118-787: Sedition Act may refer to: Alien and Sedition Acts , including the Sedition Act of 1798, laws passed by the United States Congress Sedition Act 1661 , an English statute that largely relates to treason Sedition Act of 1918 , also passed by the United States Congress Sedition Act 1948 , a law in Malaysia Sedition Act (Singapore) , a law in Singapore See also [ edit ] List of short titles Topics referred to by
236-642: A 15-minute meeting with French Foreign Minister Talleyrand . After this, the diplomats were met by three of Talleyrand's agents. Each refused to conduct diplomatic negotiations unless the United States paid enormous bribes, one to Talleyrand personally, and another to the Republic of France. The Americans refused to negotiate on such terms. Marshall and Pinckney returned home, while Gerry remained. In an April 1798 speech to Congress, Adams publicly revealed Talleyrand's machinations, sparking public outrage at
354-511: A Federalist congressman. In an attempt to quell the threat of subversion among hostile immigrants, the Federalists passed a series of laws, the " Alien and Sedition Acts " in 1798. Historians debate Adams' involvement beyond his signature; he denied seeking the acts in his memoirs, but his complaints about "libelous" attacks on his presidency may have played a role in the laws' passage. The Alien and Sedition Acts consisted of four measures –
472-481: A balanced budget with the help of a growing economy, increased military expenditures now threatened to cause major budget deficits. Hamilton, Alcott, and Adams developed a taxation plan to meet the need for increased government revenue. The Direct Tax of 1798 instituted a progressive land value tax of up to 1% of the value of a property. Taxpayers in eastern Pennsylvania resisted federal tax collectors, and in March 1799
590-533: A deterioration in relations between the U.S. and Spain. Francisco de Miranda , a Venezuelan patriot, also attempted to stir up support for an American intervention against Spain, possibly with the help of the British. Rejecting Hamilton's ambitions for the seizure of Spanish territory, Adams refused to meet with Miranda, squashing the plot. Having avoided war with both France and Spain, the Adams administration oversaw
708-592: A joint session of Congress on February 8, 1797; the top three vote recipients were: Adams 71 votes, Jefferson 69, and Pinckney 59. The balance of the votes were dispersed among Burr and nine other candidates. Almost all of Adams's votes came from Northern electors, and almost all of Jefferson's votes came from Southern electors. As President of the Senate, it fell to Adams to announce himself as president-elect and his chief opponent, Jefferson, as vice president-elect. A week later he delivered an emotional farewell speech to
826-434: A major political issue in the election of 1800. Opposition to them resulted in the also-controversial Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions , authored by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. Upon assuming the presidency, Thomas Jefferson pardoned those still serving sentences under the Sedition Act, and Congress soon repaid their fines. After the passage of the highly unpopular Alien and Sedition Acts, protests occurred across
944-673: A peace mission to France. Adams delayed sending a delegation while he awaited the construction of several U.S. warships, which he hoped would alter the balance of power in the Caribbean. Much to the chagrin of Hamilton and other arch-Federalists, the delegation was finally dispatched in November 1799. The president's decision to send a second delegation to France precipitated a bitter split in the Federalist Party, and some Federalist leaders began to look for an alternative to Adams in
1062-519: A personal tool and played into the hands of the Jeffersonians by building up a large standing army and creating a feud with Adams. Chernow writes that Hamilton believed that by eliminating Adams, he could eventually pick up the pieces of the ruined Federalist Party and lead it back to dominance. "Better to purge Adams and let Jefferson govern for a while than to water down the party's ideological purity with compromises," Chernow says. To compound
1180-479: A poetic name for the United States commonly in use at that time. The Act also moved the temporary capital from New York City to Philadelphia as of 1791. Congress adjourned its last meeting in Philadelphia on May 15, 1800, and the city officially ceased to be the nation's seat of government as of June 11. In June 1800, Adams made his first official visit to Washington; amid the "raw and unfinished" cityscape,
1298-514: A strategy whereby American ships harassed French ships in an effort sufficient to stem the French assaults on American interests, beginning an undeclared naval war known as the Quasi-War . In light of the threat of invasion from the more powerful French forces, Adams asked Congress to authorize a major expansion of the navy and the creation of a twenty-five thousand man army . Congress authorized
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#17327719182801416-410: A ten-thousand man army and a moderate expansion of the navy, which at the time consisted of one unarmed custom boat. Washington was commissioned as senior officer of the army , and Adams reluctantly agreed to Washington's request that Hamilton serve as the army's second-in-command. It became apparent that Hamilton was truly in charge due to Washington's advanced years. The angered president remarked at
