Artists
124-635: English victory The Second Desmond Rebellion (1579–1583) was the more widespread and bloody of the two Desmond Rebellions in Ireland launched by the FitzGerald Dynasty of Desmond in Munster against English rule. The second rebellion began in July 1579 when James FitzMaurice FitzGerald landed in Ireland with a force of Papal troops, triggering an insurrection across the south of Ireland on
248-496: A tavern in Tralee . John of Desmond and Fitzmaurice together commanded a force of over 3000 men, including a small number of European soldiers, and several thousand native Irish troops. The prospect of further continental reinforcements was hampered though, when Sir William Winter , on 29 July 1579, four days after the landing at Smerwick, seized the ships of the invasion force and cut off their sea-routes. The Earl of Desmond, who
372-1163: A Catholic monarchy. With the English adventurer Captain Thomas Stukley , Fitzmaurice planned an expedition which was to make Giacomo Boncompagni , the nephew of Pope Gregory, King of Ireland . This was supported by the English Catholics. Stukley was provided by the Pope with infantry and sailed from Civitavecchia in Rome with 1000 men in March 1578, including pardoned highwaymen, musketeers, and some professional officers, including Hercules of Pisano and Sebastiano di San Giuseppe of Bologna . In Cadiz in Spain he added some Irishmen and King Philip II sent him to Lisbon to secure better ships and meet with Fitzmaurice. Having no ships to offer, King Sebastian of Portugal instead invited Stukley to join an invasion of Morocco , Stukley
496-521: A bribe as his reward. Local historian Margaret Anna Cusack (1868) explained that: "In a few days the courage of the Spanish commander failed, and he entered into treaty with the Lord Deputy. A bargain was made that he should receive a large share of the spoils... The English were admitted to the fortress on the following day, and a feast was prepared for them." Grey de Wilton ordered the massacre and
620-682: A false surrender in April 1581 but continued his raiding after a short period. However he finally surrendered in September 1582, ending the fighting in Leinster. For the Earl of Desmond, there would be no pardon, and he was pursued by Crown forces until the end. For the remainder of the war, the Earl and the remaining Geraldines evaded capture on the run in the mountains of Kerry and Tipperary and engaged in guerrilla warfare . In early 1582, John of Desmond
744-413: A half they were brought to such wretchedness, as that any stony heart would have rued the same. Out of every corner of the wood and glens they came creeping forth upon their hands, for their legs could not bear them; they looked Anatomies [of] death, they spoke like ghosts crying out of their graves; they did eat of the carrions, happy where they could find them, yea, and one another soon after, in so much as
868-526: A half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh , was the most notorious for terror tactics, killing civilians at random and setting up corridors of severed heads at the entrance to his camps. Sidney forced FitzMaurice into the mountains of County Kerry , from where he launched guerrilla attacks on the English and their allies. By 1570, most of FitzMaurice's allies had submitted to Sidney. The most important, Donal MacCarthy Mór, surrendered in November 1569. Nevertheless,
992-716: A par with the 39 books found in the Masoretic Text . This reaffirmed the previous Council of Rome and Synods of Carthage (both held in the 4th century AD), which had affirmed the Deuterocanon as scripture. The council also commissioned the Roman Catechism , which served as authoritative Church teaching until the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992). While the traditional fundamentals of
1116-659: A pardon for his life. However, in 1574, he became landless, and in 1575, he sailed to France to seek help from the Catholic powers to start another rebellion. Gerald FitzGerald; Earl of Desmond; and his brother, John, were released from prison to reconstruct their shattered territory. Under a settlement imposed after the rebellion, known as "composition", the Desmonds' military forces were limited by law to 20 horsemen, and their tenants were made to pay rent to them, rather than supply military service or quarter their soldiers. Perhaps
1240-772: A private war against the Butlers in 1565, which had culminated in the Battle of Affane in County Waterford . The First Desmond Rebellion was launched in 1569, in the absence of the Desmond leadership, by James FitzMaurice FitzGerald , the "captain general" of the FitzGerald army. That rebellion was quashed by the English crown forces and their Irish allies (primarily the Butlers, led by Thomas Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormonde ), and ended in 1573. The English response after
1364-503: A religious conflict, in which the rebellion's leaders considered themselves defending Catholicism against religious persecution by a Protestant queen who had been pronounced a tyrant and a heretic in 1570 by Pope Pius V 's bull Regnans in Excelsis . The result of the rebellions was the destruction of the Desmond dynasty and the subsequent Munster Plantations – the colonisation of Munster with English settlers. In addition,
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#17327657387451488-504: A role in fomenting discontent. In the early 1570s, Sir John Perrot , the English Lord Deputy, had banned aspects of traditional Gaelic Irish culture, including Brehon law , bardic Irish language poetry, and Irish dress. In addition, the English had introduced Protestantism as the state religion in Ireland, whereas the majority of the population were Roman Catholic . This was an increasingly important proof of loyalty to
1612-522: A saint, set an example by visiting the remotest parishes and instilling high standards. The 1559–1967 Index Librorum Prohibitorum was a directory of prohibited books which was updated twenty times during the next four centuries as books were added or removed from the list by the Sacred Congregation of the Index . It was divided into three classes. The first class listed heretical writers,
1736-492: A small force of Spanish and Italian troops. He was joined on 1 August by John of Desmond , a brother of the earl, who had a large following among his kinsmen and the disaffected swordsmen of Munster. Other Gaelic clans and Old English families also joined in the rebellion. FitzMaurice was killed in a skirmish with the Clanwilliam Burkes on 18 August, and John FitzGerald assumed leadership of the rebellion. Gerald,
1860-467: A soldier and had a large following among his kinsmen and the disaffected and unemployed soldiers of Munster. It was only after John's joining of the rebellion that it was joined by these soldiers in large numbers. John and his brother, James Fitzedmund Fitzgerald , the Seneschal of Imokilly , marked their entry into the rebellion by assassinating two English officials, Henry Davells and Arthur Carter in
