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79-624: Schliemann was born January 6, 1822, in Neubukow , Mecklenburg-Schwerin (part of the German Confederation ) to Luise Therese Sophie Schliemann and Ernst Schliemann, a Lutheran minister . He was the fifth of nine children. The family moved to Ankershagen in summer 1823. Their second home houses the Heinrich Schliemann Museum today. Heinrich's father was a poor pastor. His mother died in 1831, when Heinrich

158-608: A General Agent to St. Petersburg . In time, Schliemann represented a number of companies. He learned Russian and Greek, employing a system that he used his entire life to learn languages; Schliemann claimed that it took him six weeks to learn a language and wrote his diary in the language of whatever country he happened to be in. By the end of his life, he could converse in English, French, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Swedish, Polish, Greek, Latin, and Arabic, besides his native German. Schliemann's ability with languages

237-582: A cabin boy on the Dorothea, a brig bound for Venezuela . After twelve days at sea, the ship foundered in a gale. The survivors washed up on the shores of the Netherlands . Schliemann became a messenger, office attendant, and later, a bookkeeper in Amsterdam . On March 1, 1844, 22-year-old Schliemann took a position with B. H. Schröder & Co., an import/export firm. In 1846, the firm sent him as

316-459: A Greek name and a soul impassioned for learning." The archbishop suggested the 17 years old Sophia Engastromenos , daughter of his cousin. They were married by the archbishop on 23 September 1869. They later had two children, Andromache and Agamemnon Schliemann . On August 1, 1890, Schliemann returned reluctantly to Athens , and in November travelled to Halle , where his chronic ear infection

395-543: A copy of Ludwig Jerrer's Illustrated History of the World for Christmas in 1829. Schliemann claimed that at the age of 7 he had declared he would one day excavate the city of Troy . Heinrich had to transfer to the Realschule (vocational school) after his father was accused of embezzling church funds and made his exams in 1836. His family's poverty made a university education impossible. In his archaeological career, there

474-511: A dye (particularly for silk ) for centuries. The dye was also known to ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia , Egypt , Britain , Mesoamerica , Peru , Iran , and West Africa . Indigo was also cultivated in India, which was also the earliest major center for its production and processing. The Indigofera tinctoria species was domesticated in India. Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to

553-537: A journey to the ruins of Pompeii . On Christmas Day 1890, he collapsed into a coma; he died in a Naples hotel room the following day; the cause of death was cholesteatoma . His corpse was then transported by friends to the First Cemetery in Athens. It was interred in a mausoleum shaped like a temple erected in ancient Greek style, designed by Ernst Ziller in the form of an amphiprostyle temple on top of

632-716: A major export crop, indigo supported plantation slavery there. In the May and June 1755 issues of The Gentleman's Magazine , there appeared a detailed account of the cultivation of indigo, accompanied by drawings of necessary equipment and a prospective budget for starting such an operation, authored by South Carolina planter Charles Woodmason . It later appeared as a book. By 1775, indigo production in South Carolina exceeded 1,222,000 pounds. When Benjamin Franklin sailed to France in November 1776 to enlist France's support for

711-620: A rare commodity throughout the Middle Ages. A chemically identical dye derived from the woad plant ( Isatis tinctoria ) was used instead. In the late 15th century, the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route to India. This led to the establishment of direct trade with India, the Spice Islands , China, and Japan. Importers could now avoid the heavy duties imposed by Persian , Levantine , and Greek middlemen and

790-451: A second synthesis in 1880 (from 2-nitrobenzaldehyde ). (It was not until 1883 that Baeyer finally determined the structure of indigo. ) The synthesis of indigo remained impractical, so the search for alternative starting materials at Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik (BASF) and Hoechst continued. Johannes Pfleger and Karl Heumann eventually came up with industrial mass production synthesis. The synthesis of N-(2-carboxyphenyl)glycine from

