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62-511: One primary principle of his work is that human nature is righteous and humane. The responses of citizens to the policies of rulers embodies this principle, and a state with righteous and humane policies will flourish by nature. The citizens, with freedom from good rule, will then allocate time to caring for their wives, brothers, elders, and children, and be educated with rites and naturally become better citizens. This placed him at odds with his near contemporary, Xunzi , who believed that human nature

124-585: A 1978 book that estimated the hundred most influential persons in history to that point, Mencius was ranked at 92. The first Mencius Institute was established in Xuzhou , China in 2008 under a collaboration between Jiangsu Normal University , China Zoucheng Heritage Tourism Bureau, and Xuzhou Mengshi Clan Friendship Network. First Mencius Institute outside of China is located at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) Kampar Campus, Malaysia in 2016. Xun Kuang Too Many Requests If you report this error to

186-441: A cemetery, where the mother found her son imitating the paid mourners in funeral processions. Therefore, the mother decided to move. The next house was near a market in the town. There the boy began to imitate the cries of butchers. So the mother moved to a house next to a school. Inspired by the scholars and students, Mencius began to study. His mother decided to remain, and Mencius became a scholar. Another story further illustrates

248-466: A clear thinking person would avoid causing harm to others. This position of Mencius puts him between Confucians such as Xunzi , who thought people were innately bad, and Taoists who believed humans did not need cultivation, they just needed to accept their innate, natural, and effortless goodness. The four beginnings/sprouts could grow and develop, or they could fail. In this way Mencius synthesized integral parts of Taoism into Confucianism. Individual effort

310-490: A comprehensive argument in opposition, stating that certain music provides joy, which is indeed essential to human wellbeing. Music and joy are respectively translated as yue and le , and their connection in Xunzi's time may explain why both words share the same Chinese character: 樂 . Xunzi also points out the use of music for social harmony: 故樂在宗廟之中，君臣上下同聽之，則莫不和敬；閨門之內，父子兄弟同聽之，則莫不和親；鄉里族長之中，長少同聽之，則莫不和順。 Hence, when music

372-517: A darker, more pessimistic flavor than the optimistic Confucianism of Mencius , who tended to view humans as innately good . Like most Confucians, however, he believed that people could be refined through education and ritual. Now, since human nature is evil, it must await the instructions of a teacher and the model before it can be put aright, and it must obtain ritual principles and a sense of moral right before it can become orderly. Both Mencius and Xunzi believed in human nature and both believed it

434-413: A person regardless of his actions, saying, "One who understands Destiny will not stand beneath a tottering wall". The proper path is one which is natural and unforced. This path must also be maintained because, "Unused pathways are covered with weeds." One who follows Destiny will live a long and successful life. One who rebels against Destiny will die before his time. Mencius emphasized the significance of

496-569: A task that was reserved for the most respected scholar available. The eminence at which he was held suggests that Xunzi became the head of the Jixia Academy, but he is known to have taught there regardless. It was at this time that Xunzi composed much of his most important philosophical works, namely the chapters "Of Honor and Disgrace", "Of Kings and the Lords-Protector", "Discourse on Nature", "Discourse on Music", and "Man's Nature

558-626: A task which proved difficult because of the strong hold that Shang Yang 's Legalist sentiments had there. In a conversation with the Qin official Fan Sui, Xunzi praised much of the state's achievements, officials and governmental organizations. Still, Xunzi found issues with the state, primarily its lack of Confucian scholars and the fear it inspires, which Xunzi claimed would result in the surrounding states uniting up against. Xunzi then met with King Zhaoxiang , arguing that Qin's lack of Confucian scholars and educational encouragement would be detrimental to

620-547: A villain Zhou, but I have not heard of murdering [him as] the ruler." This saying should not be taken as an instigation to violence against authorities but as an application of Confucian philosophy to society. Confucianism requires a clarification of what may be reasonably expected in any given relationship. All relationships should be beneficial, but each has its own principle or inner logic. A ruler must justify his position by acting benevolently before he can expect reciprocation from

