Misplaced Pages

#455544

54-454: After the death of Honorius II, Petrus Leonis, under the name of Anacletus II , was elected as Pope by a majority of the cardinals and with the support of the people of Rome on the same day as a minority elected Innocent II . In 1135, Innocent II held a council at Pisa , which confirmed his authority and condemned Anacletus. Anacletus's death in 1138 helped largely to solve the tension between rival factions. Nevertheless, Innocent decided to call

108-635: A schism broke out in the Church by the election of two popes, Pope Innocent II and Antipope Anacletus II . Innocent, having been banished from Rome by Anacletus, took refuge in France. King Louis VI convened a national council of the French bishops at Étampes and Bernard, summoned there by the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes. He decided in favour of Innocent. Bernard travelled on to Italy and reconciled Pisa with Genoa , and Milan with

162-516: A master of prayer, the abbot emphasized the value of personal, experiential friendship with Christ. Bernhard made a self-confident impression and had an undeniable charisma in the eyes of his contemporaries; "his first and greatest miracle," wrote the historian Holdsworth, "was himself." He defended the rights of the church against the encroachments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty Henri Sanglier , archbishop of Sens and Stephen of Senlis , bishop of Paris. When Honorius II died in 1130,

216-551: A meeting with Abelard intending to persuade him to amend his writings, during which Abelard repented and promised to do so. But once out of Bernard's presence, he reneged. Bernard then denounced Abelard to the pope and cardinals of the Curia . Abelard sought a debate with Bernard, but Bernard initially declined, saying he did not feel matters of such importance should be settled by logical analyses. Bernard's letters to William of St-Thierry also express his apprehension about confronting

270-537: A more immediate faith experience. He is considered to be a master of Christian rhetoric: "His use of language remains perhaps his most universal legacy." He contributed lyrics to the Cistercian Hymnal . As a mariologist , Bernard insisted on Mary's central role in Christian theology and preached effectively on Marian devotions. He developed the theology of her role as Co-Redemptrix and mediator. As

324-601: A relatively acceptable candidate for the Papacy, being well-respected, so rumors centering on his descent from a Jewish convert were spread to blacken his reputation. Bernard of Clairvaux wrote: "It is a disgrace for Christ that a Jew sits on the throne of St. Peter's." Among his supporters were duke William X of Aquitaine , who decided for him against the will of his own bishops, and the powerful Roger II of Sicily , whose title of "King of Sicily" Anacletus had approved by papal bull after his accession. By 1135 Anacletus' position

378-670: Is any precious vase adorning the palace of the King of Kings it is the soul of the venerable Suger." Conrad III and his son Henry died the same year. Bernard died at age sixty-three on 20 August 1153, after forty years of monastic life. He was buried at Clairvaux Abbey. After its destruction in 1792 by the French revolutionary government his remains were transferred to Troyes Cathedral . Bernard's theology and Mariology continue to be of major importance. Bernard helped found 163 monasteries in different parts of Europe. Cistercians honour him as one of

432-477: Is illustrious beyond all doubt." (One of Anacletus' great-great-grandparents, Benedictus, maybe Baruch in Hebrew, was a Jew who had converted to Christianity - but Anacletus himself was not a Jew, and his family had been Christians for three generations). Bernard wrote to Gerard of Angoulême (a letter known as Letter 126), which questioned Gerard's reasons for supporting Anacletus. Bernard later commented that Gerard

486-542: The Antipope Anacletus II . The eloquent abbot advocated crusades in general and convinced many to participate in the unsuccessful Second Crusade , notably through a famous sermon at Vézelay (1146) . Bernard was canonized just 21 years after his death by Pope Alexander III . In 1830 Pope Pius VIII declared him a Doctor of the Church . Bernard's parents were Tescelin de Fontaine , lord of Fontaine-lès-Dijon , and Alèthe de Montbard , both members of

540-491: The Benedictine Abbey of Cluny . Later he went to Rome and occupied several important positions. In 1130, Pope Honorius II lay dying and the cardinals decided that they would entrust the election to a commission of eight men, led by papal chancellor Haimeric, who had his candidate Cardinal Gregory Papareschi hastily elected as Pope Innocent II. He was consecrated on February 14, the day after Honorius' death. On