869-488: A sense of the continuity of history", and "pedantic barbarism". In his excavations at Troy, Schliemann found many swastikas adorned on pottery and consulted with Aryan nationalist Émile-Louis Burnouf to identify the symbol. Claiming that the symbol was connected with the Aryans, Burnouf adopted and popularised the swastika as a symbol of Aryan nationalism. Neubukow Neubukow (literally "New Bukov", where 'Bukov'

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948-662: A similar gathering in the papers. Schliemann also published what he said was an eyewitness account of the San Francisco Fire of 1851 , which he said was in June although it took place in May. At the time he was in Sacramento and used the report of the fire in the Sacramento Daily Journal to write his report. On April 7, 1852, he sold his business and returned to Russia. There he attempted to live

1027-597: A tall base. The frieze circling the outside of the mausoleum shows Schliemann conducting the excavations at Mycenae and other sites. Schliemann's magnificent residence in the city centre of Athens, the Iliou Melathron (Ιλίου Μέλαθρον, "Palace of Ilium "), today houses the Numismatic Museum of Athens . Along with Sir Arthur Evans , Schliemann was a pioneer in the study of the Aegean civilization in

1106-504: A vat and soaking hydrolyzes the indican, releasing β- D - glucose and indoxyl . The indoxyl dimerizes in the mixture, and after 12–15 hours of fermentation yields the yellow, water-soluble leucoindigo . Subsequent exposure to air forms the blue, water-insoluble indigo dye. The dye precipitates from the fermented leaf solution upon oxidation, but may also be precipitated when mixed with a strong base such as lye . The solids are filtered, pressed into cakes, dried, and powdered. The powder

1185-492: A vat was decorated with the techniques of shibori ( tie-dye ), kasuri , katazome , and tsutsugaki . Examples of clothing and banners dyed with these techniques can be seen in the works of Hokusai and other artists. Two different methods for the direct application of indigo were developed in England in the 18th century and remained in use well into the 19th century. The first method, known as 'pencil blue' because it

1264-615: Is a Polabian adjective from " beech tree ") is a town in the Rostock district, in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania , Germany . It is situated 18 km southwest of Bad Doberan , and 21 km northeast of Wismar . The archeologist Heinrich Schliemann was born in Neubukow. The "Heinrich Schliemann-Gedenkstätte" is a small museum dedicated to his life and work. This Rostock district location article

1343-564: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Indigo dye Indigo dye is an organic compound with a distinctive blue color . Indigo is a natural dye extracted from the leaves of some plants of the Indigofera genus, in particular Indigofera tinctoria . Dye-bearing Indigofera plants were commonly grown and used throughout the world, particularly in Asia, with the production of indigo dyestuff economically important due to

1422-472: Is a dark blue crystalline powder that sublimes at 390–392 °C (734–738 °F). It is insoluble in water, alcohol , or ether , but soluble in DMSO , chloroform , nitrobenzene , and concentrated sulfuric acid . The chemical formula of indigo is C 16 H 10 N 2 O 2 . The molecule absorbs light in the orange part of the spectrum ( λ max =613 nm). The compound owes its deep color to

1501-585: Is also used as a food colorant, and is listed in the United States as FD&C Blue No. 2. A variety of plants have provided indigo throughout history, but most natural indigo was obtained from those in the genus Indigofera , which are native to the tropics, notably the Indian Subcontinent. The primary commercial indigo species in Asia was true indigo ( Indigofera tinctoria , also known as I. sumatrana ). A common alternative used in

1580-529: Is credited to Pfleger in 1901. In this process, N -phenylglycine is treated with a molten mixture of sodium hydroxide , potassium hydroxide , and sodamide . This highly sensitive melt produces indoxyl , which is subsequently oxidized in air to form indigo. Variations of this method are still in use today. An alternative and also viable route to indigo is credited to Heumann in 1897. It involves heating N -(2-carboxyphenyl)glycine to 200 °C (392 °F) in an inert atmosphere with sodium hydroxide. The process

