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101-414: The term has perhaps been over-used—only some monasteries had special rooms set aside for scribes. Often they worked in the monastery library or in their own rooms. Most medieval images of scribing show single figures in well-appointed studies, although these are generally author portraits of well-known authors or translators. Increasingly, lay scribes and illuminators from outside the monastery also assisted

202-529: A central panel with Christ in Majesty , often including the Evangelists and/or their symbols in the corners. Versions of the same composition appear in all media used for Early Medieval religious art, including wall paintings. The Tassilo Chalice is an 8th-century example of pure metalwork with five oval medallion portraits of Christ and the Evangelists (with symbols) round the cup. The early artists of

303-509: A conclusion. Honorius called a second synod in May, this time including Gaulish and African bishops. In the meantime, the two rival popes were ordered to leave Rome. As Easter approached, however, Eulalius returned to the city and attempted to seize the Basilica of Saint John Lateran in order to "preside at the paschal ceremonies". Imperial troops managed to repel him, and on Easter (30 March 419)

404-674: A devout Christian , she was involved in the building and restoration of various churches throughout her period of influence. She restored and expanded the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem . She built San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna in thanks for the sparing of her life and those of her children in a storm while crossing

505-434: A historian used as a source by Zosimus , Sozomen and probably Philostorgius , the public grew suspicious of the increasingly scandalous public caresses she was said to have received from her own brother Honorius after her husband's death. However, the siblings' relationship suddenly turned hostile, and around this time, she may have plotted against him. After her soldiers clashed with those of Honorius, Galla Placidia herself

606-445: A large number of texts copied. References in modern scholarly writings to 'scriptoria' typically refer to the collective written output of a monastery, somewhat like the chancery in the early regal times is taken to refer to a specific fashion of modelling formulars, but especially traditional is the view that scriptoria was a necessary adjunct to a library, as per the entry in du Cange, 1678 'scriptorium'. At this church whose patron

707-546: A lion on the right side, the four had the face of an ox on the left side, and the four had the face of an eagle at the back." (Ezek. 1:10) Christian iconographic tradition came to associate the man with Saint Matthew, the lion with Saint Mark, the ox with Saint Luke, and the eagle with Saint John. Late Antique evangelist portraits often show standing figures, as in the ivory panels of the Throne of Maximianus in Milan , but from

808-548: A manuscript. The illuminators of manuscripts worked in collaboration with scribes in intricate varieties of interaction that preclude any simple understanding of monastic manuscript production. The products of the monasteries provided a valuable medium of exchange. Comparisons of characteristic regional, periodic as well as contextual styles of handwriting do reveal social and cultural connections among them, as new hands developed and were disseminated by travelling individuals, respectively what these individuals represented, and by

909-466: A monastic scriptorium would be the armarius ("provisioner"), who provided the scribes with their materials and supervised the copying process. However, the armarius had other duties as well. At the beginning of Lent, the armarius was responsible for making sure that all of the monks received books to read, but he also had the ability to deny access to a particular book. By the 10th century the armarius had specific liturgical duties as well, including singing

1010-415: A more full understanding of the text. He then continues to praise scribes by saying "The dedicated scribe, the object of our treatise, will never fail to praise God, give pleasure to angels, strengthen the just, convert sinners, commend the humble, confirm the good, confound the proud and rebuke the stubborn". Among the reasons he gives for continuing to copy manuscripts by hand, are the historical precedent of

1111-620: A page, sometimes around a Christ in Majesty . Standing portraits were usual, however, for wall and later panel paintings (and in the Tree of Jesse composition) with the Evangelists often treated as, and mixed with, other saints. The Gospel book as a medium for heavily illustrated manuscripts declined in the West from the Romanesque period, and with it the use of the Evangelist portrait. In

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1212-758: A reported number of sixty thousand Huns from across the Danube . After some skirmishing, Placidia, Valentinian and Aetius came to an agreement and established peace. The Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of comes and magister militum per Gallias ( commander-in-chief of the Roman army in Gaul). Galla Placidia became a regent of Western Roman Empire for her son, Valentinian, in 425 until Aetius' rise. Among her early supporters were Bonifacius and Felix . Aetius, their rival for influence, managed to secure Arles against Theodoric I of

1313-534: A specific type of miniature included in ancient and mediaeval illuminated manuscript Gospel Books , and later in Bibles and other books, as well as other media. Each Gospel of the Four Evangelists , the books of Matthew , Mark , Luke , and John , may be prefaced by a portrait of the Evangelist, usually occupying a full page. Their symbols may be shown with them, or separately. Often they are