594-603: The Petrobrusians , followers of Peter of Bruys and spread them in a modified form after Peter's death. Henry of Lausanne's followers became known as Henricians . In June 1145, at the invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia , Bernard travelled in southern France. His preaching, aided by his ascetic looks and simple attire, helped doom the new sects. Both the Henrician and the Petrobrusian faiths began to die out by

SECTION 10

#1732772559456

648-529: The second Lateran Council ended the schism, although opinion remained divided. Pietro was born to the powerful Roman family of the Pierleoni , the son of the consul Pier Leoni . One of his great-great grandparents, Benedictus, maybe Baruch in Hebrew, was a Jew who converted into Christianity. As a second son with ambitions, Pietro was destined for an ecclesiastical career. He studied in Paris and entered

702-729: The Abbot of Cluny Peter the Venerable ; and Norbert of Xanten , the Archbishop of Magdeburg who established the Premonstratensians and held a high rank in the court of the German Emperor Lothar III . The lack of support from these key figures left Anacletus with few patrons outside of Rome. Anacletus, with little remaining support, lived for several years and died with the crisis unresolved. In 1139

756-519: The Cistercian way of life. At the solicitation of William of St.-Thierry , Bernard defended the Cistercians with his Apology . Peter the Venerable , abbot of Cluny, answered Bernard and assured him of his admiration and friendship. In the meantime, Cluny launched a reform and Bernard befriended Abbot Suger . Although acknowledged as "a difficult saint," Bernard has remained influential in

810-559: The Henricians, the followers of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne . Finally, the council drew up measures for the amendment of ecclesiastical morals and discipline which the council fathers considered had grown lax. Many of the canons relating to these matters were mostly a restating of the decrees of the Council of Reims and the Council of Clermont . The most important results of the council included: Another decision confirmed

864-566: The Second Crusade. He was for battling them "until such a time as, by God's help, they shall either be converted or deleted". A decree issued in Frankfurt stated that the letter should be proclaimed widely and read aloud, so that "the letter functioned as a sermon." The death of his contemporaries served as a warning to Bernard of his own approaching end. The first to die was Suger in 1152, of whom Bernard wrote to Eugene III, "If there

918-619: The Tenth Ecumenical Council. The council assembled at the Lateran Palace and nearly a thousand prelates attended. In his opening statement Innocent deposed those who had been ordained and instituted by Anacletus or any of his adherents. King Roger II of Sicily was excommunicated for maintaining what was thought to be a schismatic attitude. The council also condemned the teachings of the Petrobrusians and

972-410: The abbey as a preacher and a diplomat in the service of the pope. Described by Jean-Baptiste Chautard as "the most contemplative and yet at the same time the most active man of his age," Bernard described the disparate parts of his personality when he called himself the " chimera of his age." In addition to successes, Bernard also had his trials. Once, when he was absent from Clairvaux, the prior of

1026-475: The centuries since his death and was named a Doctor of the Church in 1830. In 1953, on the 800th anniversary of his death, Pope Pius XII devoted the encyclical Doctor Mellifluus to him. He labeled the abbot "the last of the Fathers ." In opposition to the rational approach to understanding God used by the scholastics , Bernard preached in a poetic manner, using appeals to affect and conversion to nurture

1080-529: The close of the 11th century, a spirit of independence flourished within schools of philosophy and theology . The movement found an ardent and powerful advocate in Peter Abelard . Abelard's treatise on the Trinity had been condemned as heretical in 1121, and he was compelled to throw his own book into a fire. However, Abelard continued to develop his controversial teachings. Bernard is said to have held

1134-598: The cloth used to make crosses for the new recruits. Unlike the First Crusade, the new venture attracted royalty, such as the French queen Eleanor of Aquitaine and scores of high aristocrats and bishops. But an even greater show of support came from the common people. Bernard wrote Pope Eugene a few days afterwards, "Cities and castles are now empty. There is not left one man to seven women, and everywhere there are widows to still-living husbands." Bernard then passed into Germany, with reported miracles contributing to

SECTION 20

#1732772559456

1188-502: The command of Innocent II, took possession of Tre Fontane Abbey , from which Eugene III was chosen in 1145. Pope Innocent II died in the year 1143. His two successors, Pope Celestine II and Pope Lucius II , reigned only a short time, and then Bernard saw one of his disciples, Bernard of Pisa, known thereafter as Eugene III, raised to the Chair of Saint Peter . Bernard sent him, at the pope's own request, various instructions which comprise