1984-881: A specific parish or area like a vicar or canon. In Italy, the first congregation of regular clergy was the Theatines founded in 1524 by Gaetano and Cardinal Gian Caraffa . This was followed by the Somaschi Fathers in 1528, the Barnabites in 1530, the Ursulines in 1535, the Jesuits , canonically recognised in 1540, the Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of Lucca in 1583, the Camillians in 1584,
2108-676: A spiritual revival in Europe, incubated by the rise of preaching friars , the standardization of the Paris Bible , lay spiritual movements (such as the devotio moderna ), the examples of nascent saints such as Catherine of Bologna , Antoninus of Florence , Rita of Cascia and Catherine of Genoa , printing, Christian humanism , an urbanized laity who could not flee the towns for monasteries, and other reasons. A series of ecumenical councils were held with reformist agendas: The kinds of positive reforms considered were not necessarily
2232-475: A squadron of Spanish ships under the command of Don Juan Martinez de Recalde landed a Papal force of Spanish and Italians numbering 600 men commanded by Sebastiano di San Giuseppe (aka Sebastiano da Modena; Sebastian de San José), at Smerwick , on the Dingle Peninsula near the same point where Fitzmaurice had landed the previous year. They had arms for several thousand men, sent by Philip II to aid
2356-604: A symbolic rejection of English rule, the rebels bestowed the title of King of Leinster on Creon MacMurrough Kavanagh, whose ancestors had held this title before the English conquest. O'Byrne was joined by James Eustace, 3rd Viscount Baltinglass , an Old English marcher lord of the Pale , who was motivated primarily by his devout Catholicism. In August, John of Desmond and Nicholas Sanders met Baltinglass in Laois to try to co-ordinate their forces, but aside from limited co-operation in
2480-482: A vigorous campaign of reform, inspired by earlier Catholic reform movements: humanism , devotionalism , and observantism . The council, by virtue of its actions, repudiated the pluralism of the secular Renaissance that had previously plagued the Church: the organization of religious institutions was tightened, discipline was improved, and the parish was emphasized. The appointment of bishops for political reasons
2604-533: Is misleading: it cannot rightly be applied, logically or chronologically, to that sudden awakening as of a startled giant, that wonderful effort of rejuvenation and reorganization, which in a space of thirty years gave to the Church an altogether new appearance. … The so-called 'counter-reformation' did not begin with the Council of Trent, long after Luther; its origins and initial achievements were much anterior to
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#17327657387452728-581: The Adorno Fathers in 1588, and finally the Piarists in 1621. At the end of the 1400s, a reform movement inspired by St Catherine of Genoa 's hospital ministry started spreading: in Rome, starting 1514, the Oratory of Divine Love attracted an aristocratic membership of priests and laymen to perform anonymous acts of charity and to discuss reform; the members subsequently became the key players in
2852-495: The Capuchins , recognized by the pope in 1619. This order was well known to the laity and played an important role in public preaching. To respond to the new needs of evangelism, clergy formed into religious congregations , taking special vows but with no obligation to assist in a monastery's religious offices. These regular clergy taught, preached and took confession but were under a bishop's direct authority and not linked to
2976-721: The Catholic Revival , was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to, and as an alternative to, the Protestant Reformations at the time. It is frequently dated to have begun with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and to end with the conclusion of the European wars of religion in 1648, though this is controversial. The broader term Catholic Reformation (Latin: Reformatio Catholica ) also encompasses reforms and movements within
3100-649: The French Jansenist theologian Pasquier Quesnel (1634–1719). Jansenism was a Protestant-leaning or mediating movement within Catholicism, in France and the Spanish Netherlands, that was criticized for being crypto-Calvinist, denying that Christ died for all, promoting that Holy Communion should be received very infrequently, and more. After Jansenist propositions were condemned it led to
3224-613: The Lord Deputy of Ireland , and William Drury , the Lord President of Munster , had up to 700 unemployed or "masterless" soldiers executed, judging them to be a danger to the public peace. The surviving mercenary soldiers in Munster would form the backbone of the coming rebellion. Secondly, many of the local Irish Lords felt that their interests were threatened by the English policy of plantations – confiscating land for which
3348-555: The Observantist faction of the monastic orders (that less slackness regarding external observances would aid fervour in internal piety) or to promote a top-down ("head and body") institution-centric focus that reform needed to start at and from the Pope, or bishops, or councils, or princes, or canon law. There was considerable support for the evangelical counsels ' ideal of poverty as a way to short-circuit careerism, though John Wycliffe 's doctrine of mandatory apostolic poverty
3472-531: The Old English Butlers of Ormonde and the Fitzmaurices and FitzGeralds of Desmond . Both families raised their own armed forces and imposed their own law, a mixture of Irish and English customs independent of the English government imposed on Ireland. Beginning in the 1530s, successive English administrations tried to expand English control over Ireland (See Tudor conquest of Ireland ). By
3596-672: The Protestant English state. They culminated in the destruction of the Desmond dynasty and the plantation or colonisation of Munster with English Protestant settlers. 'Desmond' is the Anglicisation of the Irish Deasmumhain , meaning 'South Munster'. In addition to the scorched earth policy, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Warham St Leger, Perrot and later Nicholas Malby and Lord Grey and William Pelham, deliberately targeted civilians, including women and children,
3720-571: The medieval church , its sacramental system, religious orders, and doctrine . It recommended that the form of Mass should be standardised, and this took place in 1570, when Pope Pius V made the Tridentine Mass obligatory. It rejected all compromise with Protestants, restating basic tenets of the Catholic Faith . The council upheld salvation appropriated by grace through faith and works of that faith (not just by faith , as