1414-434: A week all through the period of study. In turn, each Psalm studied separately would have to be read slowly and prayerfully, then gone through with the text in one hand (or preferably committed to memory) and the commentary in the other; the process of study would have to continue until virtually everything in the commentary has been absorbed by the student and mnemonically keyed to the individual verses of scripture, so that when

1515-477: A younger son of Theodosius named Gratianus, who died in infancy; as Gratian must have been born in the period 388–89, it is most probable that Galla Placidia was born during the second period, 392–93. Placidia's mother Galla died some time in 394, perhaps giving birth to a stillborn son. Placidia was a younger, paternal half-sister of emperors Arcadius and Honorius . Her older half-sister Pulcheria predeceased her parents according to Gregory of Nyssa , placing

1616-583: Is also evidence of Jewish women working as scribes of Hebrew texts from the 13th to 16th centuries, though these women primarily worked out of their homes rather than religious institutions, as daughters and wives of scribes. Women were not only the producers of these texts, but could also be the consumers or commissioners of them. There were also women who worked as professional, secular scribes, including Clara Hätzlerin in 15th century Augsburg , who has at least nine surviving manuscripts signed by or attributed to her. Much as medieval libraries do not correspond to

1717-401: Is not a monastic rule as such, Cassiodorus did write his Institutes as a teaching guide for the monks at Vivarium, the monastery he founded on his family's land in southern Italy. A classically educated Roman convert, Cassiodorus wrote extensively on scribal practices. He cautions over-zealous scribes to check their copies against ancient, trustworthy exemplars and to take care not to change

1818-463: Is presumed to have learned weaving and embroidery . She might have also been given a classical education . Serena was a first cousin of Arcadius, Honorius and Placidia. The poem "In Praise of Serena" by Claudian and the Historia Nova by Zosimus clarify that Serena's father was an elder Honorius, a brother to Theodosius I. According to " De Consulatu Stilichonis" by Claudian, Placidia

1919-513: Is to read a book in its entirety. Thus each monastery was to have its own extensive collection of books, to be housed either in armarium (book chests) or a more traditional library. However, because the only way to obtain a large quantity of books in the Middle Ages was to copy them, in practice this meant that the monastery had to have a way to transcribe texts in other collections. An alternative translation of Benedict's strict guidelines for

2020-677: The Eastern Orthodox world, the Gospel Book remained a primary focus for illumination, and Evangelist portraits, derived from contemporary Byzantine versions, are heavily represented among the earliest illuminations from the new Slav national traditions, such as the 11th-century Ostromir Gospels and the Khitrovo Gospels of about 1390 from Muscovy . In the West the portraits continued to be found in Bibles, more often as

2121-575: The Insular art of the 7th to 10th centuries, evangelist portraits in manuscripts nearly always closely followed the seated classical models, showing the Evangelists at full-length, either looking out at the viewer or writing at a table or desk and seen at an oblique angle. These were derived from unknown classical prototypes, similar to those in the Codex Amiatinus and Saint Augustine Gospels , though both of these types are rather different from

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2222-500: The Roman emperor Theodosius I , was a mother, tutor, and advisor to emperor Valentinian III . She was queen consort to Ataulf , King of the Visigoths from 414 until his death in 415, briefly empress consort to Constantius III in 421, and managed the government administration as a regent during the early reign of Valentinian III until her death. Placidia was the daughter of Theodosius I and his second wife, Galla , who

2323-553: The Rule of Saint Benedict describe the labor of transcription as the common occupation of the community, so it is also possible that Benedict failed to mention the scriptorium by name because of the integral role it played within the monastery. Monastic life in the Middle Ages was strictly centered around prayer and manual labor. In the early Middle Ages, there were many attempts to set out an organization and routine for monastic life. Montalembert cites one such sixth-century document,

2424-614: The Visigoths . The Visigoths concluded a treaty and were given Gallic noblemen as hostages. The later Emperor Avitus visited Theodoric, lived at his court and taught his sons. Felix, her ally, was assassinated in 430, possibly by Aetius. Conflict between Placidia and Bonifacius started in 429. Placidia appointed Bonifacius general of Libya. Procopius records that Aetius played the two against each other, warning Placidia against Bonifacius and advising her to recall him to Rome; simultaneously writing to Bonifacius, warning him that Placidia

2525-551: The medieval period . Archaeologists identified lapis lazuli , a pigment used in the decoration of medieval illuminated manuscripts , embedded in the dental calculus of remains found in a religious women's community in Germany, which dated to the 11th-12th centuries. Chelles Abbey , established in France during the early medieval period, was also well known for its scriptorium, where nuns produced manuscripts and religious texts. There

2626-483: The 14th to the beginning of the 19th centuries) the monastery was an important centre of culture. The scriptorium of each monastery was a bastion of learning where illuminated manuscripts were being produced by monk-scribes, mostly Serbian liturgical books and Old Serbian Vita. hagiographies of kings and archbishops. Numerous scribes of the Serbian Orthodox Church books—at the term of the 16th and