1242-571: The debate, swaying many of them to his view. The next day, after Bernard made his opening statement, Abelard decided to retire without attempting to answer. The council found in favour of Bernard and their judgment was confirmed by the pope. Abelard submitted without resistance, and he retired to Cluny to live under the protection of Peter the Venerable , where he died two years later. Bernard had occupied himself in sending bands of monks from his overcrowded monastery into Germany, Sweden, England, Ireland, Portugal, Switzerland, and Italy. Some of these, at

1296-552: The end of that year. Soon afterwards, Henry of Lausanne was arrested, brought before the bishop of Toulouse , and probably imprisoned for life. In a letter to the people of Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of 1146, Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. He also preached against Catharism . As abbot, Bernard often addressed his community, but he also spoke to other monastics and, in one particularly famous case, to students of Theology in Paris. He gave

1350-912: The entire Roman aristocracy, with the exception of the Frangipani, and the majority of the Cardinals. With the support of the People, and in opposition to the French Haimeric, the Pierleoni were powerful enough to take control of Rome, while Innocent was forced to flee north of the Alps. North of the Alps, Innocent gained the crucial support of St. Bernard of Clairvaux , Peter the Venerable , and other prominent reformers who helped him gain recognition from European rulers such as Emperor Lothair III , leaving Anacletus with few patrons. Anacletus had been

1404-605: The failure of the Second Crusade he had preached, and the entire responsibility which was thrown upon him. Bernard sent an apology to the Pope and it is inserted in the second part of his "Book of Considerations". There he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures. Bernard did not actually preach the Wendish Crusade , but he did write a letter that advocated subduing this group of Western Slavs so that they should not be an obstacle to

1458-606: The greatest early Cistercians. His feast day is 20 August. Bernard is Dante Alighieri 's last guide, in Divine Comedy , as he travels through the Empyrean . John Calvin and Martin Luther quoted Bernard several times in support of the doctrine of Sola Fide . Calvin also quotes him in setting forth his doctrine of forensic alien righteousness, or as it is commonly called imputed righteousness . Bernard introduced

1512-547: The hands of the Seljuk Turks . The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states were threatened with similar disaster. Deputations of the bishops of Armenia solicited aid from the pope, and the King of France also sent ambassadors. In 1144 Eugene III commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade and granted the same indulgences for it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Crusade . There

1566-463: The highest nobility of Burgundy . Bernard was the third of seven children, six of whom were sons. Aged nine, he was sent to a school at Châtillon-sur-Seine run by the secular canons of Saint-Vorles. Bernard had an interest in literature and rhetoric. Bernard's mother died when he was a youth. During his education with priests, he often thought of becoming one. In 1098, a group led by Robert of Molesme had founded Cîteaux Abbey , near Dijon , with

1620-494: The monastic life flocked to him in great numbers. Clairvaux soon started founding new communities. In 1118 Trois-Fontaines Abbey was founded in the diocese of Châlons ; in 1119 Fontenay Abbey in the Diocese of Autun ; and in 1121 Foigny Abbey near Vervins . In Bernard's lifetime, more than sixty abbeys followed, though some were not new foundations but transferals to the Cistercians. Bernard spent extended time outside of

1674-490: The names of Bernard and Clairvaux soon became inseparable. Bernard was made abbot by William of Champeaux , Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne . From then on a strong friendship grew between the abbot and the bishop, who was professor of theology at Notre Dame of Paris and the founder of St. Victor Abbey in Paris . The beginnings of Clairvaux Abbey were austere and Bernard even more so. He had often been ill since his noviciate, due to extreme fasting. Nonetheless, candidates for

Second Council of the Lateran - Misplaced Pages Continue

1728-593: The nascent Cistercian Order . He was sent to found Clairvaux Abbey only a few years after becoming a monk at Cîteaux . In the year 1128, Bernard attended the Council of Troyes , at which he traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar , which soon became an ideal of Christian nobility. On the death of Pope Honorius II in 1130, a schism arose in the church. Bernard was a major proponent of Pope Innocent II , arguing effectively for his legitimacy over

