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52-520: Opposition (17) Vacant 53°20′26″N 6°15′14″W  /  53.34055°N 6.254021°W  / 53.34055; -6.254021 Seanad Éireann ( / ˈ ʃ æ n ə d ˈ ɛər ən , ˈ ʃ æ n ə ð / SHAN -əd(h) AIR -ən , Irish: [ˈʃan̪ˠəd̪ˠ ˈeːɾʲən̪ˠ] ; " Senate of Ireland") is the senate of the Oireachtas (the Irish legislature), which also comprises

104-514: A semi-presidential system (1981–1986) form of government. The ongoing process of amending or revising the current Constitution and form of government is popularly known as Charter Change . A shift to a unicameral parliament was included in the proposals of the constitutional commission created by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo . Unlike in the United States, senators in the Senate of

156-588: A Fine Gael government would abolish the Seanad, and along with reducing the number of TDs by 20, it would "save an estimated €150m over the term of a Dáil." During the 2011 election campaign , Labour , Sinn Féin and the Socialist Party also supported abolition of the Seanad, while Fianna Fáil supported a referendum on the issue. The programme of the Fine Gael–Labour coalition , which came to power at

208-467: A direct appeal on the point of university graduates voting, the seven-judge Supreme Court ruled in Heneghan's favour and struck down the 1937 law limiting the right to vote to NUI and Trinity College graduates. However, the court suspended its ruling to 31 July 2023 to allow the state to determine how it would institute the necessary changes to the law. In a statement, through his legal representatives at

260-574: A large part of our population from their democratic say simply on the basis of who holds a degree. It is completely and utterly indefensible." 72 TDs voted in favour of the legislation, including Fianna Fáil , Fine Gael , the Green Party , and a number of Independent TDs, including former Fine Gael TD Peter Fitzpatrick , former Progressive Democrats TD Noel Grealish , former Fianna Fáil TD Marc MacSharry , and Cathal Berry . In October 2009, Fine Gael leader Enda Kenny stated his intention that

312-469: A new six-seat Higher Education constituency in which all degree-holders from third level state institutions of higher education will be entitled to vote at the next Seanad general election after 21 March 2025. The legislation also replaces Seanad by-elections for the six seats with a list system mirroring the process used in European Parliament elections and increases the number of nominations

364-730: A party or group that stands as a placeholder for the opposition, but who are ultimately completely ineffective and therefore everything is "controlled" by the ruling parties, without necessarily a direct conspiracy taking place. Unicameral Unicameralism (from uni - "one" + Latin camera "chamber") is a type of legislature consisting of one house or assembly that legislates and votes as one. Unicameralism has become an increasingly common type of legislature, making up nearly 60% of all national legislatures and an even greater share of subnational legislatures. Sometimes, as in New Zealand and Denmark , unicameralism comes about through

416-753: A prospective candidate needs from 10 to 60 registered electors or the payment of a deposit of €1,800. 53 members of the Dáil voted against the legislation, including Sinn Féin , the Labour Party , the Social Democrats , People Before Profit-Solidarity , Independent Ireland and a number of independent TDs, with Sinn Féin TD Desise Mitchell telling the Dáil "the Government has missed a huge opportunity with this Bill. It has taken what

468-511: A robust constitution. Approximately half of the world's sovereign states are currently unicameral. The People's Republic of China is somewhat in-between, with a legislature and a formal advisory body. China has a Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference which meets alongside the National People's Congress , in many respects an advisory "upper house". Many subnational entities have unicameral legislatures. These include

520-625: A unicameral legislature, but the measure did not pass the Senate. Because of legislative gridlock in 2009, former Congressman Rick Lazio , a prospective candidate for governor, has proposed that New York adopt unicameralism. The United States as a whole was subject to a unicameral Congress during the years 1781–1788, when the Articles of Confederation were in effect. The Confederate States of America , pursuant to its Provisional Constitution, in effect from February 8, 1861, to February 22, 1862,

572-537: Is also the smallest legislature of any US state. A 2018 study found that efforts to adopt unicameralism in Ohio and Missouri failed due to rural opposition. There was a fear in rural communities that unicameralism would diminish their influence in state government. Local government legislatures of counties, cities, or other political subdivisions within states are usually unicameral and have limited lawmaking powers compared to their state and federal counterparts. Some of

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624-683: Is bicameral, all local legislatures are unicameral: the Bangsamoro Parliament , the Sangguniang Panlalawigan (Provincial Boards), Sangguniang Panlungsod (City Councils), Sangguniang Bayan (Municipal Councils), Sangguniang Barangay ( Barangay Councils), and the Sangguniang Kabataan (Youth Councils). The Nebraska Legislature (also called the Unicameral) is the supreme legislative body of