3844-801: The "Red Book". This launched the Liturgical Struggle , which pitted John III of Sweden against his younger brother Charles . During this time, Jesuit Laurentius Nicolai came to lead the Collegium regium Stockholmense . This theatre of the Counter-Reformation was called the Missio Suetica . The 1578 Defensio Tridentinæ fidei was the Catholic response to the Examination of the Council of Trent . The 1713 papal bull Unigenitus condemned 101 propositions of
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3968-740: The 14th century. The 'Benedictine Bull' of 1336 reformed the Benedictines and Cistercians . In 1523, the Camaldolese Hermits of Monte Corona were recognized as a separate congregation of monks. In 1435, Francis of Paola founded the Poor Hermits of Saint Francis of Assisi, who became the Minim Friars. In 1526, Matteo de Bascio suggested reforming the Franciscan rule of life to its original purity, giving birth to
4092-403: The 1560s, their attention had turned to the south of Ireland and Henry Sidney , as Lord Deputy of Ireland , was charged with establishing the authority of the English government over the independent lordships there. His solution was the creation of "lord presidencies", provincial military governors who were to replace the local lords as military powers and keepers of the peace. The dynasties saw
4216-619: The Barrow valley region, they were unable to forge a common strategy. Nevertheless, the outbreak of rebellion so close to the centre of English government in Dublin was of grave concern to the English. Sir Henry Sidney , the former Lord Deputy of Ireland , influenced the response from his membership of the Privy council and in August 1580 a new Lord Deputy, Arthur Grey, 14th Baron Grey de Wilton ,
4340-511: The Butlers and some Gaelic Irish clans antagonistic to the Geraldines. After the failed attempt to take Kilkenny, the rebellion quickly descended into an untidy mopping-up operation. Together, Ormonde, Sidney, and Humphrey Gilbert , appointed as governor of Munster, devastated the lands of FitzMaurice's allies in a scorched earth policy. FitzMaurice's forces broke up, as individual lords had to retire to defend their own territories. Gilbert,
4464-662: The Catholic Archbishop of Cashel and Margaret Ball the wife of the Lord Mayor of Dublin , also died in prison in Dublin Castle . Those executed often proclaimed their Catholic faith on the scaffold and were honoured by their Church as Catholic martyrs [1] . These executions were a major factor in the long term alienation of the Old English from the English state in Ireland. On 10 September 1580,
4588-715: The Catholic Northern Rebellion broke out in England, but was crushed. This and the Desmond Rebellion caused Pope Pius V to issue Regnans in Excelsis , a bull excommunicating Elizabeth and depriving her of the allegiance of her Catholic subjects. Elizabeth had previously accepted private Catholic worship but now suppressed militant Catholicism. Luckily for her, most of her Irish subjects did not want to get involved in rebellions although they mostly remained Catholic. The second Desmond rebellion
4712-507: The Church in the periods immediately before Protestantism or Trent and lasting later. Initiated in part to address the challenges of the Protestant Reformations, the Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort arising from the decrees of the Council of Trent. The effort produced apologetic and polemical documents, heresy trials, anti-corruption efforts, spiritual movements, the promotion of new religious orders, and
4836-531: The Church were reaffirmed, there were noticeable changes to answer complaints that the Counter-Reformers were, tacitly, willing to admit were legitimate. Among the conditions to be corrected by Catholic reformers was the growing divide between the clerics and the laity; many members of the clergy in the rural parishes had been poorly educated. Often, these rural priests did not know Latin and lacked opportunities for proper theological training. Addressing
4960-490: The Council of Trent attempted to improve the discipline and administration of the Church. The worldly excesses of the secular Renaissance Church, epitomized by the era of Alexander VI (1492–1503), intensified during the Reformation under Pope Leo X (1513–1521), whose campaign to raise funds for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica by supporting use of indulgences served as a key impetus for Martin Luther 's 95 Theses . The Catholic Church responded to these problems by
5084-443: The Counter-Reformation was a mission to reach parts of the world that had been colonized as predominantly Catholic and also try to reconvert nations such as Sweden and England that once were Catholic from the time of the Christianisation of Europe , but had been lost to the Reformation. Various Counter-Reformation theologians focused only on defending doctrinal positions such as the sacraments and pious practices that were attacked by
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5208-423: The Desmond territories. Specifically it was against the creation of the office of "Lord President" (governor) in the province of Munster and the English pursuit of policies that favoured the FitzGerald's rivals, the Butlers of Ormonde, and various English colonists. The most pressing grievance of the Geraldines had been the government's arrest of Gerald the Earl and his brother John of Desmond in 1568 for their part in
5332-427: The Dublin administration after the promulgation of Pope Pius V 's papal bull Regnans in Excelsis in 1570, when the Papacy excommunicated Elizabeth and her officials. Fitzmaurice appealed to both of these sentiments, speaking only Irish, wearing Irish dress, and also championing the cause of the Counter-Reformation. In exile in Europe from 1575, Fitzmaurice tried to get backing for a new rebellion. He intrigued at
5456-449: The Earl at Glenaginty. Owen Moriarty received 1000 pounds of silver from the English government for Desmond's head, which was sent to Queen Elizabeth in London, while his body was triumphantly displayed on the walls of Cork city. Munster continued to suffer from bubonic plague and famine in the years following the rebellion, and was described as having vast empty areas and a substantially reduced population. Perhaps as much as one third of
5580-420: The Earl of Desmond, initially resisted the call of the rebels and tried to remain neutral but gave in once the authorities had proclaimed him a traitor . He joined the rebellion by sacking Youghal (on 13 November) and Kinsale , and devastated the country of the English and their allies. In the summer of 1580, English troops under William Pelham and locally-raised Irish forces under the Earl of Ormonde retook
5704-404: The Earl was killed in Glenaginty in the Slieve Mish Mountains (near Tralee in County Kerry) by the local Moriarty clan of Castledrum on the Dingle peninsula. The Earl and his followers had raided the property of clan Moriarty, stole cattle and mistreated the sister of the clan chief, Owen Moriarty. Men of clan Moriarty, with 25 soldiers, pursued the Earl's followers until they captured and killed
