturing Co. , at one time the largest sewing machine manufacturer, did not achieve interchangeable parts until the late 1880s, around the same time Cyrus McCormick adopted modern manufacturing practices in making harvesting machines . During World War II , The United States mass-produced many vehicles and weapons , such as ships (i.e. Liberty Ships , Higgins boats ), aircraft (i.e. North American P-51 Mustang , Consolidated B-24 Liberator , Boeing B-29 Superfortress ), jeeps (i.e. Willys MB ), trucks, tanks (i.e. M4 Sherman ) and M2 Browning and M1919 Browning machine guns . Many vehicles, transported by ships have been shipped in parts and later assembled on-site. For
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#17327726987454992-504: The assembly line consecutively. The worker spends little or no time retrieving and/or preparing materials and tools, and so the time taken to manufacture a product using mass production is shorter than when using traditional methods. The probability of human error and variation is also reduced, as tasks are predominantly carried out by machinery; error in operating such machinery has more far-reaching consequences. A reduction in labour costs, as well as an increased rate of production, enables
5088-424: The atelier Fernand Sabatté at the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts . In 1937 he participated in the Salon d'Automne and in 1938 in the Salon des Indépendants . The Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (international exposition of art and technology in modern life) in 1937 had a decisive influence on Schöffer's career. The main attraction of the international exhibition,
5184-427: The ateliers, among them Cézanne , Sisley , Marcoussis and Renoir . In his most active years Schöffer had two studios here, one of which previously belonged to Cézanne. Atelier No. 5, the former studio of an equestrian statue sculptor was renovated in 1964. It is the most spectacular atelier of the Villa des Arts. From 1964 Schöffer worked in studio no. 5 and also used studio no. 2. His artistic breakthrough came in
5280-415: The basic principle on April 14, 1956 to the patent office and it was registered on August 25, 1958 as a patent . Schöffer elaborated the theory of Luminodynamism (1957-1959) . In these works, the play of movement and coloured lights provided an attraction that gave a completely original effect even when filmed. Schöffer shot several short films of these. The Microtemps (1960-1966) series challenges
5376-420: The beginning of the 20th century, kinetic artists created sculptures with moving parts but these still remained in the same place. CYSP1 moved around in a confined space that was marked by a black circle on the ground, but could not leave it. SCAM1 was liberated of every confinement and could travel around the city at notable speed because the 3.93 m high sculpture was mounted on a custom-made automobile financed by
5472-429: The blocks to ensure alignment throughout the process. One of the many advantages of this new method was the increase in labour productivity due to the less labour-intensive requirements of managing the machinery. Richard Beamish, assistant to Brunel's son and engineer, Isambard Kingdom Brunel , wrote: So that ten men, by the aid of this machinery, can accomplish with uniformity, celerity and ease, what formerly required
5568-409: The capabilities of human visual perception and assesses the limitations of the related cognitive capacities . The Microtemps are small boxes, the inside of which is either painted black or white, or lined with a reflective material. Various discs, hemispherical shells and plates made of stainless steel are set in motion inside the box by a programmed motor. The speed of their rotations was adapted to
5664-407: The cheap 30-hour OG clock. The United States Department of War sponsored the development of interchangeable parts for guns produced at the arsenals at Springfield, Massachusetts and Harpers Ferry , Virginia (now West Virginia) in the early decades of the 19th century, finally achieving reliable interchangeability by about 1850. This period coincided with the development of machine tools , with
5760-461: The dimensions of his works began to grow. He created cybernetic light towers, the Chronos series. They can be found in several cities around the world. Chronos 8 stands in his home town near the house where he was born. Although the most accomplished and tallest cybernetic light tower that he planned for Paris was never built it is still considered as his masterpiece. It would have been taller than
5856-430: The early part of his career. The main body of his work belongs to the second period. Art historians distinguish three stages of the second creative period that are related to the theories Schöffer elaborated during these time spans. The third main creative period is marked by his return to two-dimensional works due to his incurable illness which impeded his free movement. The stylistic diversity of his first creative period
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#17327726987455952-599: The emphasized main view and created sculptures in which all views were of equal importance. He concentrated on the negative space within the sculpture and on the dynamic perception of the viewer as he/she moves around. The first sculptural works have a functionalist approach. Similar to the Russian constructivists , Schöffer took industrial tasks as a source of inspiration. He planned semaphores, traffic signals, airport flight control signalling systems, clocks, power line pylons, among others. Later he abandoned real tasks and shaped
