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70-606: These seven events represented an attempt by Church leaders to reach an orthodox consensus, restore peace and develop a unified Christendom . Among Eastern Christians the Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , and Church of the East (Assyrian) churches and among Western Christians the Roman Catholic , Anglican , Utrecht and Polish National Old Catholic , and some Scandinavian Lutheran churches all trace

140-709: A firman that laid out in detail the exact rights and responsibility of each community at the Holy Sepulchre. This document became known as the Status Quo , and is still the basis for the complex protocol of the shrine. The Status Quo was upheld by the British Mandate and Jordan . After the 1967 Arab-Israeli War , and the passing of the Old City into Israeli hands, the Knesset passed a law protecting

210-731: A continuation of the fifth and sixth. The Roman Catholic Church does not accept the Quinisext Council, but both the Roman magisterium as well as a minority of Eastern Orthodox hierarchs and theological writers consider there to have been further ecumenical councils after the first seven (see the Fourth Council of Constantinople , Fifth Council of Constantinople , and fourteen additional post-schism ecumenical councils canonical for Catholics). These seven ecumenical councils are: Emperor Constantine convened this council to settle

280-615: A controversial issue, the relation between Jesus Christ and God the Father . The Emperor wanted to establish universal agreement on it. Representatives came from across the Empire, subsidized by the Emperor. Previous to this council, the bishops would hold local councils, such as the Council of Jerusalem , but there had been no universal, or ecumenical, council. The council drew up a creed,

350-592: A doctrine that won widespread support when formulated in 638; the Council affirmed that Christ had both human and divine wills. Quinisext Council (= Fifth-Sixth Council) or Council in Trullo (692) has not been accepted by the Roman Catholic Church. Since it was mostly an administrative council for raising some local canons to ecumenical status, establishing principles of clerical discipline, addressing

420-747: A much wider role in non-monotheistic (and particularly, non-scriptural) religion. The prevailing governing norm within polytheism is often orthopraxy ('right practice') rather than the "right belief" of orthodoxy. Jerusalem in Christianity Jerusalem 's role in first-century Christianity , during the ministry of Jesus and the Apostolic Age , as recorded in the New Testament , gives it great importance, both culturally and religiously, in Christianity. Jerusalem

490-432: A period of several centuries to try to formalize these doctrines. The most significant of these early decisions was that between the homoousian doctrine of Athanasius and Eustathius (which became Trinitarianism ) and the heteroousian doctrine of Arius and Eusebius of Nicomedia ( Arianism ). The homoousian doctrine, which defined Jesus as both God and man with the canons of the 431 Council of Ephesus , won out in

560-549: A problem could be referred to as unorthodox , while a common and 'normal' mainstream way of solving a problem might be referred to as orthodox . The concept of orthodoxy pre-supposes some degree of agreed cultural standardisation - a system of social norms - whereby opinion can distinguish "correct" belief or doctrine from their "incorrect" equivalents. Where world-views or religious sentiment have not developed standardised, generally accepted systems of thought, orthodoxy cannot take root. The development of writing facilitated

630-744: A rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicæa." The council repudiated the Eutychian doctrine of monophysitism , described and delineated the " Hypostatic Union " and two natures of Christ , human and divine; adopted the Chalcedonian Definition . For those who accept it (Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholics, and most Protestants), it is the Fourth Ecumenical Council (calling

700-406: Is Sanatana Dharma , but which at best can be translated to mean "ageless traditions", hence denoting that they are accepted not through doctrine and force but through multi-generational tests of adoption and retention based on circumstantial attrition through millennia. Still, the concepts of āstika and nāstika of Indian philosophy are quite similar to orthodoxy and heterodoxy respectively,

770-580: Is also one additional council, the so-called Quinisext Council of Trullo held in AD 692 between the sixth and seventh ecumenical councils, which issued organizational, liturgical and canonical rules but did not discuss theology. Only within Eastern Orthodoxy is its authority commonly considered ecumenical; however, the Orthodox do not number it among the seven general councils, but rather count it as

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840-587: Is also used to cover both full heresies and minor errors. Doctrine or practices not regarded as essential to faith, with which Christians can legitimately disagree, are known as adiaphora . The concept of orthodoxy is prevalent in many forms of organized monotheism . However, orthodox belief is not usually overly emphasized in polytheistic or animist religions, in which there is often little or no concept of dogma , and varied interpretations of doctrine and theology are tolerated and sometimes even encouraged within certain contexts. Syncretism , for example, plays