5828-475: The English colony at Kerrycurihy south of Cork city in June 1569, before attacking Cork itself and those native lords who refused to join the rebellion. FitzMaurice's force of 4,500 men went on to besiege Kilkenny , seat of the Earls of Ormonde, in July. In response, Sidney mobilised 600 English troops, who marched south from Dublin and another 400 landed by sea in Cork. Thomas Butler, Earl of Ormonde , returned from London, where he had been at court, and mobilised
5952-520: The English officials there, looting the town, and abusing the civilian population. Desmond's force then blockaded the city of Cork before withdrawing westwards into the mountains of Kerry. MacCarthy Mor, meanwhile, chief of the MacCarthys, announced his joining of the rebellion by sacking Kinsale . The ferocity of Desmond's actions were repaid in kind by the Crown forces early in the following year. Thomas Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormonde , Sir William Pelham, and Sir George Carew were sent to Munster to subdue
6076-445: The English termed them, who had rallied to FitzMaurice. William Drury, Lord President of Munster from 1576, executed around 700 of these men in the years after the rebellion. In the aftermath of the uprising, Gaelic customs such as Brehon Laws , Irish dress, bardic poetry, and the maintaining of "private armies", all of which were deeply valued in traditional Irish society, were again outlawed and suppressed. FitzMaurice had emphasised
6200-431: The English. Fitzmaurice left Ireland for France in 1575, seeking help from Catholic powers to restart the rebellion. The factors which drove Fitzmaurice into rebellion also created a wide pool of potential rebels in southern Ireland. Firstly, the disbanded Irish soldiers from various lords' private armies faced destitution and even death in an English-ruled Ireland. In the wake of the first Desmond Rebellion, Henry Sidney ,
6324-406: The Four Masters : ... the whole tract of country from Waterford to Lothra , and from Cnamhchoill (a wood close to Tipperary ) to the county of Kilkenny, was suffered to remain one surface of weeds and waste… At this period it was commonly said that the lowing of a cow or the whistle of the ploughboy could scarcely be heard from Dun-Caoin to Cashel in Munster. The second is from the View of
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#17327657387456448-476: The French and Spanish courts for a foreign invasion of Ireland. However, the Habsburg King Philip II of Spain showed no interest in supporting him, as he was already overstretched fighting the Dutch Revolt in the Netherlands . Fitzmaurice had more success though at the court of Pope Gregory XIII , where he met with exiled English Roman Catholic priests such as William Allen and Nicholas Sanders who were seeking to invade England, depose Elizabeth, and restore
6572-429: The Gaelic character of the rebellion, wearing Irish dress, speaking only Irish and referring to himself as the taoiseach of the Geraldines. Irish landowners continued to be threatened by the arrival of English colonists to settle on land confiscated from the Irish. All of those factors meant that when FitzMaurice returned from Europe to start a new rebellion, many people in Munster were willing to join him. In late 1569,
6696-502: The Geraldines, notably, apart from Ormonde's followers, the over 1000 fighting men of the MacCarthy Reaghs of Carbery , and also the O'Driscolls. Hugh O'Neill, 3rd Earl of Tyrone , also led a contingent from his lands in Ulster . In March 1580, the Crown forces had an important strategic victory, taking the Desmond stronghold at Carrigafoyle Castle at the mouth of the Shannon. With 1400 soldiers and assisted by William Winter and his naval forces, William Pelham captured Carrigafoyle,
6820-461: The Hail Mary with the Pater Noster prayer, and made available vernacular French versions of the Gospels and Epistles. Conservative and reforming parties still survived within the Catholic Church even as the Protestant Reformations spread. Protestants decisively broke from the Catholic Church in the 1520s. The two distinct dogmatic positions within the Catholic Church solidified in the 1560s. The regular orders made their first attempts at reform in
6944-467: The Irish province of Munster . They were rebellions by the Earl of Desmond , the head of the FitzGerald dynasty in Munster , and his followers, the Geraldines and their allies, against the threat of the extension of the English government over the province. The rebellions were motivated primarily by the desire to maintain the independence of feudal lords from their monarch but also had an element of religious antagonism between Catholic Geraldines and
7068-423: The Italian and Spanish mercenaries were beheaded and their bodies thrown into the sea. Among the English soldiers present at the siege and massacre was the writer and explorer Walter Raleigh . This was brought against him as a criminal charge in one of his trials. Raleigh argued that he was "obliged to obey the commands of his superior officer" but he was unable to exonerate himself. With the massacre at Smerwick,
7192-540: The Lord Presidency for Munster and to re-establish Desmond primacy over the Butlers, FitzMaurice planned rebellion against the English presence in the south and against the Earl of Ormonde. FitzMaurice had wider aims than simply the recovery of FitzGerald supremacy within the context of the English Kingdom of Ireland . Before the rebellion, he had secretly sent Maurice MacGibbon, Catholic Archbishop of Cashel , to seek military aid from Philip II of Spain . [REDACTED] Kingdom of England FitzMaurice first attacked
7316-429: The Pale lord James Eustace, 3rd Viscount Baltinglass . They ambushed and massacred a large English force under the Lord Deputy of Ireland Lord Grey de Wilton at the battle of Glenmalure on 25 August. On 10 September 1580, 600 papal troops landed at Smerwick in Kerry to support the rebellion. They were besieged in a fort at Dún an Óir . They surrendered after two days of bombardment and were then massacred. Through
7440-409: The Papal banner with some ceremony at Dingle and Fitzmaurice proclaimed a holy war sanctioned by letters from Pope Gregory. This was a very serious matter in 16th century thinking, as it released the Catholic subjects of Elizabeth I from their duty of obedience to her, on the grounds that she was a heretic (the Pope had excommunicated her in 1570). The fact that Fitzmaurice had openly challenged
7564-421: The Present State of Ireland , written by English poet Edmund Spenser , who fought in the campaign, approved the scorched earth method, and suggested it as a useful method of enforcing English ways: In those late wars in Munster; for notwithstanding that the same was a most rich and plentiful country, full of corn and cattle, that you would have thought they could have been able to stand long, yet ere one year and