1659-655: Is easier than the Pfleger method, but the precursors are more expensive. Indoxyl-2-carboxylic acid is generated. This material readily decarboxylates to give indoxyl, which oxidizes in air to form indigo. The preparation of indigo dye is practised in college laboratory classes according to the original Baeyer-Drewsen route. The oldest known fabric dyed indigo, dated to 6,000 years ago, was discovered in Huaca Prieta , Peru. Many Asian countries, such as India , China, Japan, and Southeast Asian nations have used indigo as

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1738-670: Is not soluble in water. To be dissolved, it must undergo a chemical change ( reduction ). Reduction converts indigo into "white indigo" ( leuco -indigo). When a submerged fabric is removed from the dyebath, the white indigo quickly combines with oxygen in the air and reverts to the insoluble, intensely colored indigo. When it first became widely available in Europe in the 16th century, European dyers and printers struggled with indigo because of this distinctive property. It also required several chemical manipulations, some involving toxic materials, and presented many opportunities to injure workers. In

1817-528: Is secreted by a common Mediterranean snail. It was highly prized in antiquity. In 1909, its structure was shown to be 6,6'-dibromoindigo (red). 6-bromoindigo (purple) is a component as well. It has never been produced on a commercial basis. The related Ciba blue (5,7,5',7'-tetrabromoindigo) is, however, of commercial value. Indigo and its derivatives featuring intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonding have very low solubility in organic solvents. They can be made soluble using transient protecting groups such as

1896-804: Is then mixed with various other substances to produce different shades of blue and purple. Natural sources of indigo also include mollusks: the Murex genus of sea snails produces a mixture of indigo and 6,6'-dibromoindigo (red), which together produce a range of purple hues known as Tyrian purple . Light exposure during part of the dyeing process can convert the dibromoindigo into indigo, resulting in blue hues known as royal blue, hyacinth purple, or tekhelet . Given its economic importance, indigo has been prepared by many methods. The Baeyer–Drewsen indigo synthesis dates back to 1882. It involves an aldol condensation of o-nitrobenzaldehyde with acetone, followed by cyclization and oxidative dimerization to indigo. This route

1975-646: The American Revolutionary War , 35 barrels of indigo were on board the Reprisal , the sale of which would help fund the war effort. In colonial North America, three commercially important species are found: the native I. caroliniana , and the introduced I. tinctoria and I. suffruticosa . In 1865 the German chemist Adolf von Baeyer began working on the synthesis of indigo. He described his first synthesis of indigo in 1878 (from isatin ) and

2054-708: The Berlin Zoological Garden , called the Zoo Tower . Dr. Wilhelm Unverzagt protected the three crates containing the Trojan gold when the Battle for Berlin commenced, right up until SMERSH forces took control of the tower on 1 May. On 26 May 1945, Soviet forces, led by Lt. Gen. Nikolai Antipenko, Andre Konstantinov, deputy head of the Arts Committee, Viktor Lazarev , and Serafim Druzhinin, took

2133-607: The Bronze Age . The two men knew of each other, Evans having visited Schliemann's sites. Schliemann had planned to excavate at Knossos but died before fulfilling that dream. Evans bought the site and stepped in to take charge of the project, which was then still in its infancy. Further excavation of the Troy site by others indicated that the level Schliemann named the Troy of the Iliad

2212-458: The Edo period . This was due to a growing textiles industry, and because commoners had been banned from wearing silk, leading to the increasing cultivation of cotton, and consequently indigo – one of the few substances that could dye it. In North America, indigo was introduced into colonial South Carolina by Eliza Lucas , where it became the colony's second-most important cash crop (after rice). As

2291-532: The Greeks and the Romans , where it was valued as a luxury product. In Mesopotamia, a neo-Babylonian cuneiform tablet of the seventh century BC gives a recipe for the dyeing of wool, where lapis -colored wool ( uqnatu ) is produced by repeated immersion and airing of the cloth. Indigo was most probably imported from India. The Romans used indigo as a pigment for painting and for medicinal and cosmetic purposes. It