2727-507: The 6th century under the supervision of Cassiodorus at the Vivarium near Squillace in southern Italy contained a scriptorium, for the purpose of collecting, copying, and preserving texts. Cassiodorus' description of his monastery contained a purpose-built scriptorium, with a sundial , a water-clock , and a "perpetual lamp," that is, one that supplied itself with oil from a reservoir. The scriptorium would also have contained desks where

2828-600: The Adriatic Sea. The dedicatory inscription reads "Galla Placidia, along with her son Placidus Valentinian Augustus and her daughter Justa Grata Honoria Augusta, paid off their vow for their liberation from the danger of the sea." Her Mausoleum in Ravenna was one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites inscribed in 1996. However, the building never served as her tomb, but was initially erected as

2929-502: The East himself. Shortly after, Olympius, magister scrinii , attempted to convince Honorius that Stilicho was in fact conspiring to depose Theodosius II, to replace him with Eucherius. Stilicho was arrested and executed by Honorius's order on 22 August 408. Eucherius sought refuge in Rome but he was arrested there and executed by the eunuchs Arsacius and Tarentius, on imperial orders. Honorius appointed Tarentius imperial chamberlain, and gave

3030-638: The Evangelists were often included in the images, or especially in the Insular tradition, either given their own additional images on a separate page, or used instead of an evangelist portrait. The symbols are: the Lion of Mark, the Eagle of John, the Ox or Calf of Luke and the Angel or Man of Matthew. Often all are shown with wings, as in the familiar winged lion used in the coat of arms of Venice , whose patron saint

3131-516: The Insular period often show evangelists from the front who appear to be standing, although a chair is drawn behind them; the human figure was not a focus of interest or skill for these artists. Later Insular depictions seem to show figures without chairs, who are standing. Most of Europe continued to use the seated model however, usually seen in a three-quarters on view, and usually with a cushion behind. Sometimes all four evangelists were combined on

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3232-469: The Roman armies". Aetius returned from Gaul with an army of "barbarians", and was met by Bonifacius in the bloody Battle of Ravenna (432) . Bonifacius won the battle, but was mortally wounded and died a few days later. Aetius was compelled to retire to Pannonia . With the generals loyal to her having either died or defected to Aetius, Placidia acknowledged Aetius' political role as legitimate. In 433, Aetius

3333-494: The Rule of Saint Ferréol , as prescribing that "He who does not turn up the earth with the plough ought to write the parchment with his fingers." As this implies, the labor required of a scribe was comparable to the exertion of agriculture and other outdoor work. Another of Montalembert's examples is of a scribal note along these lines: "He who does not know how to write imagines it to be no labour, but although these fingers only hold

3434-485: The Visigoths. Placidia was returned to Honorius as part of the peace treaty. Her brother Honorius forced her into marriage to Constantius III on 1 January 417. Their daughter Justa Grata Honoria was probably born in 417 or 418. The history of Paul the Deacon mentions her first among the children of the marriage, suggesting that she was the eldest. Their son Valentinian III was born 2 July 419. Placidia intervened in

3535-763: The Western and the Eastern Roman Empire . He was also titled magister equitum et peditum ("Master of the Horse and the Foot"), placing him in charge of both the cavalry and infantry forces of the Western Roman Empire. In 408, Arcadius died and was succeeded by his son Theodosius II , only seven years old. Stilicho planned to proceed to Constantinople and "undertake the management of the affairs of Theodosius", convincing Honorius not to travel to

3636-726: The ancient scribes and the supremacy of transcription to all other manual labor. This description of monastic writing is especially important because it was written after the first printing presses came into popular use. Trithemius addresses the competing technology when he writes, "The printed book is made of paper and, like paper, will quickly disappear. But the scribe working with parchment ensures lasting remembrance for himself and for his text". Trithemius also believes that there are works that are not being printed but are worth being copied. In his comparison of modern and medieval scholarship, James J. O'Donnell describes monastic study in this way: " [E]ach Psalm would have to be recited at least once

3737-492: The architect of the order, cautioned, "Let the brethren take care the books they receive from the cupboard do not get soiled with smoke or dirt; books are as it were the everlasting food of our souls; we wish them to be most carefully kept and most zealously made." After the establishment of Manasija Monastery by Stefan Lazarević in the early 15th century, many educated monks have gathered there. They fostered copying and literary work that by its excellence and production changed