910-651: Is disputed. The council deposed Nestorius, repudiated Nestorianism , and proclaimed the Virgin Mary as the Theotokos . After quoting the Nicene Creed in its original form, as at the First Council of Nicaea, without the alterations and additions made at the First Council of Constantinople, it declared it "unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as

980-509: Is generally considered the cradle of Christianity . According to the New Testament , Jerusalem was the city to which Jesus was brought as a child, to be presented at the Temple ( Luke 2:22 ) and to attend the festival of Passover ( Luke 2:41 ). According to the gospels , Jesus Christ preached and healed in Jerusalem, especially in the courts of the Temple. The events of Pentecost in

1050-645: Is no evidence for any conspiracy. On 15 July 1099, the army of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem. Most of the city's population was killed, with the exception of Eastern Christians . They were, however, exiled from the city, as their new Latin rulers believed they were conspiring with the Muslims. Jerusalem became the capital of a ' Latin Kingdom ' with a Latin church and a Latin Patriarch , all under

1120-456: Is not a centralized denomination. Relations between its different subgroups are sometimes strained and the exact limits of Orthodoxy are subject to intense debate. Very roughly, it may be divided between Haredi Judaism , which is more conservative and reclusive, and Modern Orthodox Judaism , which is relatively open to outer society. Each of those is itself formed of independent streams. They are almost uniformly exclusionist, regarding Orthodoxy as

1190-518: Is only one nature (i.e. the divine) not two while miaphysites believe that the two natures of Christ are united as one and are distinct in thought only. Eastern Patriarchs supported the Emperor, but in the West his interference was resented, and Pope Vigilius resisted his edict on the grounds that it opposed the Chalcedonian decrees. Justinian's policy was in fact an attack on Antiochene theology and

1260-491: Is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists , and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus , these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. The council approved the current form of the Nicene Creed used in most Oriental Orthodox churches. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses

1330-715: Is probably somewhere near the Church of All Nations on the Mount of Olives . Jesus' trial before Pontius Pilate may have taken place at the Antonia Fortress , to the north of the Temple area. Popularly, the exterior pavement where the trial was conducted is beneath the Convent of the Sisters of Zion . Other Christians believe that Pilate tried Jesus at Herod's Palace on Mount Zion . The Via Dolorosa , or way of suffering,

1400-561: Is remembered as the patron saint of archaeologists and (according to the church historian Socrates of Constantinople ) claimed to have found (with the assistance of bishop Macarius of Jerusalem ) the True Cross , after removing a temple to Venus that had been built over the site. Jerusalem received special recognition in Canon VII of Nicaea in 325, without yet becoming a metropolitan see . The traditional founding date for

1470-517: Is the traditional route to Golgotha, the place of crucifixion, and is an important pilgrimage . The route ends at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . The Holy Sepulchre is traditionally believed to be the location of Golgotha and Jesus' nearby tomb . The original church was built in 336 by Constantine I . The Garden Tomb is a popular pilgrimage site near the Damascus Gate . It was suggested by Charles George Gordon that this site, rather than

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1540-600: Is to be sought…only among those who are called Catholic or orthodox Christians, that is, guardians of truth and followers of right." Over time, the Western Church gradually identified with the "Catholic" label, and people of Western Europe gradually associated the "Orthodox" label with the Eastern Church (in some languages the "Catholic" label is not necessarily identified with the Western Church). This

1610-825: The Acts of the Apostles also took place at this location. There is also an account of the Cleansing of the Temple , where Jesus Christ was expelling traders and money changers out of the sacred precincts ( Mark 11:15 , see also Mark 11 ). At the end of each of the gospels, there are accounts of the Last Supper in an " Upper Room " in Jerusalem, Jesus Christ's arrest in Gethsemane , his trial , his crucifixion at Golgotha , his emtombment nearby, his resurrection and ascension , and his prophecy to return . The Acts of

1680-662: The Biblical canon , without determining matters of doctrine, the Eastern Orthodox Church does not consider it to be a full-fledged council in its own right, viewing it instead as an extension of the fifth and sixth councils. It gave ecclesiastical sanction to the Pentarchy as the government of the state church of the Roman Empire . Second Council of Nicaea (787). In 753, Emperor Constantine V convened