1534-533: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Alien and Sedition Acts The Alien and Sedition Acts were a set of four laws enacted in 1798 that applied restrictions to immigration and speech in the United States . The Naturalization Act of 1798 increased the requirements to seek citizenship , the Alien Friends Act of 1798 allowed
1652-453: Is one of reason, moral leadership, the rule of law, compassion, and a cautious but active foreign policy that aimed both at securing the national interest and achieving an honorable peace." The election of 1796 was the first contested American presidential election. George Washington had been elected to office unanimously in the first two presidential elections. However, during his presidency , deep philosophical differences manifested between
1770-475: Is some cause to apprehend that accommodations are not now so complete as might be wished, yet there is great reason to believe that this inconvenience will cease with the present session." This would be the last annual message any president would personally deliver to Congress for the next 113 years. The following February, Congress approved the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 , which officially organized
1888-494: Is still in effect as 50 U.S.C. ch. 3 . The Alien and Sedition Acts were passed by a Congress controlled by the Federalist Party , and they were directed against the other party at the time, against Democratic-Republicans , the party typically favored by new citizens. Only Democratic-Republican journalists were prosecuted by these laws. Publicity from Sedition Act trials caused massive criticism and contributed to
2006-514: The Convention of 1800 , but the French refused to recognize the abdication of the Treaty of Alliance of 1778 , which had created a Franco-American alliance. The United States gained little from the settlement other than the suspension of hostilities with the French, but the timing of the agreement proved fortunate for the U.S., as the French would gain a temporary reprieve from war with Britain in
2124-528: The District of Columbia . In accordance with the Constitution, Congress became the district's governing authority . The U.S. became increasingly polarized by the Quasi-War, and Adams faced bitter attacks in the press. Many recent immigrants, including those from Ireland, looked favorably on the French and opposed the British. One Irish-American congressman, Matthew Lyon , engaged in a fist fight with
2242-779: The Naturalization Act , the Alien Friends Act, the Alien Enemies Act, and the Sedition Act. These statutes were designed to mitigate the threat of secessionists by disallowing their most extreme firebrands. The Naturalization Act increased to 14 years the period of residence required for an immigrant to attain American citizenship, partly because naturalized citizens tended to vote for the Democratic-Republicans. The Alien Friends Act and
2360-581: The Northwest Territory . Aside from the appointment process , the Constitution included only a passing reference to the operation of executive branch agencies . Late in Washington's first term, the term " cabinet " began to be applied to the heads of the executive branch departments, and Washington relied on his cabinet as an advisory council. While the Constitution made it clear that the people appointed to lead these agencies answered to
2478-500: The Second Continental Congress . On the eve of their inaugurations, they met briefly to discuss the possibility of sending Jefferson to France as part of a three-member delegation to calm the increasingly turbulent relations between the two countries. When they concluded that this would be an improper role for the vice president, they agreed on substituting Jefferson's political ally, James Madison . Shortly after
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#17327719182802596-600: The United States Code . President James Madison invoked the act against British nationals during the War of 1812 . President Woodrow Wilson invoked the act against nationals of the Central Powers during World War I . In 1918, an amendment to the act struck the provision restricting the law to males. On December 7, 1941, in response to the bombing of Pearl Harbor , President Franklin D. Roosevelt used
2714-486: The "precipitate nomination" of Murray, the pardoning of Fries, and the firing of Pickering. He also included a fair share of personal insults, vilifying the President's "disgusting egotism" and "ungovernable temper". Adams, he concluded, was "emotionally unstable, given to impulsive and irrational decisions, unable to coexist with his closest advisers, and generally unfit to be president." Strangely, it ended by saying that
2832-525: The 1800 presidential election. The prospects for peace between the U.S. and France were bolstered by the ascent of Napoleon in November 1799, as he viewed the Quasi-War as a distraction from the ongoing war in Europe . In the spring of 1800, the delegation sent by Adams began negotiating with the French delegation, led by Joseph Bonaparte . The war came to a close in September when both parties signed