1782-495: The new monastery. Bernard's example was so convincing that scores (among them his own father) followed him into the monastic life. As a result, he is considered the patron of religious vocations. The little community of reformed Benedictines at Cîteaux grew rapidly. Three years after entering, Bernard was sent with a group of twelve monks to found a new house at Vallée d'Absinthe, in the Diocese of Langres . This Bernard named Claire Vallée , or Clairvaux , on 25 June 1115, and

1836-423: The nobility. Although the councils of Étampes, Würzburg , Clermont , and Rheims all supported Innocent, large portions of the Christian world still supported Anacletus. In a letter by Bernard to German Emperor Lothair regarding Antipope Anacletus, Bernard wrote, "It is a disgrace for Christ that a Jew sits on the throne of St. Peter's" and "Anacletus has not even a good reputation with his friends, while Innocent

1890-399: The often-quoted De consideratione . Its main argument is that church reform ought to start with the pope. Temporal matters are merely accessories; Bernard insists that piety and meditation were to precede action. Having previously helped end the schism within the Church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. Henry of Lausanne , a former Cluniac monk, had adopted the teachings of

1944-737: The pope abolished the dues which Clairvaux used to pay to that abbey. This action gave rise to a quarrel between the White Monks and the Black Monks which lasted 20 years. In May of that year, the pope, supported by the army of Lothair III, entered Rome, but Lothair III, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of Anacletus, retired beyond the Alps, and Innocent sought refuge in Pisa in September 1133. Bernard had returned to France in June and

1998-488: The pope. The same year Bernard was again at the Council of Reims at the side of Innocent II. He then went to Aquitaine where he succeeded for the time in detaching William X, Duke of Aquitaine , from the cause of Anacletus. Germany had decided to support Innocent through Norbert of Xanten , who was a friend of Bernard's. Pope Innocent, however, insisted on Bernard's company when he met with Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor . Lothair II became Innocent's strongest ally among

2052-401: The preeminent logician. Abelard continued to press for a public debate, and made his challenge widely known, making it hard for Bernard to decline. In 1141, at the urgings of Abelard, the archbishop of Sens called a council of bishops, where Abelard and Bernard were to put their respective cases so Abelard would have a chance to clear his name. Bernard lobbied the prelates on the evening before

2106-536: The purpose of living according to a literal interpretation of the Rule of St. Benedict . They established new administrative structures among their monasteries, effectively creating a new order, known, after the first abbey, as the Order of Cistercians . After his mother died, Bernard decided to go to Cîteaux. In 1113 he and thirty other young noblemen of Burgundy, many of whom were his relatives, sought and gained admission to

2160-542: The rescue of the Holy Land. The archbishop of Cologne and the archbishop of Mainz were vehemently opposed to these attacks and asked Bernard to denounce them. This he did, but when the campaign continued, Bernard travelled from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problems in person. He then found Radulf in Mainz and was able to silence him, returning him to his monastery. The last years of Bernard's life were saddened by

2214-409: The right of religious houses of a diocese to participate in the election of the diocese's bishop. Anacletus II Anacletus II (died January 25, 1138), born Pietro Pierleoni , was an antipope who ruled in opposition to Pope Innocent II from 1130 until his death in 1138. After the death of Pope Honorius II , the college of cardinals was divided over his successor. Unusually, the election

Second Council of the Lateran - Misplaced Pages Continue

2268-502: The rival Abbey of Cluny went to Clairvaux and convinced Bernard's cousin, Robert of Châtillon , to become a Benedictine. This was the occasion of the longest and most emotional of Bernard's letters. When his brother Gerard died, Bernard was devastated, and his deep mourning was the inspiration for one of his most moving sermons. The Cluny Benedictines were unhappy to see Cîteaux gain such prominence so quickly, particularly since many Benedictines were becoming Cistercians. They criticized

2322-482: The same day, the other cardinals, led by the senior Cardinal Bishop, Pietro of Porto, met with the leaders of Rome in the Basilica of S. Marco, and announced that Innocent had not been canonically elected. He nominated Cardinal Pietro Pierleoni, a Roman whose family were the enemy of Haimeric's supporters the Frangipani, who was elected by the Cardinals, clergy, nobility and People of Rome. Anacletus' supporters included