682-584: Is Evil". In his time, Xunzi was called "the most revered of teachers" ( zui wei laoshi ; 最 爲 老 師 ). His most famous pupils were Han Fei and Li Si , each who would have important political and academic careers. Xunzi's association with Li Si, the future Chancellor (or Prime Minister) of the Qin dynasty would later tarnish his reputation. Other students of his included Fuqiu Bo  [ zh ] , Zhang Cang and Mao Heng  [ zh ] , all of whom authored important editions and commentaries on

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744-504: Is another legend about his mother and his wife, involving a time when his wife was at home alone and was discovered by Mencius not to be sitting properly. Mencius thought his wife had violated a rite, and demanded a divorce. His mother claimed that it was written in The Book of Rites that before a person entered a room, he should announce his imminent presence loudly to let others prepare for his arrival; as he had not done that in this case,

806-490: Is called "Human Nature is Evil," but that's not the whole story. Xunzi thought that people could improve themselves by learning good habits and manners, which he called "artifice." (偽) He believed that people needed to transform their nature to become good. This could be done by learning from a teacher and following rituals and morals. Even though some people doubt if the chapter is real, it's an important part of Xunzi's philosophy. People still talk about it today and think about

868-442: Is evil by birth. Mencius was born Meng Ke in the state of Zou , in what is now Zoucheng , Shandong. He was an itinerant philosopher and sage, and one of the principal interpreters of Confucianism . He was supposedly a pupil of Confucius's grandson Zisi ( c.  481  – c.  402 BC ). Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled throughout China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform. During

930-432: Is evil" has led many commentators to place him opposite of Mencius, who believed human nature was intrinsically good. Though like Mencius, Xunzi believed that education and ritual were the key to self-cultivation and thus the method to circumvent one's naturally foul nature. His definition of both concepts was loose, and he encouraged lifelong education and applied ritual to every aspect of life. Other important topics include

992-493: Is largely nonexistent. Yet when compared to the scarcity of knowledge for many other ancient Chinese philosophers, there is meaningful and significant extant information on the life of Xunzi. The sinologist John H. Knoblock asserts that the sources available "permit not only a reconstruction of the outlines of career but also an understanding of his intellectual development". Xunzi's writings have survived in exceptionally good condition, and while they provide biographical details,

1054-467: Is performed within the ancestral temple, lord and subject, high and low, listen to the music together and are united in feelings of reverence. When music is played in the private quarters of the home, father and son, elder and younger brother, listen to it together and are united in feelings of close kinship. When it is played in village meetings or clan halls, old and young listen to the music together and are joined in obedience. Many commentators have noted

1116-617: Is rather a mistranslation of a similar word referring more to aspects of personality. François Noël , who felt that Zhu's ideas represented a natural and native development of Confucius's thought, was the first to publish a full edition of the Mencius at Prague in 1711 as the Chinese Rites controversy had been recently decided against the Jesuits ; however, his edition attained little influence outside central and eastern Europe. In

1178-408: Is to destroy themselves. Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society. True improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will. This, however, is not proof of innate evil because

1240-624: The Mencius consists of long dialogues, including arguments, with extensive prose. It was generally neglected by the Jesuit missionaries who first translated the Confucian canon into Latin and other European languages, as they felt that the Neo-Confucian school largely consisted of Buddhist and Taoist contamination of Confucianism. Matteo Ricci also particularly disliked what they had believed to be condemnation of celibacy as unfilial, which

1302-634: The Tang dynasty onwards. By the rise of Neo-Confucianism in the 10th century, Mencius gradually upended Xunzi, particularly by the choice to include the Mencius in the Four Books . Since the 20th century, a reevaluation of Xunzi's doctrine has taken place in East Asia, leading to recognition of his profound impact and relevance to both his times and present day. Detailed information concerning Xunzi