2950-469: The 1802 Treaty of Amiens . News of the signing of the convention did not arrive in the United States until after the election. Overcoming the opposition of some Federalists, Adams was able to win Senate ratification of the convention in February 1801. Having concluded the war, Adams demobilized the emergency army. The U.S. and Spain had signed the Treaty of San Lorenzo in 1795, which set border with
3068-570: The 6th Congress met for the first time in the Capitol building on November 17, 1800. On November 22, Adams delivered his fourth State of the Union Address to a joint session of Congress in the Senate chamber . He began his speech by congratulating members on their new seat of government and—pointedly—"on the prospect of a residence not to be changed." He added, optimistically, "Although there
3186-611: The Acts and even threatened secession . Jefferson's biographer Dumas Malone argued that this might have gotten Jefferson impeached for treason, had his actions become known at the time. In writing the Kentucky Resolutions, Jefferson warned that, "unless arrested at the threshold", the Alien and Sedition Acts would "necessarily drive these states into revolution and blood". The Alien and Sedition Acts were never appealed to
3304-440: The Alien Enemies Act allowed for detainment beyond the time hostilities ceased until an actual treaty was signed with the hostile nation or government. On September 20, 2024, former President Donald Trump announced that if elected president for a second term he would invoke the Alien Enemies Act of 1798 to expedite the removal of non citizens and criminal networks operating in the United States. The Naturalization Act increased
3422-491: The Alien Enemies Act allowed the president to deport any foreigner whom he considered dangerous to the country. The Sedition Act made it a crime to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against the government or its officials. Punishments included 2–5 years in prison and fines of up to $ 5,000. The acts became controversial due to the prosecution of a congressman and a number of newspaper editors. The Federalist administration initiated fourteen or more indictments under
3540-567: The Alien Enemies Act. Hostilities with Germany and Italy ended in May 1945, and President Harry S. Truman issued presidential proclamation #2655 on July 14. The proclamation gave the Attorney General authority regarding enemy aliens within the continental United States , to decide whether they are "dangerous to the public peace and safety of the United States," to order them removed, and to create regulations governing their removal, citing
3658-469: The Alien Enemies Act. On September 8, 1945, Truman issued presidential proclamation #2662, which authorized the Secretary of State to remove enemy aliens that had been sent to the United States from Latin American countries. On April 10, 1946, Truman issued presidential proclamation #2685, which modified the previous proclamation, and set a 30-day deadline for removal. In Ludecke v. Watkins (1948),
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3776-735: The Alien Friends Act. Both Adams and Pickering considered the law too weak to be effective; Pickering expressed his desire for the law to require sureties and authorize detainment prior to deportation. Many French nationals were considered for deportation but were allowed to leave willingly, or Adams declined to take action against them. These figures included: philosopher Constantin François de Chassebœuf, comte de Volney , General Victor Collot , scholar Médéric Louis Élie Moreau de Saint-Méry , diplomat Victor Marie du Pont , journalist William Duane , scientist Joseph Priestley , and journalist William Cobbett . Secretary Pickering also proposed applying
3894-685: The Alien and Sedition Acts, and the Sedition Act in particular, were used to suppress publishers affiliated with the Democratic-Republicans, and several publishers were arrested for criticism of the Adams administration . The Democratic-Republicans took power in 1800 because of backlash to the Alien and Sedition Acts, and all but the Alien Enemies Act were eliminated by the next Congress. The Alien Enemies Act has been invoked several times since, particularly during World War II by President Roosevelt. The Alien and Sedition Acts are generally received negatively by modern historians. The U.S. Supreme Court beginning in
4012-409: The Alien and Sedition acts gave disproportionate power to the federal executive compared to state governments and other branches of the federal government. Noting the outrage among the populace, the Democratic-Republicans made the Alien and Sedition Acts an important issue in the 1800 presidential election campaign. While government authorities prepared lists of aliens for deportation, many aliens fled
4130-484: The Democratic-Republicans accused Adams of being an Anglophile and a monarchist . In early November, France's ambassador to the United States, Pierre Adet , inserted himself into the political debate on behalf of Jefferson, publishing statements designed to arouse anti-British sentiment and to leave the impression that a Jefferson victory would result in improved relations with France. Meanwhile, Hamilton, desiring "a more pliant president than Adams," maneuvered to tip
