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63-574: The Second Reign represented a period of great cultural progress and significance for Brazil, with the growth and consolidation of the Brazilian nation as an independent country and as an important member of the American nations. This era witnessed the consolidation of the country's army and navy , culminating in the Paraguayan War in 1865, and profound changes in the social sphere, such as

126-530: A neutral municipality . However, since Feijó was unable to control the popular revolts, he resigned. Pedro de Araújo Lima , the Marquess of Olinda, a more centralizing and less liberal politician, was then elected in his place. During Olinda's regency, Pedro II was declared "of age" by the Senate. According to historian Roderick J. Barman, by 1840 "they [the regents] had lost all faith in their ability to govern

189-531: A certain point of view, prosperous Brazil. Two important political parties were established: the Liberals (in favor of strong local power, with autonomy for the provinces) and the Conservatives (in favor of a stronger central power), both representing landowners. Foreign policy would become a priority for Pedro II, who sought to prevent the strengthening of Argentina , Uruguay and Paraguay , to balance

252-547: A diplomatic solution, calling on King Leopold I of Belgium to conduct an impartial negotiation. Leopold I favored Brazil and, as England refused to apologize, the Emperor terminated diplomatic relations with England in 1863. They only apologized in 1865, when it supported Brazil in the Paraguayan War and restored diplomatic relations. The government's victory in the dispute ended up strengthening Brazil's image abroad, as

315-469: A restraining and counterbalancing element to guarantee the coherence of the other powers in terms of the prosperity of the nation. Article 101 of the 1824 Constitution established the way in which the Emperor could exercise the moderating power: Art. 101. The Emperor exercises the moderating power: The issue of the moderating power, along with the senate for life and the Council of State, divided opinion in

378-467: A single one. Feijó was elected in democratic elections, but the Additional Act failed, increasing the rivalries between the political factions in the provinces. Regent Feijó was a democrat and a federalist. The Addictional Act created Legislative Assemblies to give greater autonomy to the Brazilian provinces, which led to decentralization. It also granted the city of Rio de Janeiro the status of

441-425: A strong base in the provinces of Minas Gerais, São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul . In the latter two, the autonomy of the upper classes was a tradition. In Minas Gerais, the idea of decentralized autonomy came from both rural landowners and the urban population of the old mining towns. The two parties didn't respect each other; each had its own press, which they used to attack their opponents. Both were created during

504-517: Is described in Article 98 of the 1824 Constitution, which reads as follows: The moderating power is the key to all political organization, and is reserved to the Emperor, as Supreme Head of the Nation, and its First Representative, so that he may incessantly watch over the maintenance of the independence, balance, and harmony of the other political powers. In other words, the moderating power served as

567-452: Is to govern. The moderating power was defended by Paulino José Soares de Sousa , Viscount of Uruguay, in his work Ensaio sobre o Direito Administrativo (1862). The work, inspired by eclecticism, stated that the institution plays a role in the balance and harmony of the political system. According to him: "[...] If the nation is divided into combative parties, if an oppressive party is in power, there will be no higher, independent power, above

630-574: The Aberdeen Act of August 8, 1845, and the approval of the Eusébio de Queirós Law (September 4, 1850), designed to restrict the slave trade to Brazil, resulted in the intensification of the trade and the growth of anti-British feeling in Brazil. Although the conservative leader Eusébio de Queirós had defended to the legislators the need to decide for themselves to cease trafficking and to preserve

693-550: The Plata region . Pedro II intervened, politically or militarily, in his neighbors in the Southern Cone region whenever he felt they were strategically important to Brazil's interests. The Conservatives preached a political system where government authorities should act impartially, guaranteeing the freedom of all citizens; they supported centralized government and desired the achievements of progress. This party became known in

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756-531: The 1830s. In the following two decades, the topic was not particularly relevant in national political debates. However, after the election of 1860, when the Liberal Party won significant victories in Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, the issue of the moderating power resurfaced on the political scene. This happened when the Emperor rejected Teófilo Ottoni 's name for the Senate, although he was first on

819-515: The 1840s as " Saquarema ", after the name of the municipality in Rio de Janeiro where the farms of one of its main leaders, José Rodrigues Torres, Viscount of Itaboraí, were located. In addition, the Conservatives had a strong regional base in Bahia and Pernambuco , where the landowning sector had experienced struggles for regional autonomy with popular content. The Liberals, on the other hand, supported