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1364-561: The Warring States period ( c.  475  – 221 BC), Mencius served as an official and scholar at the Jixia Academy in the state of Qi from 319 to 312 BC. He expressed his filial piety when he took three years leave of absence from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother's death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, he retired from public life. Mencius

1426-557: The Xunzi is chapter 23, "Human Nature is Evil". Human nature , known as xing ( 性 ), was a topic which Confucius commented on somewhat ambiguously, leaving much room for later philosophers to expand upon. Xunzi does not appear to know about Shang Yang , but can be compared with him. While Shang Yang believed that people were selfish, Xunzi believed that humanity's inborn tendencies were evil and that ethical norms had been invented to rectify people. His variety of Confucianism therefore has

1488-599: The state of Zhao , Xunzi studied at the prestigious Jixia Academy , where he learned about every major philosophical tradition of his time. After his graduation, Xunzi traveled to Chu where he mastered poetry, and then returned to Qi as a highly regarded teacher at the academy. His students Han Fei and Li Si each had important political and academic careers, though some of their Legalist sentiments were at odds with his philosophy. Other students such as Fuqiu Bo  [ zh ] , Zhang Cang and Mao Heng  [ zh ] authored important editions and commentaries on

1550-424: The Confucian classics. Later in his life, Xunzi served in the court of Lord Chunshen and died sometime after Lord Chunshen's death. The constant warfare of his time informed his work profoundly, as did his interactions with leaders and witnessing the downfall of various states. Xunzi's writings respond to dozens of other thinkers, whom he often directly names and criticizes. His well-known notion that "Human nature

1612-413: The Confucian classics. The timeline for his academy teaching is unclear, though he seemed to have considered other posts after being slandered . He left Qi in around 265 BCE, around the time when King Jian succeeded Xiang. Xunzi notes that despite Qin's achievements, it is "filled with trepidation. Despite its complete and simultaneous possession of all these numerous attributes, if one weights Qin by

1674-532: The Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.150 via cp1114 cp1114, Varnish XID 933139191 Upstream caches: cp1114 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 08:36:41 GMT Xunzi (philosopher) Xunzi ( lit.   ' Master Xun ' ; c.  310  – c.  after 238 BCE ), born Xun Kuang , was a Chinese philosopher of Confucianism during

1736-435: The academy, Xunzi would have learned about all the major philosophical schools of his time, and been in the presence of scholars such as Zou Yan , Tian Pian, and Chunyu Kun . Xunzi would have learned the art of shuo ( 說 ), a formal argument of persuasion that philosophical authorities of the time used to advise rulers. After his academy study, Xunzi unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Lord Mengchang against continuing

1798-406: The aged, he advocated free trade , low tax rates , and a more equal sharing of the tax burden . In regards to the Confucian perspective of the marketplace, more about Confucius’ thoughts from Mencius than from the philosopher himself are learned. The government should have a mostly hands-off approach regarding the marketplace. This was in part, to prevent state-run monopolies, however, it was also

1860-540: The art, and his now-lost book of poems was well-regarded for many centuries. Chu was under especially frequent attacks from the Qin state , events which Xunzi would later recount in a conversation with Li Si. The solidity of Chu decreased so rapidly that Xunzi left around 275 BCE, returning to the more stable Qi state. He was warmly welcomed back in Qi, and held in very high-regard as an intellectual. The Shiji records that King Xiang of Qi had Xunzi sacrifice wine three times,

1922-527: The authenticity of this information is sometimes questionable. In addition to these, the main source for Xunzi's life is Sima Qian 's Shiji ( 史記 ; Records of the Grand Historian ), which includes a biography of Xunzi ( SJ , 74.12–14) and mentions of him in the biographies of both Li Si ( SJ , 78.15) and Lord of Chunshen ( SJ , 87.1–2, 14). The Western Han dynasty historian Liu Xiang revised and expanded Sima Qian's initial biography for