4248-501: The Democratic-Republicans and to his governmental duty as the Senate's presiding officer. President Adams filled three Supreme Court vacancies. In December 1798, the Senate confirmed Adams's nomination of Bushrod Washington , nephew of former President Washington, to succeed Associate Justice James Wilson . One year later, Alfred Moore succeeded Associate Justice James Iredell . Then, in January 1801, Adams named John Marshall as
4366-510: The Direct Tax of 1798. The war and its associated taxation provoked domestic unrest, resulting in incidents such as Fries's Rebellion . In response to the unrest, both foreign and domestic, the 5th Congress passed four bills, collectively known as the Alien and Sedition Acts . Signed into law by the president, these acts made it more difficult for immigrants to become U.S. citizens , allowed
4484-473: The Federalist Party in 1798. Members of the Federalist Party grew increasingly distrustful of the opposing Democratic-Republican Party with the latter's support of France in the midst of the French Revolution . Some appeared to desire a similar revolution in the United States to overthrow the government and social structure. Newspapers sympathizing with each side exacerbated the tensions by accusing
4602-473: The Federalist Party, but Vice President Adams was widely viewed as Washington's "heir apparent," and he consolidated support among his party's electors. The clear favorite of Democratic-Republicans was Thomas Jefferson, though he was reluctant to run. The Democratic-Republicans in Congress held a nominating caucus and named Jefferson and Aaron Burr as their presidential choices. Jefferson at first declined
4720-597: The Federalists appear divided and therefore helped Jefferson win, failed in its overall attempt to woo Federalist electors away from Adams. Ferling attributes Adams's defeat to five factors: the stronger organization of the Republicans; Federalist disunity; the controversy surrounding the Alien and Sedition Acts; the popularity of Jefferson in the South; and the effective politicking of Aaron Burr in New York . Analyzing
4838-495: The Federalists being removed from power in the 1800 election. The Acts were supported by the Federalist Party , and supporters argued that the bills strengthened national security during the Quasi-War , an undeclared naval war with France from 1798 to 1800. The acts were denounced by Democratic-Republicans as suppression of voters and violation of free speech under the First Amendment . While they were in effect,
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4956-685: The Federalists. The Acts were highly controversial at the time, especially the Sedition Act. The Sedition Act, which was signed into law by Adams on July 14, 1798, was hotly debated in the Federalist-controlled Congress and passed only after multiple amendments softening its terms, such as enabling defendants to argue in their defense that their statements had been true. Still, it passed the House only after three votes and another amendment causing it to automatically expire in March 1801. They continued to be loudly protested and were
5074-597: The French nation. At the time he entered office, the country's population stood at around five million people, with two-thirds of those living within one hundred miles of the East Coast of the United States . The greatest population growth, however, was occurring in regions west of the Appalachian Mountains . By the end of his term, 500,000 people, principally from New England, Virginia , and Maryland , had migrated west into Kentucky , Tennessee , and
5192-448: The French. Democratic-Republicans were skeptical of the administration's account of what became known as the " XYZ affair ." Many of Jefferson's supporters would undermine and oppose Adams's efforts to defend against the French. Their main fear was that war with France would lead to an alliance with England, which in turn could allow the allegedly monarchist Adams to further his domestic agenda. For their part, many Federalists, particularly
5310-399: The Sedition Act by a vote of 44 to 41. The Sedition Act made it illegal to make false or malicious statements about the federal government. The act was used to suppress speech critical of the Adams administration, including the prosecution and conviction of many Jeffersonian newspaper owners who disagreed with the Federalist Party. The Sedition Act did not extend enforcement to speech about
5428-428: The Sedition Act have been identified; Adams never signed a deportation order; and the sources of expressed furor over the acts were Democratic-Republicans. However, other historians have emphasized that the acts were used for political targeting from the outset, causing many aliens to leave the country. The acts also allowed for the prosecution of many who opposed the Federalists, even on the floor of Congress. Rejecting
5546-421: The Sedition Act, as well as suits against five of the six most prominent Democratic-Republican newspapers. According to biographer Ferling, the majority of the legal actions began in 1798 and 1799, and went to trial on the eve of the 1800 presidential election; the timing hardly appeared coincidental. Other historians have cited evidence that the Alien and Sedition Acts were rarely enforced: only 10 convictions under
5664-488: The Sedition Acts, as well as the intra-party rivalry between Adams and Alexander Hamilton , all contributed to Adams's loss to Jefferson in the 1800 election. Historians have difficulty assessing Adams's presidency. Samuel Eliot Morison has written that "he was by temperament unsuited for the presidency. He did know more than any other American, even James Madison , about political science; but as an administrator he