2376-553: The schism ended. In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran , in which the surviving adherents of the schism were definitively condemned. About the same time, Bernard was visited at Clairvaux by Malachy , Primate of All Ireland , and a very close friendship formed between them. Malachy wanted to become a Cistercian, but the pope would not give his permission. Malachy died at Clairvaux in 1148. Towards

2430-575: The sermon Ad clericos de conversione (to clerics on conversion) in 1139 or early 1140, to a group of scholars and student clerics. His many sermons on the Song of Songs belong to the often-studied sermons he addressed to the monks at Clairvaux. News came at this time from the Holy Land that alarmed Christendom . Christians had been defeated at the Siege of Edessa and most of the county had fallen into

2484-537: The success of his mission. King Conrad III of Germany and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa , received the cross from the hand of Bernard. Pope Eugenius came in person to France to encourage the enterprise. As in the First Crusade, the preaching led to attacks on Jews ; a fanatical French monk named Radulf was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland, Cologne , Mainz , Worms , and Speyer , with Radulf claiming Jews were not contributing financially to

2538-467: The title of "Doctor of the Church". He wrote at this time his sermons on the Song of Songs . In 1137, he was again forced to leave the abbey by order of the pope to put an end to the quarrel between Lothair and Roger of Sicily. At the conference held at Palermo, Bernard succeeded in convincing Roger of the rights of Innocent II. He also silenced the final supporters who sustained the schism. Anacletus died of "grief and disappointment" in 1138, and with him,

2592-441: Was at first virtually no popular enthusiasm for the crusade as there had been in 1095. Bernard found it expedient to dwell upon taking the cross as a potent means of gaining absolution for sin and attaining grace. On 31 March, with King Louis VII of France present, he preached to an enormous crowd in a field at Vézelay , making "the speech of his life". When he had finished, many of his listeners enlisted; they supposedly ran out of

2646-607: Was continuing the work of peacemaking which he had commenced in 1130. Towards the end of 1134, he made a second journey into Aquitaine, where William X had relapsed into schism. Bernard invited William to the Mass which he celebrated in the Church of La Couldre. At the Eucharist , he "admonished the Duke not to despise God as he did His servants". William yielded and the schism ended. Bernard went again to Italy, where Roger II of Sicily

2700-461: Was endeavouring to withdraw the Pisans from their allegiance to Innocent. He recalled the city of Milan to obedience to the pope as they had followed the deposed Anselm V, Archbishop of Milan . For this, he was offered, and he refused, the see of Milan . He then returned to Clairvaux. Believing himself at last secure in his cloister, Bernard devoted himself to the composition of the works which won him

2754-628: Was entrusted to eight cardinals, who elected Papareschi (Innocent II). A larger body of cardinals then elected Pierleoni, which led to a major schism in the Roman Catholic Church . Anacletus had the support of most Romans, including the Frangipani family , and Innocent was forced to flee to France . North of the Alps , Innocent gained the crucial support of the major religious orders, in particular Bernard of Clairvaux 's Cistercians ,

SECTION 50

#1732772559456

2808-526: Was his most formidable opponent during the whole schism. After persuading Gerard, Bernard travelled to visit William X, Duke of Aquitaine . He was the hardest for Bernard to convince. He did not pledge allegiance to Innocent until 1135. After that, Bernard spent most of his time in Italy persuading the Italians to pledge allegiance to Innocent. In 1132, Bernard accompanied Innocent II into Italy, and at Cluny,

2862-524: Was then leader of the Commune of Rome , actively opposed these successors in the following decade. St. Bernard of Clairvaux Bernard of Clairvaux , O.Cist. ( Latin : Bernardus Claraevallensis ; 1090 – 20 August 1153), venerated as Saint Bernard , was an abbot , mystic , co-founder of the Knights Templar , and a major leader in the reform of the Benedictines through

2916-568: Was weak despite their aid, but the schism only ended with his death in 1138, after which Gregorio Conti was elected as Victor IV but submitted to Innocent within a month. Innocent returned to Rome and ruled without opposition, quickly convening the Second Lateran Council in 1139 and reinforcing the Church's teachings against Usury , clerical marriage, and other practices. Though the Pierleoni family mostly submitted to Innocent and his successors, Anacletus' brother Giordano , who

#455544