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1984-402: The common citizens in the state. While Confucianism generally regards rulers highly, he argued that it is acceptable for the subjects to overthrow or even kill a ruler who ignores the people's needs and rules harshly. This is because a ruler who does not rule justly is no longer a true ruler. Speaking of the overthrow of the wicked King Zhou of Shang , Mencius said, "I have merely heard of killing

2046-401: The context of educating rulers and citizens about the nature of man. "He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature" and "the way of learning is none other than finding the lost mind." To show innate goodness, Mencius used the example of a child falling down a well. Witnesses of this event immediately feel alarm and distress, not to gain friendship with the child's parents, nor to seek

2108-517: The differences between Xunzi and Mencius's ideas about human nature and how to become a better person. Xunzi only stated that the "heart" can observe reason, that is, it can distinguish between right and wrong, good and evil, but it is not the source of value. So where does the standard come from? According to Xunzi's theory of evil human nature, morality will ultimately become a tool of external value used to maintain social stability and appeal to authoritarianism. Mencius' theory of good human nature, on

2170-427: The emphasis that Mencius's mother placed on her son's education. As the story goes, once when Mencius was young, he was a truant. His mother responded to his apparent disregard for his education by taking up a pair of scissors and cutting the cloth she had been weaving in front of him. This was intended to illustrate that one cannot stop a task midway, and her example inspired Mencius to be diligent in his studies. There

2232-429: The extreme policies of Qi, though the historicity of this event is not certain. After the exchange, which is later recounted in his writings, Xunzi likely left Qi between 286 and 284 BCE. Xunzi traveled to the state of Chu by 283 BCE, where he probably became acquainted with the nascent forms of the fu poetry style, particularly because of the poet's Qu Yuan residency there. Xunzi achieved considerable skill in

2294-405: The future. One is significant only for what one gives, not for what one takes. Mencius distinguished between superior men who recognize and follow the virtues of righteousness and benevolence and inferior men who do not. He suggested that superior men considered only righteousness, not benefits. That assumes "permanent property" to uphold common morality. To secure benefits for the disadvantaged and

2356-435: The late Warring States period . After his predecessors Confucius and Mencius , Xunzi is often ranked as the third great Confucian philosopher of antiquity. By his time, Confucianism had suffered considerable criticism from Taoist and Mohist thinkers, and Xunzi is traditionally regarded as a synthesizer of these traditions with earlier Confucian thought. The result was a thorough and cohesive revision of Confucianism, which

2418-628: The late 4th century BCE. Yet this time also saw considerable innovations in Chinese philosophy , referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought . The primary schools were Confucianism , Daoism , Legalism , Mohism , the School of Names , and the Yin–Yang School . Xunzi was a philosopher in the tradition of Confucianism, begun by Confucius who lived over two centuries before him. Xunzi

2480-452: The legend that Mencius's mother moved houses three times before finding a location that she felt was suitable for the child's upbringing. As an expression, the idiom refers to the importance of finding the proper environment for raising children. Mencius's father Meng Ji ( 孟激 ) died when Mencius was very young. His mother Meng Mu ( 孟母; lit. 'Mother of Meng' ), born Zhang ( 仉 ), raised her son alone. They were very poor. At first they lived by

2542-561: The orthodox version by subsequent Chinese philosophers, especially by the Neo-Confucians of the Song dynasty . Mencius's disciples included a large number of feudal lords, and he is said to have been more influential than Confucius had been. The Mencius is one of the Four Books that Zhu Xi (1130–1200) grouped as the core of orthodox Neo-Confucian thought. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained,

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2604-503: The other hand, states that humans are inherently good and we have an internal value foundation (the Four Beginnings). Music is discussed throughout the Xunzi , particularly in chapter 20, the "Discourse on Music" ( Yuelun ; 樂論 ). Much of the Xunzi's sentiments on music are directed towards Mozi , who largely disparaged music. Mozi held that music provides no basic needs and is a waste of resources and money. Xunzi presents