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#17327657387457688-414: The Protestant reformers, up to the Second Vatican Council in 1962–1965. 'Counter-Reformation’ is a translation of German : Gegenreformation . Protestant historians have tended to speak in terms of Catholic reform as part of the Counter-Reformation, itself a response to the Reformation. In nineteenth-century Germany, the term became part of the German : Kulturkampf : ‘Counter-Reformation’
7812-416: The Protestants insisted) because "faith without works is dead", as the Epistle of James states (2:22–26). Transubstantiation , according to which the consecrated bread and wine are held to have been transformed really and substantially into the body , blood , soul and divinity of Christ, was also reaffirmed, as were the traditional seven sacraments of the Catholic Church . Other practices that drew
7936-401: The Second Desmond Rebellion was one of the most important events in the Tudor conquest of Ireland – a century long process which saw all of Ireland under English control by 1603. The killing of many of the Irish mercenary class in the war was likewise an important development for the English authorities in establishing their monopoly on the use of force in Ireland. The Rebellion also established
8060-402: The biggest winner of the first Desmond Rebellion was the Earl of Ormonde, who established himself as the most powerful lord in the south of Ireland because he had sided with the English crown. All of the local chiefs had submitted by the end of the rebellion. The methods used to suppress it provoked lingering resentment, especially among the Irish mercenaries; gall óglaigh or gallowglass as
8184-443: The captain general of the Desmond military. FitzMaurice had little stake in a new demilitarised order in Munster, with abolition of the Irish lords' armies. A factor that drew wider support for FitzMaurice was the prospect of land confiscations, which had been mooted by Sidney and Peter Carew , an English claimant to lands granted to an ancestor just after the Norman conquest of Ireland that had been lost soon afterwards. FitzMaurice
8308-408: The castle by force. William Pelham , the Lord Justice of Ireland, then proclaimed Desmond a traitor, meaning that he was to be captured and executed. This forced Gerald and the remaining FitzGeralds to join the rebellion. The Earl assumed leadership of the rebellion in a spectacular manner. On 13 November 1579, he and his followers sacked the town of Youghal , massacring its English garrison, hanging
8432-422: The church handling the Reformation. In 1548, then-layman Philip Neri founded a Confraternity of the Most Holy Trinity of Pilgrims and Convalescents : this developed into the relatively-free religious community the Oratorians , who were given their constitutions in 1564 and recognized as a religious order by the pope in 1575. They used music and singing to attract the faithful. The 1530 Confutatio Augustana
8556-402: The country people had fled to avoid the fighting. People continued to die of starvation and plague long after the war had ended, and it is estimated that by 1589, one third of the province's population had died. Grey was recalled by Elizabeth I for his excessive brutality. Two famous accounts tell us of the devastation of Munster after the Desmond rebellion. The first is from the Gaelic Annals of
8680-438: The defeat at Smerwick, Papal assistance to Nicholas Sanders was cut off. After spending almost two years as a fugitive in the south-west of Ireland, he is believed to have died of cold and starvation in the spring of 1581. In April 1581, a general pardon was offered to all but the rebellion's leaders. Many of the Earl of Desmond's erstwhile supporters surrendered. Baltinglass fled for France in August 1581. Fiach MacHugh O'Byrne made
8804-502: The eastern province of Leinster . In July 1580, Fiach McHugh O'Byrne , based in the Wicklow Mountains launched the rebellion in the east of Ireland. He assembled a coalition of local lords and clan leaders, including the Kavanaghs, the O'Tooles, and the O'Moores. Many of these had already been fighting on and off with English garrisons for several years. In particular, the arbitrary killings by an English officer named Masterson, based in Wicklow, seems to have provoked many into revolt. In
8928-467: The education of priests had been a fundamental focus of the humanist reformers in the past. Parish priests were to be better educated in matters of theology and apologetics , while Papal authorities sought to educate the faithful about the meaning, nature and value of art and liturgy, particularly in monastic churches (Protestants had criticised them as "distracting"). Handbooks became more common, describing how to be good priests and confessors. Thus,
9052-420: The elderly or infirm or even those of diminished mental capacity regardless of whether they supported the Desmonds or not. It was considered a good policy to terrorise the native population. The American author Richard Berleth covers it in great detail in his book The Twilight Lords . The south of Ireland (the provinces of Munster and southern Leinster ) was dominated, as it had been for over two centuries, by
9176-403: The fame of Wittenberg. It was undertaken, not by way of answering the 'reformers,' but in obedience to demands and principles that are part of the unalterable tradition of the Church and proceed from her most fundamental loyalties. The Italian historian Massimo Firpo has distinguished "Catholic Reformation" from "Counter-Reformation" by their issues. In his view, the general "Catholic Reformation"
9300-681: The fighting laid waste to a large part of the south of Ireland. War-related famine and disease are thought to have killed up to a third of Munster's pre-war population. The Munster branch of the FitzGeralds, known as the Geraldines , were holders of the title Earl of Desmond , which at the time of the rebellions was held by Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond , referred to here as the Earl of Desmond . The first Desmond rebellion (1569–73) had been an armed protest against English intrusion into
9424-533: The first rebellion was conciliation of the Geraldines. Fitzmaurice, the leader of the rebellion, was pardoned and the Earl and his brother John of Desmond were released from imprisonment and returned to their lands. As late as 1579, it looked most unlikely that the FitzGeralds would again challenge English rule in Munster. However, a combination of personal, economic, and religious factors, and the actions of James Fitzmaurice FitzGerald himself, led to an explosion of rebellion in July of that year. Fitzmaurice, who had led
9548-415: The first rebellion, found himself without property and powerless after peace was restored. Lands that he had inherited were confiscated and colonised by English settlers. The Earl of Desmond was forbidden from exacting military service and quartering his troops on his dependants (a practice known as coyne and livery ), and he was reduced to maintaining only 20 horsemen in his private service. This abolition by