882-634: The 19th century. Born in Rio Grande do Sul, he moved to Rio de Janeiro as a teenager, where he began working for an import company. Later, he traveled to England where he experienced English urban and industrial society, which fascinated him. On his return to Brazil, he obtained a loan to buy a foundry in Niterói , Rio de Janeiro, that was transformed into a shipyard , where more than sixty steam and sailing ships were produced. Imperial Brazilian Army Too Many Requests If you report this error to

945-406: The 19th century. At the end of Brazil's gold rush, the coffee pioneers realized that it was a highly profitable investment, as the land in the region was very cheap (sometimes free), the workforce was made up of slaves and, once planted, the coffee plantation was productive for twenty years. The international consumer market was also flourishing and coffee sales were almost certain. Within a few years,

1008-467: The Baron of Mauá (1813–1889), was the first important figure among the industrial bourgeoisie in Brazilian history. His productive investments covered a wide range of sectors, from transportation to the creation of a bank, demonstrating the diversity of sectors in which he operated. He was a notable Brazilian businessman, industrialist, banker, politician and diplomat, a symbol of the country's entrepreneurs in

1071-630: The British. The Eusébio de Queirós Law of 1850 brought development to industries. The process, which had already begun with the repeal of the Manufacturing Prohibition Law – dated back to 1785, and one of the triggers for the outbreak of the Conjuração Mineira – upon the arrival of the royal family in Brazil, improved, since, at that time, the high investments made with the purchase of slaves were directed towards

1134-506: The Council of Ministers, a department that would advise the monarch on the administration of Brazil, similar to British parliamentarism , but with a reversed hierarchy; hence the name " reverse parliamentarism ". in the same year, the post of President of the Council of Ministers ( Prime minister ) was also created, who would be the head of the ministry and in charge of organizing the Government Cabinet. Instead of appointing all

1197-481: The Empire compensate England for the shameful arrest of the British ship Prince of Wales , the dismissal of the police officers who detained the British sailors and an official apology from the Emperor to the British crown. The following year, as Brazil did not succumb to pressure, British ships blockaded the port of Rio de Janeiro and confiscated five ships at anchor. D. Pedro II, consenting to popular pressure, tried

1260-642: The Empire through taxation was 13%, and remained so until the mid-1930s. Most of the taxes came from customs through the import of international products. Comparatively, in 2015, taxes in Brazil accounted for 35% of GDP. In England, the parliamentary system was a consequence of the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689, which marked the triumph of Parliament over the King, putting an end to the absolutist monarchy in England. The leader of Parliament then became

1323-551: The North American and European population, which stimulated an increase in consumption levels; the industrialization of the United States and Europe, which needed raw materials for their processing industries; technical improvement, benefiting international trade, both in terms of transportation and new organization of the mercantile and financial sectors. Internally, the factors that most favored economic growth were

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1386-578: The Second Reign, an important position. It is historically incorrect to refer to this period as the "Second Empire", since Brazil had a single continuous imperial period, divided into the First and Second Reigns and separated by a 9-year span known as the regency period, which was the most troubled moment in Brazilian history. Pedro I , the first emperor of Brazil, abdicated the Brazilian throne on 7 April 1831 in favor of his son Pedro de Alcântara ,

1449-545: The abolition of slavery, the Agricultural Congress held in Rio de Janeiro brought together coffee growers to discuss the issue of the workforce, where they decided to facilitate the arrival of European immigrants. From the 1870s onwards, Brazil's economic structure underwent major changes, which had an impact on existing social and political relations. Progressively, black slave labor lost space to immigrant wage labor in Brazilian agricultural plantations. Coffee

1512-459: The acquisition of the first telephone sets. The second half of the 19th century was marked by an incipient Brazilian modernization based on basic principles: the coffee economy in the Southeast , the end of the slave trade and the gradual extinction of slavery, the replacement of the old slave system with paid labor, and incentives for the country's industry to develop and assume, by the end of

1575-466: The cargo of carbon, ceramics, textiles, olive oil and wine was looted and the British ambassador demanded that Brazil pay compensation. In 1862, three troublemakers were arrested for drunkenness in Rio de Janeiro, then the capital of Brazil. Upon being arrested, they were identified as British sailors and, due to the relationship between England and Brazil, they were released. However, the British ambassador to Brazil, William Dougal Christie , demanded that