2666-407: The people. In this view, a king is like a steward. Although Confucius admired kings of great accomplishment, Mencius is clarifying the proper hierarchy of human society. Although a king has presumably higher status than a commoner, he is actually subordinate to the masses of people and the resources of society. Otherwise, there would be an implied disregard of the potential of human society heading into

2728-463: The person who had violated the rite was Mencius himself. Eventually Mencius admitted his fault. She is one of 125 women of which biographies have been included in the Biographies of Exemplary Women , written by Liu Xiang . Mencius expounds on the concept that the human is naturally righteous and humane. It is the influence of society that causes bad moral character . Mencius describes this in

2790-554: The praise of their neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike the reputation [of lack of humanity if they did not rescue the child]... The feeling of commiseration definitely is the beginning of humanity; the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the feeling of right or wrong is the beginning of wisdom. Men have these Four Beginnings just as they have their four limbs. Having these Four Beginnings, but saying that they cannot develop them

2852-518: The preface of the first edition of Xunzi's writings. Some minor references to Xunzi also exist in Ying Shao 's paraphrase of Liu Xiang's preface, as well as brief mentions in the Han Feizi , Zhan Guo Ce and Yantie Lun . The Warring States period ( c.  475–221 BCE ), an era of immense disunity and warfare, had been raging for over a hundred years by the time of Xunzi's birth in

2914-401: The probability of factual accounts by comparing them with experience. Mencius also believed in the power of Destiny in shaping the roles of human beings in society. What is destined cannot be contrived by the human intellect or foreseen. Destiny is shown when a path arises that is both unforeseen and constructive. Destiny should not be confused with Fate. Mencius denied that Heaven would protect

2976-404: The promotion of music and the careful application of names . Though he still cited the ancient sages, he differed from other Confucian philosophers by his insistence on emulating recent rulers rather than those of long ago. Repeated oversimplifications and misunderstandings on Xunzi's teachings, particularly his view on human nature, led to gradual dismissal and condemnation of his thought from

3038-416: The property were acceptable and to be the only means by which the dukes and states would collect money. They did not need to collect much because taxes were only for supplemental funds. These taxes were also progressive, meaning the families that owned larger, more fertile pieces of land would pay more than the families with uniform land allotments. Scarcity is an issue in any market; however, Mencius emphasizes

3100-463: The reframing of the idea of a scarce resource. Instead of scarce, resources are to be seen as abundant. Resources are gained through work ethic not by any other means so there are no unfair competitions or gains. To preserve these natural resources, they needed to be used or harvested according to their cycles of growth or replenishing. In many cases, posterity has priority over profit. Mencius's interpretation of Confucianism has generally been considered

3162-465: The similarities between the reasons for Xunzi's promotion of music and those of ancient Greek philosophers . Ultimately, he refused to admit theories of state and administration apart from ritual and self-cultivation, arguing for the gentleman, rather than the measurements promoted by the Legalists, as the wellspring of objective criterion. His ideal gentleman ( junzi ) king and government, aided by

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3224-550: The standard of the solid achievements of True Kingship, then the vast degree to which it fails to reach the ideal is manifest. Why is that? It is that it is dangerously lacking in Ru [Confucian] scholars" Xunzi , chp. 16: "On Strengthening the State", 16.6 Xunzi's writings suggest that after leaving Qi he visited Qin, possibly from 265 BCE to 260 BCE. He aimed to convert the state's leaders to follow his philosophy of leadership,

3286-564: The state's future. The king was unconvinced by Xunzi's persuasion, and did not offer him a post in his court. In around 260 BCE, Xunzi returned to his native Zhao, where he debated military affairs with Lord Linwu ( 臨武君 ) in the court of King Xiaocheng of Zhao . He remained in Zhao until c.  255 BCE. In 240 BCE Lord Chunshen , the prime minister of Chu, invited him to take a position as Magistrate of Lanling ( 蘭陵令 ), which he initially refused and then accepted. However, Lord Chunshen