3838-625: The beginning of the 18th centuries—who worked in the Rača monastery are named in Serbian literature – "The Račans". . Among the monk-scribes the most renown are the illuminator Hieromonk Hristifor Račanin, Kiprijan Račanin , Jerotej Račanin , Teodor Račanin and Gavril Stefanović Venclović . These are well-known Serbian monks and writers that are the link between literary men and women of the late medieval ( Late Middle Ages ) and Baroque periods in art, architecture and literature in particular. Although it

3939-614: The cavalry by land, following the coast of the Adriatic from the Western Balkans to Northern Italy . Placidia and Valentinian joined this force. Along the way, Valentinian was proclaimed Caesar by Helion , a magister officiorum under Theodosius in 23 October 424. Ardaburius and the infantry boarded ships of the Eastern Roman navy in an attempt to reach Ravenna by sea. Aspar marched his forces to Aquileia , taking

4040-488: The ceremonies were led by Achilleus, Bishop of Spoleto . The conflict cost Eulalius the imperial favor, and Boniface was proclaimed the legitimate pope as of 3 April 419, returning to Rome a week later. Placidia had personally written to the African bishops, summoning them to the second synod. Three of her letters are known to have survived. On 8 February 421, Constantius was proclaimed an Augustus , becoming co-ruler with

4141-536: The childless Honorius. Placidia was proclaimed an Augusta . She was the only Empress in the West, since Honorius had divorced his second wife Thermantia in 408 and had never remarried. Neither title was recognised by Theodosius II, the Eastern Roman Emperor. Constantius reportedly complained about the loss of personal freedom and privacy that came with the imperial office. He died of an illness on 2 September 421. According to Olympiodorus of Thebes ,

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4242-406: The city by surprise and with virtually no resistance. The fleet, on the other hand, was dispersed by a storm. Ardaburius and two of his galleys were captured by forces loyal to Joannes and were held prisoners in Ravenna. Ardaburius was treated well by Joannes, who probably intended to negotiate with Theodosius for an end to the hostilities. The prisoner was allowed the "courteous freedom" of walking

4343-542: The city was quickly captured. Joannes was taken and his right hand cut off; he was then mounted on a donkey and paraded through the streets, and finally beheaded in the hippodrome of Aquileia. With Joannes dead, Valentinian was officially proclaimed the new Augustus of the Western Roman Empire on 23 October 425, by Helion, in the presence of the Roman Senate , with Theodosius II's support. Three days following Joannes' death, Aetius brought reinforcements for his army,

4444-490: The clerical scribes. By the later Middle Ages secular manuscript workshops were common, and many monasteries bought in more books than they produced themselves. When monastic institutions arose in the early sixth century (the first European monastic writing dates from 517), they defined European literary culture and selectively preserved the literary history of the West. Monks copied Jerome's Latin Vulgate Bible and

4545-436: The commentaries and letters of early Church Fathers for missionary purposes as well as for use within the monastery. In the copying process, there was typically a division of labor among the monks who readied the parchment for copying by smoothing and chalking the surface, those who ruled the parchment and copied the text, and those who illuminated the text. Sometimes a single monk would engage in all of these stages to prepare

4646-440: The context of Cistercian scriptoria, have been studied by Yolanta Załuska, L'enluminure et le scriptorium de Cîteaux au XIIe siècle (Brecht:Cîteaux) 1989. In Byzantium or Eastern Roman Empire learning maintained importance and numerous monastic 'scriptoria' were known for producing Bible/Gospel illuminations, along with workshops that copied numerous classical and Hellenistic works. Records show that one such monastic community

4747-479: The corpse was exhumed and reburied in the imperial mausoleum in Old St. Peter's Basilica , Rome. In Hispania , Ataulf imprudently accepted into his service a man identified as "Dubius" or "Eberwolf", a former follower of Sarus. Sarus had been a Germanic chieftain killed while fighting under Jovinus and Sebastianus, and his follower harbored a secret desire to avenge the death of his patron. In August/September, 415, in

4848-466: The court and streets of Ravenna during his captivity. He took advantage of this privilege to come into contact with the forces of Joannes and convinced some of them to defect to Theodosius' side. The conspirators contacted Aspar and beckoned him to Ravenna. A shepherd led Aspar's cavalry force through the marshes of the Po to the gates of Ravenna; with the besiegers outside the walls and the defectors within,

4949-523: The crowd of captives driven ahead of the mounted Sigeric. After 7 days of ruling, Sigeric was assassinated and replaced with Wallia , Ataulf's relative. According to the Chronicon Albeldense , included in the Códice de Roda , Wallia was desperate for food supplies. He surrendered to Constantius III , at the time magister militum of Honorius, negotiating terms giving foederati status for