2370-566: The Indigo revolt in 1859. The Bengali play Nil Darpan by Indian playwright Dinabandhu Mitra was a fictionalized retelling of the revolt. The demand for indigo in the 19th century is indicated by the fact that in 1897, 7,000 km (2,700 sq mi) were dedicated to the cultivation of indican-producing plants, mainly in India . By comparison, the country of Luxembourg is 2,586 km (998 sq mi). In Europe, indigo remained

2449-580: The Mandinka of Mali particularly well known for their expertise. Among the Hausa male dyers, working at communal dye pits was the basis of the wealth of the ancient city of Kano , and they can still be seen plying their trade today at the same pits. The Tuareg are sometimes called the "Blue People" because the indigo pigment in the cloth of their traditional robes and turbans stained their skin dark blue. In Japan, indigo became especially important during

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2528-707: The Shaft Graves , with their skeletons and more regal gold, including the so-called Mask of Agamemnon . These findings were published in Mycenae in 1878. Although he had received permission in 1876 to continue excavation, Schliemann did not reopen the dig site at Troy until 1878–1879, after another excavation in Ithaca designed to locate a site mentioned in the Odyssey . Emile Burnouf and Rudolf Virchow joined him there in 1879. In 1880 Schliemann began excavation of

2607-461: The Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenus (Boeotia) . From 1882 to 1883 Schliemann made a sixth excavation at Troy, in 1884 an excavation of Tiryns with Wilhelm Dörpfeld , and from 1889 to 1890 a seventh and eighth excavation at Troy, also with Dörpfeld. After learning that his childhood sweetheart Minna had married, Schliemann married Ekaterina Petrovna Lyschin (1826–1896) on October 12, 1852. She

2686-487: The Virgin Islands . However, France and Germany outlawed imported indigo in the 16th century to protect the local woad dye industry. In central Europe, indigo resist dyeing is a centuries-old skill that has received UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity recognition. Newton used "indigo" to describe one of the two new primary colors he added to the five he had originally named, in his revised account of

2765-564: The tBOC group , which suppresses intermolecular bonding. Heating of the tBOC indigo results in efficient thermal deprotection and regeneration of the parent H-bonded pigment. Treatment with sulfuric acid converts indigo into a blue-green derivative called indigo carmine (sulfonated indigo). It became available in the mid-18th century. It is used as a colorant for food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Indigo and some of its derivatives are known to be ambipolar organic semiconductors when deposited as thin films by vacuum evaporation. Indigo has

2844-519: The 19th century, English poet William Wordsworth referred to the plight of indigo dye workers of his hometown of Cockermouth in his autobiographical poem The Prelude . Speaking of their dire working conditions and the empathy that he felt for them, he wrote: Doubtless, I should have then made common cause With some who perished; haply perished too A poor mistaken and bewildered offering Unknown to those bare souls of miller blue A pre-industrial process for production of indigo white, used in Europe,

2923-525: The China blue method. Since 2004, freeze-dried indigo, or instant indigo, has become available. In this method, the indigo has already been reduced, and then freeze-dried into a crystal. The crystals are added to warm water to create the dye pot. As in a standard indigo dye pot, care has to be taken to avoid mixing in oxygen. Freeze-dried indigo is simple to use, and the crystals can be stored indefinitely as long as they are not exposed to moisture. Indigo dye

3002-936: The Greek government, then the French, and finally the Russians. In 1881, his collections ended up in Berlin, housed first in the Ethnographic Museum, and then the Museum for Pre- and Early History, until the start of WWII . In 1939, all exhibits were packed and stored in the museum basement, then moved to the Prussian State Bank vault in January 1941. In 1941, the treasure was moved to the Flakturm located at

3081-560: The Ottoman Empire and asserted that Hissarlik was the site of Troy. He submitted this book as a dissertation to the University of Rostock . In 1869, he was awarded a PhD in absentia from the university for that submission. David Traill wrote that the examiners gave him his PhD on the basis of his topographical analyses of Ithaca , which were in part simply translations of another author's work or drawn from poetic descriptions by