3348-440: The state's responsibility to protect against future monopolies that might come into existence. Mencius also advocated for no taxes on imports; the market was to exchange for what you lacked so taxing merchants importing goods would ultimately hurt the villagers. The thought behind this is that people are inherently good and rational and can be trusted to regulate themselves, so price gouging or deception would not be an issue. Taxes on

3410-600: Was Xun. He is best known by his honorary title Xunzi ( 荀 子 ) translated to 'Master Xun', with zi being a common epithet for important philosophers. His birthplace was Zhao , a state in the modern-day Shanxi Province of north-central China. It is possible Xunzi was descended from the Xun family, an elite clan that had diminished following the Partition of Jin , though this is only speculation. The Eastern Han dynasty historian Ying Shao records that in his youth Xunzi

3472-524: Was a "flowering talent" in matters of scholarship and academics. Essentially nothing else is known of Xunzi's background or upbringing, and thus any attempts to connect his philosophy with either topic are futile. Sometime between age 13 and 15 (297 and 295 BCE), Xunzi traveled to the north eastern state of Qi . There he attended the Jixia Academy , which was the most important philosophical center in Ancient China, established by King Xuan . At

3534-505: Was assassinated In 238 BCE by a court rival and Xunzi subsequently lost his position. He retired, remained in Lanling, a region in what is today's southern Shandong province, for the rest of his life and was buried there. The year of his death is unknown, though if he lived to see the ministership of his student Li Si, as recounted, he would have lived into his nineties, dying shortly after 219 BCE. The best known and most cited section of

3596-404: Was born as Xun Kuang ( 荀 況 ), probably around 310 BCE but certainly before 279 BCE. In his time, he was probably known as Xun Qing ( 荀 卿 ), meaning 'Minister Xun', or 'Chamberlain Xun', after his later position. Some texts give his surname as Sun (孫) instead of Xun , though this may have been to avoid naming taboo during the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han (73–48 BCE), whose given name

3658-598: Was buried in the Cemetery of Mencius ( 孟子林 ; Mèngzi lín ), located 12 km (7.5 mi) to the northeast of Zoucheng's central urban area. A stele carried by a giant stone tortoise and crowned with dragons stands in front of his grave. Mencius's mother is often held up as an exemplary female figure in Chinese culture. One of the most famous traditional chengyu is 孟母三遷 ( mèngmǔ sānqiān ; 'Mencius's mother moves three times')); this saying refers to

3720-492: Was crucial to the philosophy's ability to flourish in the Han dynasty and throughout the later history of East Asia. His works were compiled in the eponymous Xunzi , and survive in excellent condition. Unlike other ancient compilations, his authorship of these texts is generally secure, though it is likely that Western Han dynasty historian Liu Xiang organized them into their present form centuries after Xunzi's death. Born in

3782-494: Was needed to cultivate oneself, but one's natural tendencies were good to begin with. The object of education is the cultivation of benevolence ( ren ). According to Mencius, education must awaken the innate abilities of the human mind. He denounced memorization and advocated active interrogation of the text, saying "One who believes all of a book would be better off without books" ( 盡信書，則不如無書 , from 孟子.盡心下 ). One should check for internal consistency by comparing sections and debate

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3844-623: Was possible to become better, but some people refused it. Mencius saw Xing as more related to an ideal state and Xunzi saw it more as a starting state. Even though Mencius had already died when the book was written, the chapter is written like a conversation between the two philosophers. Xunzi's ideas about becoming a good person were more complex than Mencius's. He believed that people needed to change their nature, not just give up on it. Some people thought Xunzi's ideas were strange, but new discoveries suggest that it might have actually been Mencius who had unusual ideas about human nature. The chapter

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