676-424: Is open to all Irish citizens over 21, but a senator cannot also be a member of Dáil Éireann. However, as stated above, nomination to vocational panel seats is restricted; nomination in the university constituencies requires signatures of 10 graduates. In the case of vacancies in the vocational panels, the electorate in the by-election consists of Oireachtas members only. Vacancies to the university seats are filled by

728-488: Is weak and dominated by the Government of the day. There are also allegations of patronage in the selection of its members, with senators often being close allies of the Taoiseach or candidates who have failed to be elected to the Dáil. Many senators have subsequently been elected as TDs. Irish universities have a long tradition of electing independent candidates. Some, like the pressure group Graduate Equality, argue that

780-763: The Cathaoirleach ("Chair"). The Taoiseach appoints a senator to be Leader of the House and direct government business there. The Seanad establishes its own standing committees and select committee ; senators also participate, along with TDs (members of the Dáil) in joint committees of the Oireachtas. A maximum of two senators may be ministers in the Government . The first parliamentary upper house in Ireland

832-490: The Constitution , Seanad Éireann consists of 60 senators, composed as follows: The general election for the Seanad must occur not later than 90 days after the dissolution of Dáil Éireann. The election occurs under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote (in the panel constituencies each vote counts as 1000, allowing fractions of votes to be more easily transferred). Membership

884-578: The Free Legal Advice Centres (FLAC), Heneghan said he hoped the Oireachtas would act speedily to extend the vote to everyone, regardless of educational or socio-economic background. This would be in line with the 2018 report of the cross-party Seanad Reform Implementation Group, chaired by Senator Michael McDowell . On 26 July 2023, the Supreme Court gave a second ruling, allowing the Oireachtas up to 31 May 2025 to legislate for

936-490: The Minnesota Legislature into a single chamber. Although debated, the idea was never adopted. The US territory of Puerto Rico held a non-binding referendum in 2005 . Voters approved changing its Legislative Assembly to a unicameral body by 456,267 votes in favor (83.7%) versus 88,720 against (16.3%). If both the territory's House of Representatives and Senate had approved by a 2 ⁄ 3 vote

988-569: The Parliament of Southern Ireland was established by British law with an upper house called the Senate. The Senate of Southern Ireland consisted of a mixture of Irish peers and government appointees. The Senate convened in 1921 but was boycotted by Irish nationalists and so never became fully operational. It was formally abolished with the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922 but a number of its members were soon appointed to

1040-810: The President of Ireland and Dáil Éireann (defined as the house of representatives ). It is commonly called the Seanad or Senate and its members senators ( seanadóirí in Irish , singular: seanadóir ). Unlike Dáil Éireann, it is not directly elected but consists of a mixture of members chosen by various methods. Its powers are much weaker than those of the Dáil and it can only delay laws with which it disagrees, rather than veto them outright. It can introduce new legislation. Since its establishment, it has been located in Leinster House . Under Article 18 of

1092-733: The provinces of Nepal , all of the Spanish autonomous communities , both of the autonomous regions of Portugal , most of the states and union territories of India , and all of the states of Brazil and Germany . In the United Kingdom , the devolved Scottish Parliament , the Welsh Senedd , the Northern Ireland Assembly , and the London Assembly are also unicameral. Though the current Congress of

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1144-469: The 13 colonies which became independent, such as Pennsylvania , New Jersey and New Hampshire had initially introduced strong unicameral legislature and (relatively) less powerful governors with no veto power. Pennsylvania's constitution lasted only 14 years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal male suffrage, gave

1196-545: The Philippines are elected not per district and state but nationally; the Philippines is a unitary state . The Philippine government's decision-making process, relative to the United States, is more rigid, highly centralised, much slower and susceptible to political gridlock . As a result, the trend for unicameralism as well as other political system reforms are more contentious in the Philippines. While Congress

1248-598: The Philippines is bicameral, the country experienced unicameralism in 1898 and 1899 (during the First Philippine Republic ), from 1935 to 1941 (the Commonwealth era) and from 1943 to 1944 (during the Japanese occupation ). Under the 1973 Constitution, the legislative body was called Batasang Pambansa , which functioned also a unicameral legislature within a parliamentary system (1973–1981) and

1300-636: The Seanad can only delay rather than veto decisions of the Dáil. The fact that 11 senators are appointed by the Taoiseach usually ensures that the Government, which must have the support of the Dáil, enjoys at least a plurality in the Seanad. The constitution imposes the following specific limitations on the powers of the Seanad: The Constitution does, however, grant to the Seanad certain means by which it may defend its prerogatives against an overly zealous Dáil: Seanad Éireann adopts its own standing orders and appoints its president, known as