3160-751: The Teaching Company's Great Ancient Civilizations of Asia Minor lecture series, sarcastically claimed that Schliemann's excavations were carried out with such rough methods that he did to Troy what the Greeks could not do in their times, destroying and levelling down the entire city walls to the ground. In 1972, Professor William Calder of the University of Colorado , speaking at a commemoration of Schliemann's birthday, claimed that he had uncovered several possible problems in Schliemann's work. Other investigators followed, such as Professor David Traill of

3239-545: The University of California. A 2004 article of the National Geographic Society called into question Schliemann's qualifications, his motives, and his methods: In northwestern Turkey, Heinrich Schliemann excavated the site believed to be Troy in 1870. Schliemann was a German adventurer and con-man who took sole credit for the discovery, even though he was digging at the site, called Hisarlik, at

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3318-941: The battle between the Greeks and Trojans, and thus that it could not have been the treasure of King Priam. Schliemann may not have discovered the truth, but the publicity stunt worked, making Schliemann and the site famous and igniting the field of Homeric studies in the late 19th century. During this period he was criticized and ridiculed of claims to fathering an offspring with a local Assyrian Girl sparking infidelity and adultery which Schliemann did not confirm or deny. ' Schliemann's methods have been described as "savage and brutal. He plowed through layers of soil and everything in them without proper record keeping—no mapping of finds, few descriptions of discoveries." His rough excavation, conclusory interpretation and appropriation of artifacts were criticised by contemporary antiquarians, among them Spyridon Comnos and Stephen Salisbury III . The fame of his discoveries overshadowed such criticism through most of

3397-550: The behest of British archaeologist Frank Calvert. [...] Eager to find the legendary treasures of Troy, Schliemann blasted his way down to the second city, where he found what he believed were the jewels that once belonged to Helen. As it turns out, the jewels were a thousand years older than the time described in Homer's epic. A 2005 article presented similar criticisms, when reporting on a speech by University of Pennsylvania scholar C. Brian Rose: German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann

3476-409: The conjugation of the double bonds , i.e. the double bonds within the molecule are adjacent and the molecule is planar. In indigo white, the conjugation is interrupted because the molecule is non-planar. The benzene rings in indigo can be modified to give a variety of related dyestuffs. Thioindigo , where the two NH groups are replaced by S atoms, is deep red. Tyrian purple is a dull purple dye that

3555-466: The divorce by lying about his residency in the U.S. and his intention to remain in the state. He moved to Athens as soon as an Indiana court granted him the divorce and married again two months later. A former teacher and Athenian friend, Theokletos Vimpos, the Archbishop of Mantineia and Kynouria, helped Schliemann find someone "enthusiastic about Homer and about a rebirth of my beloved Greece...with

3634-420: The easy to obtain aniline provided a new and economically attractive route. BASF developed a commercially feasible manufacturing process that was in use by 1897, at which time 19,000 tons of indigo were being produced from plant sources. This had dropped to 1,000 tons by 1914 and continued to contract. By 2011, 50,000 tons of synthetic indigo were being produced worldwide. Indigo is a challenging dye because it

3713-419: The gold glinting in the dirt and dismissed the workmen so that he and Sophia could excavate it themselves; they removed it in her shawl. However, Schliemann's oft-repeated story of the treasure's being carried by Sophia in her shawl was untrue. Schliemann later admitted fabricating it; at the time of the discovery Sophia was in fact with her family in Athens, following the death of her father. Schliemann smuggled

3792-421: The historical rarity of other blue dyestuffs. Most indigo dye produced today is synthetic , constituting around 80,000 tonnes each year, as of 2023. It is most commonly associated with the production of denim cloth and blue jeans , where its properties allow for effects such as stone washing and acid washing to be applied quickly. The primary use for indigo is as a dye for cotton yarn, mainly used in

3871-468: The insoluble form of indigo onto the fabric. The indigo was then reduced in a sequence of baths of iron(II) sulfate , with air oxidation between each immersion. The China blue process could make sharp designs, but it could not produce the dark hues possible with the pencil blue method. Around 1880, the 'glucose process' was developed. It finally enabled the direct printing of indigo onto fabric and could produce inexpensive dark indigo prints unattainable with