1638-407: The coffee elite began to emerge in southeastern Brazil and soon became more powerful and wealthier than the northeastern elite. The development of international trade based on coffee exports was the result of external and internal factors. Among the external factors, the following stand out: the growth in international demand for Brazilian coffee, the result of the increase in the quality of life of

1701-488: The country on their own. They accepted Pedro II as an authority figure whose presence was indispensable for the country's survival". Some of these politicians (who would form the Conservative Party in 1840) believed that a neutral figure, who could rise above political factions and petty interests to deal with discontent and moderate disputes, was necessary. They envisioned an emperor who would be more dependent on

1764-680: The country was still 40 years old and feared it would not be recognized by European countries. The other South American countries were experiencing similar problems. During the First Reign , Brazil's great agrarian elite (sugar cane barons) was concentrated in the Northeast region . However, at the same time, coffee was beginning to be introduced in the Baixada Fluminense and the Paraíba Valley , achieving rapid success in

1827-532: The country. When the ruling party loses control, the opposition party appoints a new prime minister and a new cabinet. Back then, the existing parties were the Tories and the Whigs . In Brazil, the Emperor was the ultimate power, accumulating the functions of head of state and government until the 1840s, when he decreed that the Emperor no longer had both powers, but only the moderating . In 1847, D. Pedro II created

1890-501: The end of the slave trade in the Atlantic Ocean and by international pressure against slave exploitation in Brazil. Wage labor began with the introduction of European emigrant workforce into the country's productive activities, which created a national market for popular consumer items. On the other hand, since not all European immigrants to Brazil worked in coffee plantations, but also in commerce, services and handicrafts, there

1953-573: The enemy of the revolution was not Pedro II and the Brazilians, but Manuel Oribe and Juan Manuel de Rosas , the respective presidents of Uruguay and Argentina, who sought to unite the two republics to create a very powerful state in the Plata region. The negotiations and revolts ended in 1845 with the signing of the Treaty of Poncho Verde . The Baron of Caxias was named "Peacemaker of Brazil" and given

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2016-405: The expansion of the railway network, stimulated urbanization, once all the commercial activity, the first induced by the expansion of coffee, was concentrated in the port cities. One problem with coffee plantations is the condition of the soil after the end of the coffee plantation's useful life, which makes coffee growers abandon their land to find new ones. In a few years, they began to migrate to

2079-430: The farmers caused the first immigrants to leave the coffee plantations for the urban centers, where they worked in commerce and industry. The influx of African slaves into Brazil came to an abrupt end in 1850. The high infant mortality rate and the great disproportion between men and women resulted in the slave population reproducing very slowly. By 1880, the slave labor force was noticeably aging. In 1878, ten years before

2142-430: The future Pedro II, who became emperor at the age of five. The act marked the end of the First Reign and the beginning of the regency period in Brazil. Since Pedro II was still a minor, a Provisional Triumviral Regency was convened on 17 July 1831, and had a representative of the country's three major political groups: the liberals (senator Campos Vergueiro ), the conservatives ( José Joaquim Carneiro de Campos ) and

2205-405: The gradual abolition of slavery and the encouragement of European immigration to join the Brazilian workforce. The visual arts, literature and theater also flourished during this period. Although heavily influenced by European styles ranging from Neoclassicism to Romanticism, each concept was adapted to create a genuinely Brazilian culture . The expansion of the urbanization of the big cities,

2268-526: The head of government, i.e. the Prime Minister. The first to occupy this position was Sir Robert Walpole , who began to govern through a system he developed, called cabinet system, since the members of the government met in a room known as a "cabinet". Currently, the system works as follows: the leader of the ruling parliamentary party works together with a group of like-minded colleagues to get laws passed in parliament and, for practical purposes, govern

2331-403: The image of a sovereign nation, the influence of Great Britain was not hidden from public opinion. Although the treaty reduced tensions between the two countries regarding the reduction of the slave trade, the perception of the agreement as a national humiliation would influence future events. In 1861, the British ship Prince of Wales was shipwrecked off the coast of Rio Grande do Sul. Much of

2394-617: The independence of the provinces with a stronger parliamentary government, the abdication of the moderating power and the senate's lifelong mandate, the abolition of slavery and the biennial election of deputies. The Liberals were called " Luzias ", a name derived from the village of Santa Luzia , located on the Das Velhas River in Minas Gerais, where a battle of the Liberal revolt in Minas Gerais, suppressed by General Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, then Baron of Caxias, happened. They had