6048-456: The fashion industry, particularly in the realm of fibers and materials. The advent of synthetic fibers, such as polyester and nylon, revolutionized textile manufacturing by providing cost-effective alternatives to natural fibers. This shift enabled the rapid production of inexpensive clothing, contributing to the rise of fast fashion. This reliance on mass production has raised concerns about environmental sustainability and labor conditions, spurring
6144-502: The finer steels which they brought about, there could be nothing of what we call modern industry. Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by Henry Ford's Ford Motor Company , which introduced electric motors to the then-well-known technique of chain or sequential production. Ford also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle drill presses that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and
6240-559: The finished product, is at the core of all mass-produced construction. Early examples include movable structures reportedly utilized by Akbar the Great , and the chattel houses built by emancipated slaves on Barbados . The Nissen hut , first used by the British during World War I , married prefabrication and mass production in a way that suited the needs of the military. The simple structures, which cost little and could be erected in just
6336-471: The first instance of the application of mass production techniques (though not necessarily the assembly-line method) to marine engineering. In filling an Admiralty order for 90 sets to his high-pressure and high-revolution horizontal trunk engine design, Penn produced them all in 90 days. He also used Whitworth Standard threads throughout. Prerequisites for the wide use of mass production were interchangeable parts , machine tools and power , especially in
6432-416: The first of the series Les Tour Soleil for Venezuela . These monumental solar towers consisted of sun reliefs mounted on a vertical axis. They could move around this axis on a spiral path. They stored the sun's energy during the day to use it at night. The innovation was the use of solar energy to supply the sculpture's light sources and motors with power. Plans for a 600 m high solar tower were completed for
6528-476: The first step was thinking in three dimensions. He imagined an abstract three-dimensional construction and drew its projection onto the surface of the two-dimensional support material. The background was no longer to be viewed as such, but as the space in which the objects depicted exist in three dimensions. The image was only its projection onto a screen. The second step was to execute the constructions imagined in three dimensions as relief images. The reliefs have
6624-594: The first time which in turn allowed the application of interchangeable parts , collaborated on plans to manufacture block-making machinery. By 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, which could be made into one of three possible sizes. The machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability. The machines would make markings and indentations on
6720-466: The focus of the artist's attention. However, the program of the microtemps and luminos repeated itself endlessly in the same way, because it was not yet based on an algorithm. During his further artistic activity, Schöffer created sculptures using cybernetics program patterns which are never repeated. Schöffer elaborated the theory of Chronodynamism in 1959. With the five topologies and cybernetics together, Schöffer had his full artistic arsenal ready, and
6816-475: The form of electricity . Some of the organizational management concepts needed to create 20th-century mass production, such as scientific management , had been pioneered by other engineers (most of whom are not famous, but Frederick Winslow Taylor is one of the well-known ones), whose work would later be synthesized into fields such as industrial engineering , manufacturing engineering , operations research , and management consultancy . Although after leaving
6912-495: The gallery owner Denise René and produced by the Renault Company. SCAM1 appeared on the streets of Milan and Paris in 1973 and the spectacle attracted considerable attention. It does not exist any more; it had to be dismantled due to difficulties of parking and storage. Serial production Mass production , also known as flow production , series production , series manufacture , or continuous production ,
7008-520: The ideas are clearly expressed. Posthumous realization is possible as the example of LUX 10 shows: this was built decades after Schöffer's death, in 2016 in Busan , South-Korea . Some of Schöffer's works that were never realized, or lost, (Hydro-Thermo-Chronos Fountains, CYSP 1, SCAM1 and the TLC for Paris) were digitally reconstructed by Naomi Devil for the film Extraordinary World of Nicolas Schöffer . This
7104-424: The ideas of Norbert Wiener . Wiener's work suggested to Schöffer an artistic process in terms of the circular causality of feedback loops that he used in a wide range of art genres. His career spanned painting, sculpture, architecture, urbanism, film, theatre, television and music. The quest for dematerialisation of the artwork and the pursuit of movement and dynamics became central themes of his work. He worked with