5050-555: The death of Pulcheria prior to the death of Aelia Flaccilla , the first wife of Theodosius I, in 385. Coins issued in Placidia's honour in Constantinople after 425 give her name as AELIA PLACIDIA; this may have been intended to integrate Placidia with the eastern dynasty of Theodosius II . There is no evidence that the name Aelia was ever used in the west, or that it formed part of Placidia's official nomenclature. Placidia

5151-460: The desirability of scriptoria within a wider body of monastic structures at the beginning of the 9th century. There is evidence that in the late 13th century, the Cistercians would allow certain monks to perform their writing in a small cell "which could not... contain more than one person". These cells were called scriptoria because of the copying done there, even though their primary function

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5252-468: The eighth responsory , holding the lantern aloft when the abbot read, and approving all material to be read aloud in church, chapter, and refectory . While at Vivarium c. 540–548, Cassiodorus wrote a commentary on the Psalms entitled Expositio Psalmorum as an introduction to the Psalms for individuals seeking to enter the monastic community. The work had a broad appeal outside of Cassiodorus' monastery as

5353-476: The exalted sketches from Umberto Eco 's The Name of the Rose , it seems that ancient written accounts, as well as surviving buildings, and archaeological excavations do not invariably attest to the evidence of scriptoria. Scriptoria, in the physical sense of a room set aside for the purpose, perhaps mostly existed in response to specific scribal projects; for example, when a monastic (and) or regal institution wished

5454-410: The examples of manuscripts that passed from one cloister to another. Recent studies follow the approach, that scriptoria developed in relative isolation, to the extent that paleographers are sometimes able to identify the product of each writing centre and to date it accordingly. By the start of the 13th century, secular workshops developed, where professional scribes stood at writing-desks to work

5555-409: The furniture and fittings is unusual for Early Medieval art. An arch behind the author, often with curtains hanging across it, in some examples close to the classical models, gradually is turned into a decorative framing device for the whole scene. Early Gospel Books often had a very elaborate and costly treasure binding or cover in metalwork, often with jewels and ivories. These most often featured

5656-539: The general types. Usually a setting is provided for the figure. Details of the classical models, such as anachronistic scrolls and scroll-boxes, and a small writing-stand with a single dolphin-shaped support (see gallery below), survive well into the Middle Ages, sometimes clearly misunderstood by the artists concerned. Perhaps because of the secular origins of the typology, haloes are less likely to be worn than in other types of image. The level of detail shown in

5757-471: The heads of Sebastianus and Jovinus arrived at Honorius' court in Ravenna in late August, to be forwarded for display among other usurpers on the walls of Carthage , relations between Ataulf and Honorius improved sufficiently for Ataulf to cement them by marrying Galla Placidia at Narbonne on 1 January 414. The nuptials were celebrated with high Roman festivities and magnificent gifts. Priscus Attalus gave

5858-699: The history of the South Slavic literature and languages spreading its influence all over the Orthodox Balkans . One of the most famous scholars of the so-called School of Resava was Constantine the Philosopher /Konstantin Filozof/, an influential writer and biographer of the founder of the school (Stefan Lazarević). During the Turkish invasions of the Serbian lands (which lasted from the end of

5959-534: The inspired words of scripture because of grammatical or stylistic concerns. He declared "every work of the Lord written by the scribe is a wound inflicted on Satan", for "by reading the Divine Scripture he wholesomely instructs his own mind and by copying the precepts of the Lord he spreads them far and wide". It is important to note that Cassiodorus did include the classical texts of ancient Rome and Greece in

6060-664: The letter from Aetius. The plot now revealed, his friends returned to Rome to apprise Placidia of the true situation. She did not move against Aetius, as he wielded great influence, and as the Empire was already in danger; but she urged Bonifacius to return to Rome "and not to permit the empire of the Romans to lie under the hand of barbarians." Bonifacius now regretted his alliance with the Vandals and tried to persuade them to return to Spain. Gaiseric offered battle instead, and Bonifacius

6161-446: The letter. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry . When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of Placidia persuaded him not to kill Honoria. Valentinian wrote to Attila denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, unconvinced, sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria

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6262-478: The matter. Placidia and, presumably, Constantius petitioned the emperor in favor of Eulalius. This was arguably the first intervention by an Emperor in the Papal election. Honorius initially confirmed Eulalius as the legitimate pope. As this failed to put an end to the controversy, Honorius called a synod of Italian bishops at Ravenna to decide the matter. The synod met from February to March 419 but failed to reach

6363-625: The monastery of Montecassino , developed one of the most influential scriptoria, at its acme in the 11th century, which made the abbey "the greatest center of book production in South Italy in the High Middle Ages". Here was developed and perfected the characteristic "Cassinese" Beneventan script under Abbot Desiderius . The Rule of Saint Benedict does explicitly call for monks to have ready access to books during two hours of compulsory daily reading and during Lent , when each monk