3950-574: The lengthy and dangerous land routes which had previously been used. Consequently, the importation and use of indigo in Europe rose significantly. Much European indigo from Asia arrived through ports in Portugal, the Netherlands, and England. Many indigo plantations were established by European powers in tropical climates. Spain imported the dye from its colonies in Central and South America, and it

4029-415: The life of a gentleman, which brought him into contact with Ekaterina Petrovna Lyschin (1826–1896), the niece of one of his wealthy friends, whom he married on October 12, 1852. Schliemann next made a good profit trading in indigo dye . By 1858, Schliemann was 36 years old and wealthy enough to retire. In his memoirs, he claimed that he wished to dedicate himself to the pursuit of Troy. Heinrich Schliemann

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4108-408: The production of denim cloth suitable for blue jeans; on average, a pair of blue jeans requires 3 grams (0.11 oz) to 12 grams (0.42 oz) of dye. Smaller quantities are used in the dyeing of wool and silk. Indigo carmine , also known as indigo, is an indigo derivative which is also used as a colorant. About 20,000 tonnes are produced annually, again mainly for the production of blue jeans. It

4187-622: The rainbow in Lectiones Opticae of 1675. Because of its high value as a trading commodity, indigo was often referred to as blue gold. Throughout West Africa, Indigo was the foundation of centuries-old textile traditions. From the Tuareg nomads of the Sahara to Cameroon , clothes dyed with indigo signified wealth. Women dyed the cloth in most areas, with the Yoruba of Nigeria and

4266-527: The relatively colder subtropical locations such as Japan's Ryukyu Islands and Taiwan is Strobilanthes cusia . Until the introduction of Indigofera species from the south, Persicaria tinctoria (dyer's knotweed) was the most important blue dyestuff in East Asia; however, the crop produced less dyestuff than the average crop of indigo, and was quickly surpassed in favour of the more economical Indigofera tinctoria plant. In Central and South America,

4345-426: The relatively low concentrations of indigo in these plants make them difficult to work with, with the color more easily tainted by other dye substances also present in these plants, typically leading to a greenish tinge. The precursor to indigo is indican , a colorless, water-soluble derivative of the amino acid tryptophan , and Indigofera leaves contain as much as 0.2–0.8% of this compound. Pressing cut leaves into

4424-600: The same author. Other researchers who worked with documents from the university archives clearly contradict Traill's statements. Schliemann was an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries of London and elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1880. Schliemann's first interest of a classical nature seems to have been the location of Troy. At the time he began excavating in Turkey,

4503-487: The site commonly believed to be Troy was at Pınarbaşı , a hilltop at the south end of the Trojan Plain. The site had been previously excavated by English amateur archaeologist and local expert Frank Calvert . Schliemann performed soundings at Pınarbaşı but was disappointed by his findings. It was Calvert who identified Hissarlik as Troy and suggested Schliemann dig there on land owned by Calvert's family. Schliemann

4582-458: The species grown is Indigofera suffruticosa , also known as anil , and in India, an important species was Indigofera arrecta , Natal indigo. In Europe, Isatis tinctoria , commonly known as woad, was used for dyeing fabrics blue, containing the same dyeing compounds as indigo, also referred to as indigo. Several plants contain indigo, which, when exposed to an oxidizing source such as atmospheric oxygen, reacts to produce indigo dye; however,

4661-469: The three crates away on trucks. The crates were then flown to Moscow on 30 June 1945, and taken to the Pushkin Museum ten days later. In 1994, the museum admitted the collection was in their possession. In 1876, he began digging at Mycenae , under the supervision of Panagiotis Stamatakis , a Greek archaeologist attached to the excavation as a condition of Schliemann's permit. There, he discovered