7200-449: The immaterial media space , time , light , sound and climate that he called the five topologies . He liberated art genres from their spatial and temporal constraints by creating never-ending sound structures that can be heard all over the cybernetic city of the future, and by designing SCAM1, an automobile sculpture. Schöffer declared the socialization of art as an important goal. According to his ideas, art should be available as
7296-547: The invention of machine tools the manufacture of precision parts, especially metal ones, was highly labour-intensive. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period . The Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were fitted with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. The Terracotta Army guarding
7392-423: The leather belt and line shaft , for it eventually became possible to provide each tool with its own electric motor. This may seem only a detail of minor importance. In fact, modern industry could not be carried out with the belt and line shaft for a number of reasons. The motor enabled machinery to be arranged in the order of the work, and that alone has probably doubled the efficiency of industry, for it has cut out
7488-455: The leveraging of economies of scale , as well as the specialization of construction tasks in a process akin to an assembly line. This era also saw the invention of the mobile home , a small prefabricated house that can be transported cheaply on a truck bed. In the modern industrialization of construction, mass production is often used for prefabrication of house components. Fabrics and Materials Mass production has significantly impacted
7584-793: The major oil company in the 19th century, was vertically integrated partly because there was no demand for unrefined crude oil, but kerosene and some other products were in great demand. The other reason was that Standard Oil monopolized the oil industry. The major oil companies were, and many still are, vertically integrated, from production to refining and with their own retail stations, although some sold off their retail operations. Some oil companies also have chemical divisions. Lumber and paper companies at one time owned most of their timber lands and sold some finished products such as corrugated boxes. The tendency has been to divest of timber lands to raise cash and to avoid property taxes. The economies of mass production come from several sources. The primary cause
7680-457: The need for greater ethical and sustainable practices within the fashion industry. Mass production systems for items made of numerous parts are usually organized into assembly lines . The assemblies pass by on a conveyor, or if they are heavy, hung from an overhead crane or monorail. In a factory for a complex product, rather than one assembly line, there may be many auxiliary assembly lines feeding sub-assemblies (i.e. car engines or seats) to
7776-515: The ongoing energy transition , many wind turbine components and solar panels are being mass-produced. Wind turbines and solar panels are being used in respectively wind farms and solar farms . In addition, in the ongoing climate change mitigation , large-scale carbon sequestration (through reforestation , blue carbon restoration , etc) has been proposed. Some projects (such as the Trillion Tree Campaign ) involve planting
7872-532: The palace of discoveries in the west wing of the Grand Palais aroused Schöffer's interest in scientific research and technical innovations. It was thanks to this interest that, just over a decade later, he came across Norbert Wiener's book about cybernetic principles that would radically change his views on art and induce an abrupt change in his artistic practice. On 14 June 1940, Wehrmacht units marched into Paris. Schöffer fled to southern France and lived in
7968-479: The product against the plans or the other parts as it is being formed, there were jigs ready at hand to ensure that the part was made to fit this set-up. It had already been checked that the finished part would be to specifications to fit all the other finished parts—and it would be made more quickly, with no time spent on finishing the parts to fit one another. Later, once computerized control came about (for example, CNC ), jigs were obviated, but it remained true that
8064-421: The product will be successful. One of the descriptions of mass production is that "the skill is built into the tool", which means that the worker using the tool may not need the skill. For example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as "the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself" (not the training of the worker). Rather than having a skilled worker measure every dimension of each part of
8160-409: The rear support disappears and the reliefs leave the wall to enter space as sculptural works but still with a single main view. They mark the transition to the second artistic period. Schöffer's main achievements emerged during the second creative period. The rapid execution of the idea, the speed of creation was his central concern. Cybernetics enabled the automation of the creative process and secured