6464-401: The monastic library. This was probably because of his upbringing, but was, nonetheless, unusual for a monastery of the time. When his monks copied these texts, Cassiodorus encouraged them to amend texts for both grammar and style. The more famous monastic treatise of the 7th century, Saint Benedict of Nursia 's Rule , fails to mention the labor of transcription by name, though his institution,

6565-501: The monks could sit and copy texts, as well as the necessary ink wells, penknives, and quills. Cassiodorus also established a library where, at the end of the Roman Empire , he attempted to bring Greek learning to Latin readers and to preserve texts both sacred and secular for future generations. As its unofficial librarian, Cassiodorus collected as many manuscripts as he could, he also wrote treatises aimed at instructing his monks in

6666-438: The next post under him to Arsacius. In the disturbances that followed the fall of Stilicho, wives and children of foederati living in the cities of Italy were killed. Most of the foederati , regarded as loyal to Stilicho, joined the forces of Alaric I , King of the Visigoths . Alaric led them to Rome and put it under siege , with minor interruptions, from autumn 408 to 24 August 410. Zosimus records that Placidia

6767-403: The only figurative illumination in the manuscript. They are a common feature in larger Gospel Books from the earliest examples in the 6th century until the decline of that format for illustrated books in the High Middle Ages, by which time their conventions were being used for portraits of other authors. They originate in the classical secular tradition of the author portrait, which was often

6868-567: The only illustration in a classical manuscript, also used as a frontispiece (not unlike the contemporary author photo, though this is usually shown on the back cover or wrapper). A very few examples of Late Antique secular author portraits survive, and rather more later copies. Some examples also draw on the conventions of the Late Antique consular portrait, much used for the Emperors, who were also consuls . Examples of these, copied from

6969-528: The only power at court. During these years, Galla Placidia befriended bishop Peter Chrysologus , both having a shared interest in building churches. She also befriended a certain Barbatianus , whom she met in Rome. He came to Ravenna to be her confessor. According to his later biography, through his intercession she miraculously obtained a sandal of John the Evangelist for the church she had built to honour

7070-418: The oratory as a place for silent, reverent prayer actually hints at the existence of a scriptorium. In Chapter 52 of his Rule, Benedict's warns: "Let the oratory be what it is called, and let nothing else be done or stored there". But condatur translates both as stored and to compose or write, thus leaving the question of Benedict's intentions for manuscript production ambiguous. The earliest commentaries on

7171-485: The orders of customers, and during the Late Middle Ages the praxis of writing was becoming not only confined to being generally a monastic or regal activity. However, the practical consequences of private workshops, and as well the invention of the printing press vis-a-vis monastic scriptoria is a complex theme. There is also evidence that women scribes, in religious or secular contexts, produced texts in

7272-620: The original, can be seen in the Chronography of 354 (see also the Missorium of Theodosius I of 30 years later). The Evangelist may be holding a book, but is not writing in it, and he faces the front on a large throne, surrounded by an elaborate frame, usually domed or pedimented. These frameworks are thought to draw from the style of the Scaenae frons , or elaborate proscenium structures of Roman theatres . The traditional symbols of

7373-465: The palace at Barcelona, the man brought Ataulf's reign to a sudden end by killing him while he bathed. The Amali faction proceeded to proclaim Sigeric , a brother of Sarus, as the next king of the Visigoths. Sigeric killed Ataulf's six children from a former wife by taking them away from Sigesar, bishop of the Goths. Galla Placidia, Ataulf's widow, was forced to walk more than twelve miles on foot among

7474-489: The pen, the whole body grows weary." An undated Cistercian ordinance, ranging in date from 1119–52 (Załuska 1989) prescribed literae unius coloris et non depictae ("letters of one color and not ornamented"), that spread with varying degrees of literalness in parallel with the Cistercian order itself, through the priories of Burgundy and beyond. In 1134, the Cistercian order declared that the monks were to keep silent in

7575-634: The picture within a historiated initial at the start of each Gospel. Other books sometimes contained them as well. Similar compositions began to be used for other saint-authors, especially for St Jerome , who is often shown in a book-lined study, often with his symbol, a lion, dozing at his feet. Similarly St Gregory the Great may be shown with a dove, representing his inspiration from the Holy Spirit, whispering in his ear. Galla Placidia Galla Placidia (392/93 – 27 November 450), daughter of

7676-574: The proper uses of texts. In the end, however, the library at the Vivarium was dispersed and lost, though it was still active around 630. The scriptoria of the Cistercian order seem to have been similar to those of the Benedictines. The mother house at Cîteaux , one of the best-documented high-medieval scriptoria, developed a severe "house style" in the first half of the 12th century. The 12th-century scriptorium of Cîteaux and its products, in