9672-531: The flourishing of new art and musical styles. Such policies (e.g., by the Imperial Diets of the Holy Roman Empire ) had long-lasting effects in European history with exiles of Protestants continuing until the 1781 Patent of Toleration , although smaller expulsions took place in the 19th century. Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in
9796-455: The garrison. The invasion forces were geographically isolated on the tip of the narrow Dingle Peninsula , cut off by Mount Brandon on one side and the much larger English force on the other. They had no means of escape. In addition, the English had brought up heavy artillery by sea, which rapidly broke down the improvised defences of Dún an Óir. After a three-day siege, Colonel Di san Giuseppe surrendered on 10 October 1580, on agreeing to take
9920-517: The government of private armies meant that Fitzmaurice, who was a professional soldier, was without a source of income. Fitzmaurice was therefore impoverished, and in 1574 he was evicted by the Earl from lands he had been renting since 1573. On top of these discontents, Fitzmaurice also had a genuine commitment to the Catholic Counter-Reformation and a deep antipathy to Protestantism, which had been introduced into Ireland by
10044-447: The guerrilla campaign continued for three more years. In February 1571, John Perrot was made Lord President of Munster . He pursued FitzMaurice with 700 troops for over a year without success. FitzMaurice had some victories, capturing an English ship near Kinsale and burning the town of Kilmallock in 1571, but by early 1573, his force was reduced to less than 100 men. FitzMaurice finally submitted on 23 February 1573, having negotiated
10168-603: The half-century before the reformation, the phenomenon of Bishops closing down decadent monasteries or convents had become more common, as had programs to educate parish priests. In the half-century before the Council of Trent, various evangelical Catholic leaders had experimented with reforms that came to be associated with Protestants: for example, Guillaume Briçonnet (bishop of Meaux) in Paris, with his former teacher Jacques Lefèvre d’Etaples , had statues other than Christ removed from his churches (though not destroyed ), replaced
10292-526: The invasion force went to other parts of Ireland. A small number went to Carrigafoyle Castle on the southern banks of the River Shannon (in northern County Kerry), the seat of the Earl of Desmond. This contingent included an Italian engineer, Captain Julian, who set about perfecting the castle's defences. Fitzmaurice himself mounted a sortie to Connacht to try to provoke rebellion there. However, he
10416-672: The ire of Protestant reformers, such as pilgrimages , the veneration of saints and relics , the use of venerable images and statuary , and the veneration of the Virgin Mary were strongly reaffirmed as spiritually commendable practices. The council, in the Canon of Trent , officially accepted the Vulgate listing of the Old Testament Bible, which included the deuterocanonical works (called apocrypha by Protestants) on
10540-489: The legitimacy of the Tudor dynasty to rule Ireland meant that, unlike the first Desmond rebellion of 1569–1573, this one would be very unlikely to end with a negotiated peace. The rebels were joined on 25 July by two galleys with 100 more Spanish troops. Fitzmaurice's small force might well have been crushed rapidly had he not been joined on 1 August by John of Desmond. John Fitzedmund Fitzgerald , like Fitzmaurice, had been
10664-471: The ones that pre-occupied the Hussites (e.g., communion under both kinds , married priests) and later Protestants (e.g., indulgences , justification). Ending schism and war (especially papal war) was regarded by some prelates as the pre-condition for reformation. At times, the reform talk in the councils tended to lack enough specificity to result in an effective program—except for a tendency to follow
10788-526: The owner did not have an English title and establishing English colonies on it. Thirdly, the imposition of seneschals , or English military governors, in various areas where the local leaders had previously been independent meant that some chieftains, such as Fiach MacHugh O'Byrne of the Wicklow Mountains , were already engaged in a low level war with the English authorities throughout the 1570s. Finally, cultural and religious conflict also played
10912-481: The part of the Desmond dynasty, their allies, and others who were dissatisfied for various reasons with English government of the country. The rebellion ended with the 1583 death of Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond , and the defeat of the rebels. The rebellion was in equal part a protest by feudal lords against the intrusion of central government into their domains; an Irish clan reaction to English policies that were destroying traditional Gaelic culture ; and
11036-485: The presidencies as intrusions into their sphere of influence. Their interfamilial competition had seen the Butlers and FitzGeralds fight a pitched battle against each other at Affane in County Waterford in 1565 in defiance of English law. Elizabeth I summoned the heads of both houses to London to explain their actions. However, the treatment of the dynasties was not even-handed. Thomas Butler, 10th Earl of Ormonde , "Black Tom" Butler, Queen Elizabeth's cousin and friend,
11160-495: The principal Desmond stronghold at the mouth of River Shannon and massacred the rebel garrison there. They had now cut off the Geraldine forces from the north of the country and prevented a landing of foreign troops into the main Munster port of Limerick . When news of the destruction of Carrigafoyle castle spread, other Desmond strongholds fell swiftly. The castle at Askeaton was abandoned with its Spanish defenders blowing up
11284-567: The province's population perished in the war. The main political consequence of the rebellion was the annihilation of the Desmond dynasty's power in southern Ireland. Their lands were confiscated, along with those of their allies. Following a survey in 1584 by the Surveyor General of Ireland, Sir Valentine Browne it was subsequently colonised with English settlers – the Munster Plantations . The Earl of Desmond title
11408-525: The rebellion, and paid for by Pope Gregory. Desmond, Baltinglass, and John of Desmond made an effort to link up with the expeditionary force but English forces under Ormonde and Grey blocked them and prompt naval action by Richard Bingham blockaded the Papal force's ships into the bay at Smerwick. San Giuseppe had no choice but to fortify his men in the fort at Dún an Óir. In October 1580, Grey de Wilton with up to 4000 troops arrived at Smerwick and laid siege to
11532-484: The rebels and proceeded to systematically destroy the Desmond lands in County Limerick , County Cork , and north County Kerry and to kill the civilians who lived there at random. These tactics were intended to cause so much economic and human damage to the Desmonds' followers that they would be forced to leave the rebellion. The Crown troops were not only English but also composed of Irish forces antagonistic to