1352-542: The Supreme Court found and interpreted it in the narrowest of ways...It is the Government's call, and the record will show that it was on the wrong side and acting in the interests of the elites and not in the interests of democracy" and the Social Democrats deputy leader Cian O'Callaghan saying "I urge the Government at this late stage to withdraw these tweaks and as quickly as possible in the next Oireachtas to bring forward meaningful change and stop excluding such

1404-602: The Taoiseach's nominations to be reserved for members of the Irish-British minority, and other minorities such as members of the Travelling Community and recently arrived immigrants. The Seventh Amendment in 1979 altered the provisions of Article 18.4 to allow for a redistribution of the university seats to any other institutes of higher education in the state, although it took until October 2024 for legislation to be put in place to provide for expansion of

1456-504: The abolition of one of two bicameral chambers, or, as in Sweden , through the merger of the two chambers into a single one, while in others a second chamber has never existed from the beginning. The principal advantage of a unicameral system is more efficient lawmaking, as the legislative process is simpler and there is no possibility of deadlock between two chambers. Proponents of unicameralism have also argued that it reduces costs, even if

1508-429: The bulk of Kansas City ) narrowly voted against, and all other counties voted against the change to unicameralism. In 1970, North Dakota voters voted to call a constitutional convention. In 1972, a change to a unicameral legislature was approved by 69.36-30.64, however, since the voters rejected the new constitution at the same referendum, it never took effect. In 1999, Governor Jesse Ventura proposed converting

1560-488: The co-operation and interdependence of society's various vocational groups. Since 1928, twelve separate official reports have been published on reform of the Seanad. In the 1980s, the Progressive Democrats called for its abolition; however, in government, members of the party were nominated to the Seanad by the Taoiseach. The post-1937 body has been criticised on a number of grounds, including claims that it

1612-717: The election, sought to abolish the Seanad as part of a broader programme of constitutional reform, but lost a referendum on the matter in October 2013 by 51.7% to 48.3%. Taoisigh have often included people from Northern Ireland among their eleven nominees , such as John Robb (served 1982–1989), Seamus Mallon (1982–1983) of the SDLP , Bríd Rodgers (1983–1987) also of the SDLP, peace campaigner Gordon Wilson (1993–1997), businessman Edward Haughey (1994–2002), Maurice Hayes (1997–2002), and Emer Currie (2020–present). Sam McAughtry

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1664-624: The expansion of the electorate. In September 2024, the Minister for Housing, Local Government and Heritage published the Seanad Electoral (University Members) (Amendment) Bill 2024, which was passed by the Seanad on 16 October without a vote, and the Dáil on 23 October without amendment. The legislation was signed by President Michael D Higgins on 29 October 2024. The new law abolishes the two three-seat National University of Ireland and University of Dublin constituencies, and creates

1716-427: The first Seanad election by the Constitution (Amendment No. 1) Act 1925 . It was intended that eventually the entire membership of the Seanad would be directly elected by the public. However, after only one election, in 1925 , where 19 Seanad members were elected in one district using STV, this system was abandoned in favour of a form of indirect election. Initially casual vacancies in the Seanad were filled by vote of

1768-489: The franchise for electing university senators should be extended to the graduates of all third level institutions. Others believe that this does not go far enough and that at least some portion of the Seanad should be directly elected by all adult citizens. Calls have also been made for the Seanad to be used to represent Irish emigrants or the people of Northern Ireland . In 1999 the Reform Movement called for some of

1820-466: The franchise. In 2019, Tomás Heneghan, a graduate of University of Limerick , challenged the limitation of voting rights to graduates of National University of Ireland , Trinity College Dublin , and to Oireachtas and local authority members. The case was heard by a three-judge division of the High Court in 2021. The challenge was rejected by the court later that year. On 31 March 2023, following

1872-481: The full electorate in that constituency until March 2025, after which vacancies will be filled through a list system. The powers of Seanad Éireann are modelled loosely on those of the British House of Lords . It is intended to play an advisory and revising role rather than to be an equal of the popularly elected Dáil. While notionally every Act of the Oireachtas must receive assent of both chambers, in practice

1924-583: The governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America. In 1944, Missouri held a vote on changing the General Assembly to a unicameral one, which was narrowly rejected by the voters 52.42-47.58. Only the city of St. Louis and the St. Louis County voted in favor, whilst Jackson County (containing

1976-656: The instability. Furthermore, research on opposition politics in South Asia has helped inform researchers on possibilities of democratic renewal post-backsliding as well as possibilities of political violence.  Despite there being aggressive and powerful regimes in place in various South Asian countries, the opposition still poses a powerful counter-party. For example, members of opposition have made their way into office in Nepal and Sri Lanka has been hosting elections in regions known to previously not hold them. In these cases,