1750-720: The Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre (which guards the Christian holy places in the Holy Land) is 313 which corresponds with the date of the Edict of Milan which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 raised the Bishop of Jerusalem to the rank of the patriarch , together with Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch. However, Byzantine politics meant that Jerusalem simply passed from

1820-518: The Second Council of Ephesus , which was rejected by this council, the " Robber Synod " or " Robber Council "). In November 448, a synod at Constantinople condemned Eutyches for unorthodoxy. Eutyches, archimandrite (abbot) of a large Constantinopolitan monastery, taught that Christ was not consubstantial with humanity. In 449, Theodosius II summoned a council at Ephesus, where Eutyches was exonerated and returned to his monastery. This council

1890-535: The Synod of Hieria , which declared that images of Jesus misrepresented him and that images of Mary and the saints were idols. The Second Council of Nicaea restored the veneration of icons and ended the first iconoclasm . Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: In

1960-503: The original Nicene Creed , which received nearly unanimous support. The council's description of "God's only-begotten Son", Jesus Christ , as of the same substance with God the Father became a touchstone of Christian Trinitarianism . The council also addressed the issue of dating Easter (see Quartodecimanism and Easter controversy ), recognised the right of the See of Alexandria to jurisdiction outside of its own province (by analogy with

2030-626: The orthodox designation as a symbol of their theological traditions. Lutheran orthodoxy was an era in the history of Lutheranism , which began in 1580 from the writing of the Book of Concord and ended at the Age of Enlightenment . Lutheran orthodoxy was paralleled by similar eras in Calvinism and tridentine Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation . Lutheran scholasticism

2100-602: The 9th century, Emperor Michael III deposed Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople and Photius was appointed in his place. Pope Nicholas I declared the deposition of Ignatius invalid. After Michael was murdered, Ignatius was reinstated as patriarch without challenge and in 869–870 a council in Constantinople , considered ecumenical in the West, anathematized Photius. With Ignatius' death in 877, Photius became patriarch, and in 879–880 another council in Constantinople , which many Easterners consider ecumenical, annulled

2170-749: The Apostles and the Pauline epistles show James the Just , the brother of Jesus, as a leader of the early Jerusalem church. The fourth-century church fathers Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis cite a tradition that before the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 the Jerusalem Jewish Christians had been warned to flee to Pella in the region of the Decapolis across the Jordan River. After the destruction of Jerusalem, they came back to

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2240-673: The Church and was referred to as orthodoxy in most Christian contexts, since this was the viewpoint of previous Christian Church Fathers and was reaffirmed at these councils. (The minority of nontrinitarian Christians object to this terminology.) Following the 1054 Great Schism , both the Western Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church continued to consider themselves uniquely orthodox and catholic . Augustine wrote in On True Religion : "Religion

2310-458: The Council and probably originated from the baptismal creed of Constantinople. The council also condemned Apollinarism , the teaching that there was no human mind or soul in Christ. It also granted Constantinople honorary precedence over all churches save Rome. The council did not include Western bishops or Roman legates, but it was later accepted as ecumenical in the West. Theodosius II called

2380-525: The Empire, though Arianism had by then spread to the Germanic tribes, among whom it gradually disappeared after the conversion of the Franks to Christianity in 496. In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople . Athanasius ( Apol. Const. 4 ) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans . Little else is known, though there

2450-544: The First Council of Constantinople of 381 was seen by all later councils as the touchstone of orthodoxy on the doctrine of the Trinity . The Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches accept all seven of these councils as legitimate ecumenical councils . The Non-Chalcedonian Oriental Orthodox Churches accept only the first three, while the Non-Ephesian Church of the East accepts only the first two. There

2520-543: The Holy Sepulchre and many other churches were returned to the care of Eastern Christians. From the 17th to the 19th century, various Catholic European nations petitioned the Ottoman Empire for Catholic control of the 'holy places'. The Franciscans are the traditional Catholic custodians of the holy places. Control swung back and forth between the western and eastern churches throughout this period. Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I (1839–1861), perhaps out of despair, published