7777-403: The routines of the community and served as work for hands and minds otherwise idle, but also produced a marketable end-product. Saint Jerome stated that the products of the scriptorium could be a source of revenue for the monastic community, but Benedict cautioned, "If there be skilled workmen in the monastery, let them work at their art in all humility". In the earliest Benedictine monasteries,

7878-470: The saint. When Barbatianus died, Placidia and Chrysologus arranged his burial. Attila was diverted from Constantinople towards Italy by a letter from Placidia's own daughter Justa Grata Honoria in the spring of 450, asking him to rescue her from an unwanted marriage to a Roman senator that the Imperial family, including Placidia, was trying to force upon her. Honoria included her engagement ring with

7979-426: The scriptorium as they should in the cloister . Manuscript-writing was a laborious process in an ill-lit environment that could damage one's health. One prior complained in the tenth century: " Only try to do it yourself and you will learn how arduous is the writer's task. It dims your eyes, makes your back ache, and knits your chest and belly together. It is a terrible ordeal for the whole body ". The director of

8080-411: The subject of monastic study and reflection. Abbot Johannes Trithemius of Sponheim wrote a letter, De Laude Scriptorum (In Praise of Scribes), to Gerlach, Abbot of Deutz in 1492 to describe for monks the merits of copying texts. Trithemius contends that the copying of texts is central to the model of monastic education, arguing that transcription enables the monk to more deeply contemplate and come to

8181-450: The succession crisis following the death of Pope Zosimus on 26 December 418. Two factions of the Roman clergy had proceeded to elect their own popes, the first electing Eulalius (27 December) and the other electing Boniface I (28 December). They acted as rival popes, both in Rome, and their factions plunged the city into tumult. Symmachus, Prefect of Rome, sent his report to the imperial court at Ravenna, requesting an imperial decision on

8282-400: The transcription of texts (since the charter house was rarely heated). The Benedictine Plan of St. Gall is a sketch of an idealised monastery dating from 819–826, which shows the scriptorium and library attached to the northeast corner of the main body of the church; this is not reflected by the evidence of surviving monasteries. Although the purpose of the plan is unknown, it clearly shows

8383-400: The verses are recited again the whole phalanx of Cassiodorian erudition springs up in support of the content of the sacred text ". In this way, the monks of the Middle Ages came to intimately know and experience the texts that they copied. The act of transcription became an act of meditation and prayer, not a simple replication of letters. Author portrait Evangelist portraits are

8484-476: The wedding speech, a classical epithalamium . The marriage was recorded by Hydatius and Jordanes, although the latter states that it was earlier, in 411 at Forum Livii ( Forlì ) (possibly a more informal event). Placidia and Ataulf had one son, Theodosius, born in Barcelona by the end of 414, but the child died early in the following year, eliminating an opportunity for a Romano-Visigothic line; years later

8585-450: The writing room was actually a corridor open to the central quadrangle of the cloister . The space could accommodate about twelve monks, who were protected from the elements only by the wall behind them and the vaulting above. Monasteries built later in the Middle Ages placed the scriptorium inside, near the heat of the kitchen or next to the calefactory . The warmth of the later scriptoria served as an incentive for unwilling monks to work on

8686-409: Was Galla Placidia (died 450), paired rectangular chambers flanking the apse, accessible only from each aisle, have been interpreted as paired (Latin and Greek) libraries and perhaps scriptoria. The well-lit niches half a meter deep, provisions for hypocausts beneath the floors to keep the spaces dry, have prototypes in the architecture of Roman libraries. The monastery built in the second quarter of

8787-467: Was Mark. Sometimes, as in the example from Lorsch, the symbols are shown dictating the text to the evangelist. The symbols of the four evangelists are derived from a vision in the book of the Old Testament prophet Ezekiel of four living creatures in the form of men, but each with four faces: "As for the likeness of their faces, each had the face of a man in front; the four had the face of

8888-619: Was about to summon him for no good reason in order to put him away. Bonifacius, trusting the warning from Aetius, refused the summons; and, thinking his position untenable, sought an alliance with the Vandals in Spain. The Vandals subsequently crossed from Spain into Libya to join him. To friends of Bonifacius in Rome, this apparent act of hostility toward the Empire seemed entirely out of character for Bonifacius. They traveled to Carthage at Placidia's behest to intercede with him, and he showed them

8989-425: Was accepted in the provinces of Italia , Gaul and Hispania , but not in the province of Africa . Theodosius II reacted by preparing Valentinian III for eventual promotion to the imperial office. In 423/424, Valentinian was named nobilissimus . In 424, Valentinian was betrothed to Licinia Eudoxia , his first cousin once removed. She was a daughter of Theodosius II and Aelia Eudocia. The year of their betrothal