2028-606: The new Free State senate. The name Seanad Éireann was first used as the title of the upper house of the Oireachtas of the Irish Free State. The first Seanad consisted of a mixture of members appointed by the President of the Executive Council and members indirectly elected by the Dáil, and W. T. Cosgrave agreed to use his appointments to grant extra representation to the state's Protestant minority. The procedures for election of senators were amended before

2080-503: The number of legislators stays the same, since there are fewer institutions to maintain and support financially. More popular among modern-day democratic countries, unicameral, proportional legislatures are widely seen as both more democratic and effective. Proponents of bicameral legislatures say that having two legislative chambers offers an additional restraint on the majority , though critics note that there are other ways to restrain majorities, such as through non-partisan courts and

2132-533: The opposite. Case studies in Jordan align with mainstream thought in that political opposition can benefit from instability, while case studies in Morocco display a lack of oppositional mobilization in response to instability. In the Jordan case study, scholars reference opposition increasingly challenge those in power as political and economic instability proliferated wereas the opposition in Morocco did not mobilize on

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2184-558: The presence of opposition has brought about positive democratic change. As social media has become a larger part of society and culture around the world, so too has online political opposition. Online communication as a whole has also heightened the spread of clearer political opposition. Various factors like censorship, selective censoring, polarization, and echo chambers have changed the way that political opposition presents itself. Many Americans also believe that Social Media sites censor political viewpoints especially when they contradict

2236-540: The remaining members. However this system was replaced under the Constitution (Amendment No. 11) Act 1929 by filling of vacancies by vote of both Dáil and Seanad, the system that continues today for panel members. The Free State Seanad was abolished entirely in 1936 after it delayed some Government proposals for constitutional changes. The modern Seanad Éireann was established by the Constitution of Ireland in 1937, and first sat on 25 January 1939. When this document

2288-538: The specific amendments to the Puerto Rico Constitution that are required for the change to a unicameral legislature, another referendum would have been held in the territory to approve such amendments. If those constitutional changes had been approved, Puerto Rico could have switched to a unicameral legislature as early as 2015. On June 9, 2009, the Maine House of Representatives voted to form

2340-860: The state of Nebraska and territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands in the United States , the Chinese special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macao , the Australian state of Queensland as well as the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory , a majority of the provinces of Argentina , all of the provinces and territories in Canada , all of the regions of Italy , all of

2392-474: The state of Nebraska and the only unicameral state legislature in the United States. Its members are called "senators", as it was originally the upper house of a bicameral legislature before the Nebraska House of Representatives dissolved in 1937. The legislature is also notable for being nonpartisan and officially recognizes no party affiliation, making Nebraska unique among US states. With 49 members, it

2444-555: The status quo. Controlled opposition is the use of black propaganda and saboteurs who claim to oppose a particular faction but are in fact working for the faction. One alleged example is the Serbian Party Oathkeepers (SSZ), led under their president Milica Đurđević Stamenkovski , who claim to be opposed to the Serbian Progressive Party (SNS). Controlled opposition can also mean

2496-543: Was adopted it was decided to preserve the titles of Oireachtas , for the two houses of the legislature, in conjunction with the President, Dáil Éireann for the lower house, and Seanad Éireann for the upper house, the latter having been used during the Irish Free State. This new Seanad was considered to be the direct successor of the Free State Seanad and so the first Seanad convened under the new constitution

2548-564: Was deemed elected on the Administrative Panel in 2024. Opposition (politics) Scholarship focusing on opposition politics did not become popular or sophisticated until the mid-20th century. Recent studies have found that popular unrest regarding the economy and quality of life can be used by political opposition to mobilize and to demand change. Scholars have debated whether political opposition can benefit from political instability and economic crises, while some conclude

2600-672: Was elected to the Industrial and Commercial Panel in a by-election in February 1996. Niall Ó Donnghaile was elected in April 2016 as a Sinn Féin senator for the Administrative Panel while serving on Belfast City Council . Ian Marshall , a farmer and activist from a Unionist background, was elected to the Agricultural Panel in a by-election in April 2018. Mal O'Hara of Belfast, leader of Green Party Northern Ireland ,

2652-463: Was referred to as the "Second Seanad". The new system of vocational panels used to nominate candidates for the Seanad was inspired by the corporatist Roman Catholic social teaching of the 1930s, and in particular the 1931 papal encyclical Quadragesimo anno . In this document Pope Pius XI argued that the Marxist concept of class conflict should be replaced with a vision of social order based on

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2704-608: Was the House of Lords of the Parliament of Ireland , beginning in 1297. Like its British counterpart, this house consisted of hereditary nobles and bishops. After the abolition of the Irish Parliament under the Act of Union of 1800 no parliament existed in Ireland until the twentieth century. In 1919 Irish nationalists established a legislature called Dáil Éireann but this body was unicameral and so had no upper house. In 1920

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