2590-569: The Holy Sepulchre, is the true place of Golgotha. Jerusalem historian Dan Mazar reported in a series of articles in the Jerusalem Christian Review on the archaeological discoveries made at this location by his grandfather, Professor Benjamin Mazar , which included the 1st-century stairs of ascent, where Jesus and his disciples preached, as well as the mikvaot used by both Jewish and Christian pilgrims . Much of this area

2660-545: The India. It is a record of the accepted teachings of each of thousands of gurus , who others equate to prophets, and has no founder, no authority or command, but recommendations. The term most equivalent to orthodoxy at best has the meaning of "commonly accepted" traditions rather than the usual meaning of "conforming to a doctrine", for example, what people of middle eastern faiths attempt to equate as doctrine in Hindu philosophies

2730-786: The Muslim authorities of Jerusalem massacred much of the city's Christian population, seeing the fortunate escape the city in terror. While the Crusaders hoped to protect Christian pilgrims who had been attacked and killed by the Turks, to protect the Christian holy places which had been destroyed by Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah , and in fact, were coming in response to pleas for help from the Eastern Christian Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos , there

2800-578: The Patriarch of Jerusalem, handed over the keys of the city to Caliph Umar 's Muslim forces. The Muslim authorities in Jerusalem were not kind to their Christian subjects, forcing them to live a life of "discrimination, servitude, and humiliation". The mistreatment of Christians would only worsen as the armies of the First Crusade approached Jerusalem. Fearing that the Eastern Christians had been conspiring with approaching crusaders,

2870-401: The Second Council of Constantinople was a prolonged controversy over the treatment of three subjects, all considered sympathetic to Nestorianism, the heresy that there are two separate persons in the Incarnation of Christ. Emperor Justinian condemned the Three Chapters, hoping to appeal to miaphysite Christians with his anti-Nestorian zeal. Monophysites believe that in the Incarnate Christ there

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2940-498: The Syrian jurisdiction of Antioch to the Greek authorities in Constantinople. For centuries, Greek clergy dominated the Jerusalem church. Meanwhile, the Roman church never accepted the Pentarchy and instead claimed primacy. On the other hand, the ancient notion of the primacy of the Church of Jerusalem was preserved in several texts, like the early medieval list known as the Limits of the Five Patriarchates ( Greek : Γνώσις και επίγνωσις των πατριαρχών θρόνων ). In 638, Sophronius ,

3010-428: The authority of the Pope . The city's first Latin ruler, Godfrey of Bouillon , was elected in 1099. Out of humility and deference to Jesus, he refused to be called king in a city where he thought only Jesus had the right to be called king; he would only call himself Jerusalem's protector. Throughout his short reign as protector, Godfrey struggled to increase the population of Jerusalem until his death in 1100. In 1100 he

3080-432: The cities of the Holy Land that we must understand what Scripture announces. The general significance of Jerusalem to Christians outside the Holy Land entered a period of decline during the Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire but resumed again c. 325 when Emperor Constantine I and his mother, Helena , endowed Jerusalem with churches and shrines, making it the foremost centre of Christian pilgrimage . Helena

3150-504: The city. James and his successors were the focus of Jewish Christians until the destruction of the city by Emperor Hadrian in 135. Christian tradition holds that the place of the Last Supper is the Cenacle, on the second floor of a building on Mount Zion where David's Tomb is reportedly on the first floor. Biblical archaeologist Bargil Pixner claims to have found three walls of the original structure still extant today. The place of Jesus' anguished prayer and betrayal, Gethsemane,

3220-420: The commentaries such as the Visuddhimagga . Hence, the Theravada school came to be considered the most orthodox of all Buddhist schools, as it is known to be highly conservative especially within the discipline and practice of the Vinaya . In classical Christian use, the term orthodox refers to the set of doctrines which were believed by the early Christians . A series of ecumenical councils were held over

3290-558: The context of religion, the term orthodoxy is often used to refer to any commonly held belief or set of beliefs in some field, in particular when these tenets - possibly referred to as " dogmas " - are being challenged. In this sense, the term "orthodox" can have a mildly pejorative connotation. Among various "orthodoxies" in distinctive fields, the most commonly used terms include: The terms orthodox and orthodoxy are also used more broadly by English-speakers to refer to things other than ideas and beliefs. A new and unusual way of solving