8256-497: The rhythm of the space. He concentrated on the negative space between the vertical and horizontal steel parts of the structure that was holding permanently fixed rectangular and circular plates. These were at first coloured, later uncoloured polished steel. All views of the sculptures became equally important. Schöffer was able to present himself to the public in his new role as a sculptor as early as 1950. The Galerie des deux Iles organized an exhibition entitled Schöffer Plasticien ,
8352-521: The sculpture that had total autonomy of movement (travel in all directions at two speeds) as well as axial and eccentric rotation setting in motion its 16 pivoting poly-chromed plates. The sculpture made used electronic computations developed by the Philips Company. It was set on a base mounted on four rollers, which contained the mechanism and the electronic brain . The plates were operated by small motors located under their axis. Phototubes and
8448-418: The skill (or knowledge) was built into the tool (or process, or documentation) rather than residing in the worker's head. This is the specialized capital required for mass production; each workbench and set of tools (or each CNC cell, or each fractionating column ) is different (fine-tuned to its task). Standardized parts and sizes and factory production techniques were developed in pre-industrial times; before
8544-421: The speed of the perception of an image, i.e. thirty thousandths of a second, in such a way that it challenged the recipient's cognitive capacities. The Luminos were similar with the difference that the rotating parts were shaded by a transparent screen. They were the first mass-produced works of art. These works represent a transition from Luminodynamism to Chronodynamism . After space and light time got into
8640-444: The standardization of cannon design in the late 18th century. He streamlined production and management of cannonballs and cannons by limiting them to only three calibers, and he improved their effectiveness by requiring more spherical ammunition. Redesigning these weapons to use interchangeable wheels, screws, and axles simplified mass production and repair. In the Industrial Revolution , simple mass production techniques were used at
8736-520: The term in the title of an article that appeared before the publication of the Britannica article. The idea of mass production is applied to many kinds of products: from fluids and particulates handled in bulk ( food , fuel , chemicals and mined minerals ), to clothing, textiles, parts and assemblies of parts ( household appliances and automobiles ). Some mass production techniques, such as standardized sizes and production lines, predate
8832-513: The uncertain labour of one hundred and ten. By 1808, annual production from the 45 machines had reached 130,000 blocks and some of the equipment was still in operation as late as the mid-twentieth century. Mass production techniques were also used to rather limited extent to make clocks and watches, and to make small arms, though parts were usually non-interchangeable. Though produced on a very small scale, Crimean War gunboat engines designed and assembled by John Penn of Greenwich are recorded as
8928-667: Was developed by Galileo Ferraris , Nikola Tesla and Westinghouse , Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and others. Electrification of factories was fastest between 1900 and 1930, aided by the establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917. Electric motors were several times more efficient than small steam engines because central station generation were more efficient than small steam engines and because line shafts and belts had high friction losses. Electric motors also allowed more flexibility in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts. Many factories saw
9024-605: Was greatly enhanced with high-speed steel and later very hard materials such as tungsten carbide for cutting edges. Fabrication using steel components was aided by the development of electric welding and stamped steel parts, both which appeared in industry in about 1890. Plastics such as polyethylene , polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can be easily formed into shapes by extrusion , blow molding or injection molding , resulting in very low cost manufacture of consumer products, plastic piping, containers and parts. An influential article that helped to frame and popularize
9120-631: Was shown in the Hungarian Pavilion at the Expo 2015 in Milano, and directed by Sándor Gerebics . The third creative period began after a sudden stroke of fate. After a brain hemorrhage, Schöffer's right side remained paralyzed and he used a wheelchair. Due to his deteriorating state of health, he was no longer able to handle large projects on his own. Although two projects that had already started were completed, no new works of art were created on
9216-430: Was used to handle 150 dozen bottles at a time where previously a hand truck would carry six dozen. Electric mixers replaced men with shovels handling sand and other ingredients that were fed into the glass furnace. An electric overhead crane replaced 36 day laborers for moving heavy loads across the factory. According to Henry Ford : The provision of a whole new system of electric generation emancipated industry from
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