4740-535: The treasure out of the Ottoman Empire into Greece. The Ottoman Empire sued Schliemann in a Greek court, and Schliemann was forced to pay a 10,000 gold franc indemnity . Schliemann ended up sending 50,000 gold francs to the Constantinople Imperial Museum, and got the permission for further excavations at Hissarlik. In 1874 Schliemann published Troy and Its Remains . Schliemann at first offered his collections, which included Priam's Gold, to

4819-412: The twentieth century, such that Carl Blegen excused his recklessness: "Although there were some regrettable blunders, those criticisms are largely colored by a comparison with modern techniques of digging; but it is only fair to remember that before 1876 very few persons, if anyone, yet really knew how excavations should properly be conducted. There was no science of archaeological investigation, and there

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4898-677: Was a luxury item imported to the Mediterranean from India by Arab merchants. India was a primary supplier of indigo to Europe as early as the Greco-Roman era. The association of India with indigo is reflected in the Greek word for the dye, indikón ( Ἰνδικόν , Indian). The Romans latinized the term to indicum , which passed into Italian dialect and eventually into English as the word indigo. In Bengal indigo cultivators revolted against exploitative working conditions created by European merchants and planters in what became known as

4977-409: Was a major crop in Haiti and Jamaica, with much or all of the labor performed by enslaved Africans and African Americans. In the Spanish colonial era, intensive production of indigo for the world market in the region of modern El Salvador entailed such unhealthy conditions that the local indigenous population, forced to labor in pestilential conditions, was decimated. Indigo plantations also thrived in

5056-466: Was an amateur archaeologist. He was obsessed with the stories of Homer and ancient Mediterranean civilizations. He dedicated the second part of his life to unveiling the actual physical remains of the cities of Homer's epic tales. Many refer to him as the "father of pre-Hellenistic archaeology". In 1868, Schliemann visited sites in the Greek world, published his second book Ithaka, der Peloponnesus und Troja in which he described ancient sites in Greece and

5135-478: Was an important part of his career as a businessman in the importing trade. In 1850, he learned of the death of his brother, Ludwig, who had become wealthy as a speculator in the California gold fields. Schliemann went to California in early 1851 and started a bank in Sacramento buying and reselling over a million dollars' worth of gold dust in just six months. When the local Rothschild agent complained about short-weight consignments, he left California, pretending it

5214-423: Was at first skeptical about the identification of Hissarlik with Troy but was persuaded by Calvert. In 1870, Schliemann began digging a trench at Hissarlik, and by 1873 had discovered nine buried cities. Schliemann found pure copper and metal molds as well as a lot of other metal tools, cutlery, shields, and vases which were found at around 28 to 29 + 1 ⁄ 2 feet deep at the site. The day before digging

5293-548: Was because of illness. While he was there, California became the 31st state in September 1850, and Schliemann acquired United States citizenship . Schliemann propounded this story in his autobiography of 1881, though he clearly was in St Petersburg that day, and "in actual fact, ...obtained his American citizenship only in 1869." According to his memoirs, before arriving in California he dined in Washington, D.C. , with President Millard Fillmore and his family, but W. Calder III says that Schliemann didn't attend but simply read about

5372-401: Was found in the Troy II level, that of the Early Bronze Age, long before Priam's city of Troy VI or Troy VIIa in the prosperous and elaborate Mycenaean Age. Moreover, the finds were unique. The elaborate gold artifacts do not appear to belong to the Early Bronze Age. His excavations were condemned by later archaeologists as having destroyed the main layers of the real Troy. Kenneth W. Harl , in

5451-481: Was highly useful for obtaining indigo and many of its derivatives on the laboratory scale, but proved impractical for industrial-scale synthesis. Johannes Pfleger and Karl Heumann  [ de ] eventually came up with industrial mass production synthesis from aniline by using mercury as a catalyst. The method was discovered by an accident by Karl Heumann in Zurich which involved a broken thermometer. The first commercially practical route of producing indigo