3360-429: The controversy continued, with various separate groups espousing Arian sympathies in one way or another. In 359, a double council of Eastern and Western bishops affirmed a formula stating that the Father and the Son were similar in accord with the scriptures, the crowning victory for Arianism. The opponents of Arianism rallied, and the First Council of Constantinople in 381 marked the final victory of Nicene orthodoxy within

3430-441: The council to settle the christological controversy surrounding Nestorianism . Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, opposed use of the term Theotokos (Greek: Ἡ Θεοτόκος, "God-Bearer"). This term had long been used by orthodox writers, and it was gaining popularity along with devotion to Mary as Mother of God. He reportedly taught that there were two separate persons in the incarnate Christ, though whether he actually taught this

3500-466: The council's text but with the verbs expressing belief in the singular: Πιστεύω (I believe) instead of Πιστεύομεν (We believe). The Catholic Church 's Latin Church and its liturgies also use the singular and, except in Greek , adds two phrases, Deum de Deo (God from God) and Filioque (and the Son). The form used by the Armenian Apostolic Church , which is part of Oriental Orthodoxy , has many more additions. This fuller creed may have existed before

3570-450: The council, as did his successor, Pope Pelagius I . The council was not immediately recognized as ecumenical in the West, and Milan and Aquileia even broke off communion with Rome over this issue. The schism was not repaired until the late 6th century for Milan and the late 7th century for Aquileia. Emperor Justinian's policy failed to reconcile the Monophysites. Third Council of Constantinople (680–681): repudiated monothelitism ,

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3640-691: The decision of the previous council. Orthodoxy Orthodoxy (from Greek : ὀρθοδοξία , orthodoxía , 'righteous/correct opinion') is adherence to correct or accepted creeds , especially in religion . Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity , but different Churches accept different creeds and councils. Such differences of opinion have developed for numerous reasons, including language and cultural barriers. Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy are sometimes referred to simply as "Orthodoxy". In some English-speaking countries, Jews who adhere to all

3710-460: The decisions of Chalcedon. The pope assented and condemned the Three Chapters, but protests in the West caused him to retract his condemnation. The emperor called the Second Council of Constantinople to resolve the controversy. The council, attended mostly by Eastern bishops, condemned the Three Chapters and, indirectly, the Pope Vigilius. It also affirmed Constantinople's intention to remain in communion with Rome. Vigilius declared his submission to

3780-409: The gradual canonisation of written scriptures and supra-national philosophies in the increasingly monotheistic Abrahamic Near East, but literacy traditions in South Asia and in East Asia did not prevent the growth of religious and political pluralism . Medieval Europe and the post-colonial West saw a turn - subsequently spreading elsewhere - to coercive interest in the belief -systems of

3850-448: The holy places. Five Christian communities currently have rights in the Holy Sepulchre: the Greek Patriarchate, Latins (Western Rite Roman Catholics), Armenians , Copts and Syriac Orthodox . In Christianity, Jerusalem is sometimes interpreted as an allegory or type for the church of Christ. There is a vast apocalyptic tradition that focuses on the heavenly Jerusalem instead of the literal and historical city of Jerusalem. This view

3920-446: The individual ( McCarthyism exemplifies a peak in this trend) and in their regulation or "correction" via social control - in the interests of ideological purity and state homogeneity. Orthodoxy is opposed to heterodoxy ('other teaching') or heresy . People who deviate from orthodoxy by professing a doctrine considered to be false are called heretics, while those who, perhaps without professing heretical beliefs, break from

3990-409: The jurisdiction exercised by Rome) and the prerogatives of the churches in Antioch and the other provinces and approved the custom by which Jerusalem was honoured, but without the metropolitan dignity. The Council was opposed by the Arians , and Constantine tried to reconcile Arius , after whom Arianism is named, with the Church. Even when Arius died in 336, one year before the death of Constantine,

4060-426: The legitimacy of their clergy by apostolic succession back to this period and beyond, to the earlier period referred to as the Early Church . This era begins with the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325, convened by the emperor Constantine I following his victory over Licinius and consolidation of his reign over the Roman Empire. Nicaea I enunciated the Nicene Creed that in its original form and as modified by

4130-439: The only authentic form of Judaism and rejecting all non-Orthodox interpretations as illegitimate. Kemetic Orthodoxy is a denomination of Kemetism , a reform reconstruction of Egyptian polytheism for modern followers. It claims to derive a spiritual lineage from the Ancient Egyptian religion . There are organizations of Slavic Native Faith (Rodnovery) which characterize the religion as Orthodoxy and by other terms. Outside