11656-451: The relentless scorched-earth tactics of the English, who killed animals and razed crops and homes to deprive the Irish of any food or shelter, the rebellion was crushed by mid-1581. By May 1581, most of the minor rebels and FitzGerald allies in Munster and Leinster had accepted Elizabeth I's offer of a general pardon. John of Desmond was killed north of Cork in early 1582. The Geraldine earl
11780-570: The second class listed heretical works, and the third class listed forbidden writings which were published without the name of the author. The Index was finally suspended on 29 March 1967. The 1566 Roman Catechism provided material in Latin to help the clergy catechize in the vernacular. The 1575 Nova ordinantia ecclesiastica was an addendum to the Liturgia Svecanæ Ecclesiæ catholicæ & orthodoxæ conformia , also called
11904-499: The south coast, destroyed the lands of the Desmonds and their allies and killed their tenants. They captured Carrigafoyle , the principal Desmond castle at the mouth of the Shannon at Easter 1580, cutting off the Geraldine forces from the rest of the country and prevented a landing of foreign troops into the main Munster ports. In July 1580, the rising spread to Leinster under the leadership of Fiach MacHugh O'Byrne and his client
12028-532: The spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ , including the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality . It also involved political activities and used the regional Inquisitions . A primary emphasis of
12152-641: The subject. The term ‘Catholic Reformation’ appealed to Catholic historians because it offered them the possibility of avoiding the term ‘Counter-Reformation’, with its problematic connotation of a mere reaction to Protestantism. But it was rejected by Protestant historians – largely because they did not want the term ‘Reformation’ to be used for anything other than the Protestant Reformation. Catholic historians tend to emphasize them as different. The French historian Henri Daniel-Rops wrote: The term ('counter-reformation'), however, though common,
12276-469: The subsequent Nine Years' War in Ulster and the extension of plantation policy to other parts of the country. Counter-Reformation Clergy Monarchs Popes Electors of Saxony Holy Roman Emperors Building Literature Theater Liturgies Hymnals Monuments Calendrical commemoration The Counter-Reformation ( Latin : Contrareformatio ), also sometimes called
12400-436: The theme of religious conflict in Irish history for the first time. The divide between Irish Catholic landowners and Protestant English settlers and government would dominate Irish life for another century and still has reverberations to this day. Invasion/Rebellion side – the Irish and their Catholic supporters: Kingdom of Ireland : Desmond Rebellions The Desmond Rebellions occurred in 1569–1573 and 1579–1583 in
12524-451: The tide had turned decisively against the rebels. However, the war dragged on for two more years of increasingly bitter guerrilla fighting. The civilian population was to suffer tremendously as a result of the war, being targeted by both sides and having their crops, livestock, and homes destroyed. Grey, the ruthless English commander, described his own tactics as "burning their corn, spoiling their harvest and driving their cattle". The result
12648-447: The very carcasses they spared not to scrape out of their graves; and if they found a plot of water-cresses or shamrocks, there they flocked as to a feast for the time, yet not able long to continue therewithal; that in a short space there were none almost left, and a most populous and plentiful country suddenly left void of man or beast. The wars of the 1570s and the 1580s marked a watershed in Ireland. The southern Geraldine axis of power
12772-425: The walls, and the garrisons at Newcastle West , Balliloghan, Rathkeale , and Ballyduff surrendered soon afterwards. Many of the lords who had joined the rebellion surrendered as well, judging the English to have the upper hand. Those who surrendered included MacCarthy Mor, Roche, Barry, and others. It looked as if the rebellion was beaten by the summer of 1580, but it was revived by the outbreak of new rebellion in
12896-418: Was "centered on the care of souls ..., episcopal residence, the renewal of the clergy, together with the charitable and educational roles of the new religious orders", whereas the specific "Counter-Reformation" was "founded upon the defence of orthodoxy, the repression of dissent, the reassertion of ecclesiastical authority". Other relevant terms that may be encountered: The 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries saw
13020-510: Was annihilated, and Munster was "planted" with English colonists given land confiscated from those who fought for their country. After a survey begun in 1584 by Sir Valentine Browne , Surveyor General of Ireland, the thousands of English soldiers and administrators who had been imported to suppress the rebellion were given land in the Munster Plantation of Desmond's confiscated estates. The Elizabethan conquest of Ireland followed
13144-477: Was decisively rejected at the Council of Constance. Issues such as papal nepotism and the wealth, dioscese-absenteeism, and pre-occupation with secular power of important bishops were recognized as perennial and scandalous problems. These resisted serious reform (by successive popes and councils with those bishops, unable to compromise their own interests) for centuries, causing friction as radical reformers periodically arose in response, such as Savonarola . In
13268-460: Was famine and diseases caused by malnutrition. In the summer of 1582, Elizabeth I removed Grey from the office of Lord Deputy for his excessive brutality. By mid 1582, Warham St Leger reported that around 30,000 people had died of famine in Munster alone in the previous six months and hundreds were dying in Cork city of starvation and disease. Meanwhile, the rebellion slowly fell apart. As a result of
13392-463: Was joined by Nicholas Malby , with a force of 1,100 English soldiers. Drury was in poor health and died shortly afterwards. He left the Crown forces under the command of Malby. In late October, Malby marched through the Desmond territory, devastating the countryside there and demanded that Gerald the Earl of Desmond surrender his castle at Askeaton . Desmond refused and resisted when Malby tried to take
13516-575: Was joined by Matthew de Oviedo and by Nicholas Sanders as Papal commissary . En route in the English Channel , they captured two English vessels and arrived at Dingle harbour (part of the area now known as County Kerry ) on 16 July. On the 18th they cast anchor in the nearby small Smerwick harbour (now known as Ard na Caithne ), where they established a defensive garrison at Dún an Óir ( Fort of Gold , Spanish: Fuerte del Oro ), an Iron Age promontory fort nearby. Nicholas Sanders paraded