2457-410: The king. According to him, the moderating power was an important resource for moments of crisis, since it should be a conciliatory element in conflicts between the other powers. The division of powers established in the 1824 Constitution was based on four theoretically equal parts. The moderating power was exercised solely by the emperor and had total autonomy over the other three powers. Its definition

2520-472: The lack of provincial autonomy and characterized by a repudiation of the monarchy, with demonstrations in favor of political independence, the republic and radical reformism. Overall, it was included in the list of liberal, socialist and nationalist revolutions that spread across Europe during the 19th century, including the 1848 Revolution in France , which ended absolutism in the country. The implementation of

2583-489: The large-scale construction of railroads, aimed at mobilizing the flow of consumer goods more efficiently, and the interiorization of the country also happened during the Second Reign. Other examples of this historical period are the introduction of electric telegraphs lines that interconnected the Brazilian provinces and other South American countries; steamships lines that updated the merchant and war navies and, in 1877,

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2646-537: The legislature than the constitutional monarch conceived by Pedro I, but with more powers than those defended at the beginning of the regency by their rivals (who later formed the Liberal Party). However, the Liberals managed to introduce an initiative to bring forward Pedro II's age of majority from 18 to 14 years, and in July 1840 the emperor was declared ready to rule. On 12 August 1844, the tariff policy known by

2709-416: The mechanization of industry and the payment of wages. Brazilian industry effectively began with the investments made by the large slaveholders. Before the creation of the law, and even with the economic opening of 1822, there were small entrepreneurial manifestations, but no Brazilian industrialization. Since Brazil's independence , several laws have prohibited the international slave trade to Brazil, but it

2772-649: The military (general Francisco de Lima e Silva ). They were responsible for holding elections to choose the Permanent Triumviral Regency, where Bráulio Muniz , Costa Carvalho and general Lima e Silva were elected, ruling the country for three years. In the meantime, Minister of Justice Diogo Feijó gained enough political influence to approve the Additional Act in 1834, which abolished the Triumviral Regency and instituted

2835-529: The ministers, the Emperor appointed only the President of the council, who chose the other members of the Ministry, removing an aspect of political tension from Pedro II, without diminishing his authority. D. Pedro II managed to create an efficient mechanism for running Brazil, based on the exchange of favors, a fact that can be considered admissible in politics, but that made the monarchy last only as long as

2898-561: The moderating power became popular in Brazil after Constant, it is important to emphasize that the concept adopted in the country was different from the one expressed in the book Cours de Politique Constitutionelle . Based on Montesquieu 's theory of the English system of parliamentarianism and the division of the three powers, Constant supported the idea of a neutral or moderating power in the constitutional monarchy, which would not be subject to party political disputes and would be exercised by

2961-437: The name of its creator ( Manuel Alves Branco ) was implemented, increasing customs duties to 30% on imported goods without a national equivalent, and 60% on products with a national equivalent. This measure affected around three thousand imported items, triggering protests not only from British businessmen, but also from importers in Brazil and the wealthier classes, who began to pay more for the imported items they needed. Although

3024-457: The passions, that is of value to the oppressed". The Ragamuffin War was still active in the south of Brazil when Pedro II became Emperor, reaching alarming proportions and getting close to being independent from the rest of the country, such as the province of Cisplatina . To prevent this from happening, Pedro II appointed Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , Baron of Caxias – who had previously suppressed

3087-475: The regency period (Conservative in 1836 and Liberal in 1831), but reached the height of their popularity during the Second Reign, with D. Pedro II remaining neutral between the two, although always vigilant, advising the conciliation of their ideas. The moderating power was a legal device present in the first Brazilian constitution (Art. 98 of the 1824 Constitution), granted by Emperor D. Pedro I in March 1824, which

3150-536: The revolts in Minas and São Paulo – as Commander-in-Chief of the Army. In addition to his leadership of the army, the baron was awarded the title of President of the province of Rio Grande do Sul. Despite having the liberty to act violently against the protestors, Caxias, in a smart decision, used diplomacy, negotiating with the leaders and making patriotic statements to the insurgents. On several occasions, he mentioned that