4200-451: The perceived main body of believers are called schismatics . The term employed sometimes depends on the aspect most in view: if one is addressing corporate unity, the emphasis may be on schism; if one is addressing doctrinal coherence, the emphasis may be on heresy. A deviation lighter than heresy is commonly called error, in the sense of not being grave enough to cause total estrangement, while yet seriously affecting communion. Sometimes error

4270-412: The traditions and commandments as legislated in the Torah are often called Orthodox Jews . Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "Orthodox Islam". The historical Buddha was known to denounce mere attachment to scriptures or dogmatic principles, as it was mentioned in the Kalama Sutta . Moreover, the Theravada school of Buddhism follows strict adherence to the Pāli Canon ( tripiṭaka ) and

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4340-593: The various challenges of modernity and secularization . Theologically , it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah , both Written and Oral , as literally revealed by God on biblical Mount Sinai and faithfully transmitted ever since. The movement advocates a strict observance of halakha (Jewish Law), which is to be interpreted only according to received methods due to its divine character. Orthodoxy considers halakha as eternal and beyond historical influence, being applied differently to changing circumstances but basically unchangeable in itself. Orthodox Judaism

4410-443: The ātiska being those who accept the epistemic authority of the Vedas . Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "Orthodox Islam". Other scholars of Islam, such as John Burton believe that there is no such thing as "Orthodox Islam". Orthodox Judaism is a collective term for the traditionalist branches of Judaism , which seek to fully maintain the received Jewish beliefs and observances and which coalesced in opposition to

4480-438: Was a theological method that gradually developed during the era of Lutheran orthodoxy. Theologians used the neo-Aristotelian form of presentation, already popular in academia, in their writings and lectures. They defined the Lutheran faith and defended it against the polemics of opposing parties. Reformed orthodoxy or Calvinist orthodoxy was an era in the history of Calvinism in the 16th to 18th centuries. Calvinist orthodoxy

4550-407: Was also uncovered by the excavations conducted by the elder Mazar. The exclusion of Jews from the new city of Aelia Capitolina meant that gentile bishops were appointed under the authority of the Metropolitans of Caesarea and, ultimately, the Patriarchs of Antioch . Origen , a prominent early Christian thinker, posited in his treatise " On the First Principles " (c. 230 CE) that Jerusalem

4620-412: Was an entity with transcendental features: If Israel belongs to the sphere of souls and the city of Jerusalem is in heaven, it follows that the metropolis of the cities of Israel is Jerusalem in the heavens, and likewise the whole of Judaea . If we listen to Paul 's divinely inspired wisdom, whatever has been prophesied and spoken of Jerusalem is of the heavenly city and it is of the place that contains

4690-403: Was in note of the fact that both Catholic and Orthodox were in use as ecclesiastical adjectives as early as the 2nd and 4th centuries respectively. Much earlier, the earliest Oriental Orthodox Churches and Chalcedonian Christianity separated in two after the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451), because of several Christological differences. Since then, Oriental Orthodox Churches are maintaining

4760-404: Was later overturned by the Council of Chalcedon and labeled "Latrocinium" (i.e., "Robber Council"). This council condemned certain writings and authors which defended the christology of Nestorius. This move was instigated by Emperor Justinian in an effort to conciliate the monophysite Christians, it was opposed in the West, and the Popes' acceptance of the council caused a major schism. Prior to

4830-434: Was paralleled by similar eras in Lutheranism and tridentine Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation . Calvinist scholasticism or Reformed scholasticism was a theological method that gradually developed during the era of Calvinist Orthodoxy. Orthodoxy does not exist in Hinduism , as the word Hindu itself collectively refers to the various beliefs of people who lived beyond the Sindhu river (Indus river) of

4900-402: Was succeeded by his brother Baldwin I who, unlike Godfrey, was willing to take the title of King of Jerusalem . With Jerusalem's population dwindling Baldwin I, as early as 1115, offered the Christians of Transjordan a section of Jerusalem. These Christians were often the target of Muslim aggression and therefore promptly accepted Baldwin's proposal. In 1187, when Saladin captured the city,

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