5530-471: Was inaccurate, although they retain the names given by Schliemann. In a 1998 article for The Classical World , D.F. Easton wrote that Schliemann "was not very good at separating fact from interpretation" and claimed that, "Even in 1872 Frank Calvert could see from the pottery that Troy II had to be hundreds of years too early to be the Troy of the Trojan War, a point finally proven by the discovery of Mycenaean pottery in Troy VI in 1890." "King Priam's Treasure"

5609-428: Was most often applied by pencil or brush, could be used to achieve dark hues. Arsenic trisulfide and a thickener were added to the indigo vat. The arsenic compound delayed the oxidation of the indigo long enough to paint the dye onto fabrics. The second method was known as 'China blue' due to its resemblance to Chinese blue-and-white porcelain. Instead of using an indigo solution directly, the process involved printing

5688-587: Was nine years old, and his father sent Heinrich to live with his uncle Friedrich Schliemann, also a pastor. When he was eleven years old, his father paid for his enrollment in the Gymnasium (grammar school) at Neustrelitz , but he had to leave it after three months. Heinrich's interest in history was initially encouraged by his father, who had schooled him in the tales of the Iliad and the Odyssey and had given him

5767-531: Was often a division between Schliemann and the educated professionals. At age 14, after leaving Realschule, Heinrich became an apprentice at Herr Holtz's grocery in Fürstenberg . He later told that his passion for Homer was born when he heard a drunken miller reciting it at the grocer's. He laboured for five years, until he was forced to leave because he hurt his chest, lifting a heavy barrel and coughing up blood. In 1841, Schliemann moved to Hamburg and became

5846-497: Was operated upon, on November 13. The doctors deemed the operation a success, but his inner ear became painfully inflamed. Ignoring his doctors' advice, he left the hospital and travelled to Leipzig , Berlin and Paris . From the last, he planned to return to Athens in time for Christmas, but his ear condition became even worse. Too sick to make the boat ride from Naples to Greece , Schliemann remained in Naples but managed to make

5925-607: Was probably no other digger who was better than Schliemann in actual field work." In 1874, Schliemann also initiated and sponsored the removal of medieval edifices from the Acropolis of Athens , including the great Frankish Tower . Despite considerable opposition, including from King George I of the Hellenes , Schliemann saw the project through. The eminent historian of Frankish Greece , William Miller , later denounced this as "an act of vandalism unworthy of any people imbued with

6004-545: Was the first to explore the Mound of Troy in the 1870s. Unfortunately, he had had no formal education in archaeology, and dug an enormous trench "which we still call the Schliemann Trench," according to Rose, because in the process Schliemann "destroyed a phenomenal amount of material." [...] Only much later in his career would he accept the fact that the treasure had been found at a layer one thousand years removed from

6083-862: Was the niece of one of his wealthy friends in St Petersburg and they had three children; a son, Sergey (1855–1941), and two daughters, Natalya (1859–1869) and Nadezhda (1861–1935). As a consequence of his many travels, Schliemann was often separated from his wife and children. He spent a month studying at the Sorbonne in 1866, while moving his assets from St. Petersburg to Paris to invest in real estate. He asked his wife to join him, but she refused. Schliemann threatened to divorce Ekaterina twice before doing so. In 1869, he bought property and settled in Indianapolis for about three months to take advantage of Indiana 's liberal divorce laws, although he obtained

6162-476: Was to dissolve the indigo in stale urine, which contains ammonia. A more convenient reductive agent is zinc. Another pre-industrial method, used in Japan, was to dissolve the indigo in a heated vat in which a culture of thermophilic , anaerobic bacteria was maintained. Some species of such bacteria generate hydrogen as a metabolic product, which convert insoluble indigo into soluble indigo white. Cloth dyed in such

6241-540: Was to stop on 15 June 1873, was the day he discovered gold, which he took to be Priam's Treasure trove. Recent research has confirmed several settlements on the site spanning 3,600 years. The layer that Schliemann referred to as "the Burnt City" and believed to be Troy is now thought to be from 3,000 to 2,000 BCE, too early to be the location of the Trojan War as Homer describes it. He later wrote that he had seen

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