9090-479: Was besieged at Hippo Regius in Numidia by the sea ( Augustine of Hippo was its bishop and died in this siege). Unable to take the city, the Vandals eventually raised the siege. The Romans, with reinforcements under Aspar, renewed the struggle but were routed and lost Africa to the Vandals. Bonifacius had meanwhile returned to Rome, where Placidia raised him to the rank of patrician and made him "master-general of

9191-577: Was betrothed to Eucherius , only known son of Stilicho and Serena. Her scheduled marriage is mentioned in the text as the third union between Stilicho's family and the Theodosian dynasty , following those of Stilicho to Serena and Maria , their daughter, to Honorius. Stilicho was the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire . He was the only known person to hold the rank of magister militum in praesenti from 394 to 408 in both

9292-466: Was expected to nominate a Western co-emperor. However, Theodosius hesitated and the decision was delayed. Taking advantage of the power vacuum , Castinus the Patrician proceeded to become a kingmaker . He declared Joannes , the primicerius notariorum "chief notary" (the head of the civil service ), to be the new Western Roman Emperor. Among their supporters was Flavius Aetius . Joannes' rule

9393-553: Was given the titles magister militum and "patrician". The appointments effectively left Aetius in control of the entire Western Roman army and gave him considerable influence over imperial policy. Aetius later played a pivotal role in the defense of the Western Empire against Attila . Placidia continued to act as regent until 437, though her direct influence over decisions was diminished. She would continue to exercise political influence until her death in 450—no longer, however,

9494-504: Was granted her own household by her father in the early 390s and was thus financially independent while underage. She was summoned to the court of her father in Mediolanum (Milan) during 394, and was present at Theodosius' death on 17 January 395. She was granted the title of " nobilissima puella" ("most noble girl") during her childhood. Placidia spent most of her early years in the household of Stilicho and his wife, Serena . She

9595-531: Was herself daughter of Valentinian I and his second wife, Justina . Galla Placidia's date of birth is not recorded, but she must have been born either in the period 388–89 or 392–93. Between these dates, her father was in Italy following his campaign against the usurper Magnus Maximus , while her mother remained in Constantinople . A surviving letter from Bishop Ambrose of Milan, dated 390, refers to

9696-665: Was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. Honoria was quickly married to Flavius Bassus Herculanus , though this did not prevent Attila from pressing his claim. Placidia died shortly afterwards at Rome, in November 450, and was buried in the Theodosian family mausoleum adjacent to Old St. Peter's Basilica , later the chapel of Saint Petronilla . She did not live to see Attila ravage Gaul and Italy in 451 and 452, using Honoria's letter as his "legitimate" excuse. Being

9797-494: Was not as a writing room. The Carthusians viewed copying religious texts as their missionary work to the greater Church ; the strict solitude of the Carthusian order necessitated that the manual labor of the monks be practiced within their individual cells, thus many monks engaged in the transcription of texts. In fact, each cell was equipped as a copy room, with parchment, quill, inkwell, and ruler. Guigues du Pin, or Guigo,

9898-467: Was now forced to flee to Constantinople with her children. Despite this setback, Bonifacius , governor of the Diocese of Africa continued to be loyal to her. Placidia, Valentinian, and Honoria arrived in Constantinople around 422/423. On 15 August 423, Honorius died of edema , perhaps pulmonary edema . With no member of the Theodosian dynasty present at Ravenna to claim the throne, Theodosius II

9999-582: Was recorded by Marcellinus Comes . At the time of their betrothal, Valentinian was approximately four years old, Licinia only two. The campaign against Joannes also started in the same year. Forces of the Eastern Roman army gathered at Thessaloniki , and were placed under the general command of Ardaburius, who had served in the Roman-Persian War. The invasion force was to cross the Adriatic Sea by two routes. Aspar , son of Ardaburius, led

10100-435: Was that of Mount Athos , which maintained a variety of illuminated manuscripts and ultimately accumulated over 10,000 books. Cassiodorus' contemporary, Benedict of Nursia , allowed his monks to read the great works of the pagans in the monastery he founded at Monte Cassino in 529. The creation of a library here initiated the tradition of Benedictine scriptoria, where the copying of texts not only provided materials needed in

10201-535: Was within the city during the siege. When Serena was accused of conspiring with Alaric, the whole senate and Placidia sentenced her to death. Placidia was captured by Alaric before the fall of Rome, and accompanied the Visigoths from Italy to Gaul in 412. Their ruler Ataulf , having succeeded Alaric, entered an alliance with Honorius against Jovinus and Sebastianus , rival Western Roman emperors located in Gaul, and managed to defeat and execute both in 413. After

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