13640-413: Was killed in a skirmish north of Cork. The rebellion was finally ended in 1583, when the Earl of Ormonde assumed command of Crown forces. Ormonde took a less ruthless approach to the campaign than previous officers, preferring diplomacy to scorched-earth tactics. He contained the rebels to west Cork and Kerry and persuaded many of Desmond's closest relatives to surrender. On 11 November 1583 the end came when
13764-513: Was killed in a skirmish with the forces of the Burkes of Clanwilliam on 18 August, after his men stole some horses belonging to Theobald Burke (a cousin of Fitzmaurice). This left the rebellion under the command of John of Desmond, now effectively the leader of the Geraldines. The rebels were left in control of southern Munster and the English did not have enough troops to re-take it. Drury, the English Lord Deputy, marched 600 men to Limerick, where he
13888-524: Was killed there in August 1578 at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir , thus ending Fitzmaurice's initial plans for invading Ireland. Nicholas Sanders, Fitzmaurice, and others returned to Rome and formed a new expedition with Papal authority. With a small force of Irish, Spanish, and Italian troops, they set sail for Ireland in early June 1579 from Corunna in Galicia, Spain . The fleet consisted of Fitzmaurice's own vessel and three Spanish shallops . Fitzmaurice
14012-830: Was later restored and during another rebellion, the Nine Years War in the 1590s, the English attempted to introduce a new Protestant Geraldine Earl who had grown up in England, but without success. In Leinster, Fiach MacHugh O'Byrne submitted but was later killed leading a new rebellion in Nine Years War. James Eustace, 3rd Viscount of Baltinglass went into exile, dying in Spain in 1585. His title and property, including Rathfarnham Castle were confiscated. Many more former rebels were pardoned but had some land confiscated and had to pay substantial fines. The destruction of so many important landed families in Ireland and colonisation of their lands with English settlers meant that
14136-560: Was no longer tolerated. In the past, the large landholdings forced many bishops to be "absent bishops" who at times were property managers trained in administration. Thus, the Council of Trent combated " absenteeism ", which was the practice of bishops living in Rome or on landed estates rather than in their dioceses. The Council of Trent gave bishops greater power to supervise all aspects of religious life. Zealous prelates, such as Milan 's Archbishop Carlo Borromeo (1538–1584), later canonized as
14260-526: Was pardoned, but both Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond (in 1567) and his brother, John of Desmond, who was widely regarded as the real military leader of the FitzGeralds (in 1568), were arrested and detained in the Tower of London on Ormonde's urging. That decapitated the natural leadership of the Munster Geraldines and left the Desmond earldom in the hands of a soldier, James FitzMaurice ,
14384-464: Was pursued by English forces until the end. From 1581 to 1583, his supporters evaded capture in the mountains of Kerry . On 2 November 1583 the earl was hunted down and killed near Tralee in Kerry by the O'Moriarty family and English soldiers from Castle Maine . The clan chief, Maurice, received 1,000 pounds of silver and a pension of 20 pounds a year from the English government for Desmond's head, which
14508-407: Was reasonably satisfied with the English settlement of the first rebellion, initially tried to stay out of Fitzmaurice's rebellion and attempted to raise the Geraldines to put it down. However, he managed to assemble only 60 men – in contrast to the thousands raised at short notice by his brother John, indicating that most of the FitzGeralds and their allies sympathised with the rebellion. A number of
14632-539: Was sent by Grey de Wilton to defend the Pale area of Leinster . For the remainder of the war, O'Byrne and his allies raided English settlements in the east and south east, but were unable to take strategic advantage of their victory at Glenmalure. The rebellion and its aftermath saw a number of people from the Pale and other Old English areas such as Wexford (who had previously always been loyal to English authority) hanged as traitors. Those executed included Dermot O'Hurley
14756-474: Was sent from England with 6000 troops. Grey's immediate priority was to put down the Leinster rebellion. On 25 August 1580, English forces under Grey were routed in the Battle of Glenmalure with the forces of O'Byrne and Viscount Baltinglass. While trying to storm O'Byrne's fortress at Glenmalure in the heart of the Wicklow mountains, they were ambushed and mauled, losing over 800 men killed. William Stanley
14880-479: Was sent to Queen Elizabeth. Desmond's body was displayed on the walls of Cork. (Maurice O'Moriarty ended his life by being hanged at Tyburn.) After three years of scorched earth warfare by the English, Munster was racked by famine . In April 1582, the provost marshal of Munster, Sir Warham St Leger , estimated that 30,000 people had died of hunger in the previous six months. Plague broke out in Cork City to where
15004-594: Was sparked when James FitzMaurice launched an invasion of Munster in 1579. During his exile in Europe, he had declared himself as a soldier of the Counter-Reformation by arguing that since the Pope 's excommunication of Elizabeth I, Irish Catholics did not owe loyalty to a heretic monarch. The Pope granted FitzMaurice an indulgence and supplied him with troops and money. FitzMaurice landed at Smerwick , near Dingle (modern County Kerry ) on 18 July 1579 with
15128-501: Was the Catholic response to the Lutheran Augsburg Confession . Pope Paul III (1534–1549) is considered the first pope of the Counter-Reformation, and he also initiated the Council of Trent (1545–1563), tasked with institutional reform, addressing contentious issues such as corrupt bishops and priests , the sale of indulgences , and other financial abuses. The council upheld the basic structure of
15252-601: Was thus the support of important Munster clans, notably MacCarthy Mór, O'Sullivan Beare and O'Keefe, and two prominent Butlers, brothers of the Earl. Fitzmaurice himself had lost the land he had held at Kerricurrihy in County Cork , which had been taken and leased to English colonists. He was a devout Catholic who was influenced by the Counter-Reformation and saw the Protestant Elizabethan governors as his enemies. To discourage Sidney from going ahead with
15376-482: Was used by Protestant historians as a negative and one-dimensional concept that stressed the aspect of reaction and resistance to Protestantism and neglected that of reform within Catholicism. The term was understandably shunned by Catholic historians. Even when the Protestant historian Wilhelm Maurenbrecher introduced the term ‘Catholic Reformation’ in 1880, German historiography remained confessionally divided on
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