3213-479: The solution to the labor problem through European immigration; the expansion of credit through a banking reform, which provided resources for the formation of new coffee plantations; and the expansion of railroad networks in São Paulo, which reduced the cost of transportation for the owners of the new plantations, located in the interior of São Paulo. The diversification of economic activities, in addition to boosting

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3276-407: The support of its economic elite lasted. Since the agricultural elite held power in Brazil in the 19th century, Pedro II always ruled by allying himself with them, granting favors (such as building railroads, dams, acquiring machinery, etc.) in exchange for the structure that he needed to stay in power. In this way, D. Pedro II succeeded, over the 49 years of his rule, in dealing with a stable and, from

3339-468: The tariff's goal was simply to increase the government's revenue, the measure ended up promoting the growth of new national economic activities. This tax increase lasted until the mid-1860s, when the imperial government, under pressure from exporting groups, reduced tariffs to alleviate Brazil's fiscal deficit, caused mainly by the Cisplatine War . With the tariff, the percentage of GDP to maintain

3402-487: The title of Count. The Praieira revolt , also known as the Praieira Insurrection, Praieira Revolution or simply Praieira, was a liberal and separatist movement that occurred in the province of Pernambuco between 1848 and 1850. The revolt, which was the last of the provincial riots, is linked to the party-political struggles that marked the regency period and the beginning of the Second Reign. Its defeat

3465-446: The triple list. From then on, the liberals demanded that the Emperor's actions be approved by the Ministry. This liberal point of view was expressed by Antônio Carlos Ribeiro de Andrada Machado e Silva , in a statement made in 1841: In representative governments, the monarch is inviolable. However, inviolability cannot exist when he governs; in representative governments, the monarch does nothing wrong, and he cannot stop doing wrong if he

3528-473: The west of the province of São Paulo and, soon, this region began to depend on coffee, along with the imperial government, as a result of the high tax that was levied on the product. Coffee was linked to industry, meaning that part of the profits generated from coffee cultivation were also used to set up factories. Production had fallen due to the Aberdeen Act, but Brazil continued to export the product to

3591-598: Was a demonstration of the power of D. Pedro II's government. In addition to dissatisfaction with the imperial government, a large part of Pernambuco's population was unhappy with the concentration of land and political power in the province, which was the most important in the Northeast. In this context, the Praia Party was created to oppose the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, both dominated by two powerful families who made political deals with each other. There

3654-529: Was a series of disputes over power until, on November 7, 1848, the armed conflict began. In Olinda , the leaders of the protest launched the Manifesto to the World and began to fight against the troops of the imperial government, which intervened and put an end to the largest and last insurrection of the Second Reign. At the local level, the revolt was influenced by the liberal ideas of those who complained about

3717-469: Was based on the political ideals of Benjamin Constant (1767–1830) about a neutral power capable of adjusting and regulating the other three classic branches: executive, legislative and judiciary . The moderating power , the main political organization of the Empire, was initially considered an authoritarian and centralizing mechanism, which led to revolts in some provinces during the regency. Although

3780-454: Was consolidating its position as Brazil's main export product, triggering a rush of economic growth like nothing before in independent Brazil. European immigration contributed to the urbanization of Brazilian society, and along with the wage labour, led to the emergence of an incipient internal market for popular consumer items in the country, which eventually resulted in the creation of the first industrial units in Brazil. Essentially, capitalism

3843-552: Was only with military and political pressure from Great Britain and the actions of Minister Eusébio de Queirós from 1850 onwards that the Atlantic slave trade came to an end. As a result, Brazil began to consider attracting non-Portuguese immigrants. On the farms, the colonato system, a form of semi-salaried work where the immigrant and his family received a mixed wage (money and a piece of land to plant their own food), began to be used. The exhausting working hours and exploitation by

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3906-493: Was space for the process of urbanization in Brazilian society, especially in the Southeast, as well as the creation of commercial banks in the country. All these factors, as well as public investment in infrastructure, especially in railroads and roads in the central area of the country (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais), were crucial to the creation of the first industries in the country. Irineu Evangelista de Souza ,

3969-453: Was taking hold in Brazil's socio-economic structures, overcoming the old mercantile-slavery system. The transformations in Brazil's productive structure began with the accumulation of capital provided by the international coffee trade, enabling the reinvestment of profits obtained from the trade in the productive sector itself, as well as the replacement of slave labor by salaried labor in productive activities, motivated, among other factors, by

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