5782-587: The Spanish territory of Louisiana . Yet with war between France and the United States looming, Spain was slow to implement the terms of the treaty, which included the Spanish cession of the Yazoo lands and the disarmament of Spanish forts along the Mississippi River . Shortly after Adams took office, Senator William Blount 's plans to drive the Spanish out of Louisiana and Florida became public, causing
5900-548: The Supreme Court interpreted the time of release under the Alien Enemies Act. German alien Kurt G. W. Lüdecke was detained on December 8, 1941, under Proclamation 2526, and continued to be held after cessation of hostilities. In 1947, Ludecke petitioned for a writ of habeas corpus to order his release, after the Attorney General ordered him deported. The court ruled 5–4 to release Ludecke but also found that
6018-446: The Supreme Court's fourth Chief Justice, replacing Oliver Ellsworth, who had retired due to ill health. Adams had initially nominated former Chief Justice John Jay , but Jay declined to return to his former position. Marshall, who was serving as Secretary of State at the time, was quickly confirmed by the Senate, and took office on February 4. He continued to serve as Secretary of State until Adams' term expired on March 4. Adams's term
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#17327719182806136-493: The Supreme Court, whose power of judicial review was not established until Marbury v. Madison in 1803. Subsequent mentions in Supreme Court opinions beginning in the mid-20th century have assumed that the Sedition Act would today be found unconstitutional. Most modern historians view the Alien and Sedition Acts in a negative light, considering them to have been a mistake. Presidency of John Adams The presidency of John Adams , began on March 4, 1797, when John Adams
6254-603: The United States remained strong due to fear of Britain and memories of France's assistance during the Revolutionary War . Adams hoped to maintain friendly relations with France, and he sent a delegation to Paris, consisting of John Marshall, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Elbridge Gerry , to ask for compensation for the French attacks on American shipping. When the envoys arrived in October 1797, they were kept waiting for several days, and then finally granted only
6372-465: The Vice President, as then-incumbent Thomas Jefferson was a political opponent of the Federalist-controlled Congress. The Sedition Act was allowed to expire in 1800, and its enactment is credited with helping Jefferson win the presidential election that year. Prominent prosecutions under the Sedition Act included: The Alien and Sedition Acts were passed by Congress while it was controlled by
6490-558: The act against the French diplomatic delegation to the United States, but Adams refused. Journalist John Daly Burk agreed to leave under the act informally to avoid being tried for sedition, but he went into hiding in Virginia until the act's expiration. The Alien Enemies Act (officially "An Act Respecting Alien Enemies") was passed to supplement the Alien Friends Act, granting the government additional powers to regulate non-citizens that would take effect in times of war. Under this law,
6608-538: The agony of his defeat, Adams's son Charles, a long-time alcoholic, died on November 30. Anxious to rejoin Abigail, who had already left for Massachusetts, Adams departed the White House in the predawn hours of March 4, 1801, and did not attend Jefferson's inauguration . Since him, three other outgoing presidents of the United States have not attended the inaugurations of their successors. Adams wrote that he had left
6726-415: The authority of the revised Alien Enemies Act to issue presidential proclamations #2525 (Alien Enemies – Japanese), #2526 (Alien Enemies – German), and #2527 (Alien Enemies – Italian), to apprehend, restrain, secure, and remove Japanese, German, and Italian non-citizens. Roosevelt later cited further wartime powers to issue Executive Order 9066 , which interned Japanese Americans using powers unrelated to
6844-544: The beginning of his term and who continued to seek peace with the French, particularly frustrated many Federalists. Hamilton's influence in the War Department also widened the rift between Federalist supporters of Adams and Hamilton. At the same time, the creation of a large standing army raised popular alarm and played into the hands of the Democratic-Republicans. In February 1799, Adams surprised many by announcing that he would send diplomat William Vans Murray on
6962-452: The beginning of negotiations. The XYZ Affair outraged the American public, and the United States and France engaged in an undeclared naval conflict known as the Quasi-War , which dominated the remainder of Adams's presidency. Adams presided over an expansion of the army and the navy, and the navy won several successes in the Quasi-War. The increased expenditures associated with these actions required greater federal revenue, and Congress passed
7080-552: The best who served a single term. In a 2017 C-SPAN survey, 91 presidential historians ranked Adams 19th among the 43 former presidents, (down from 17th in 2009). His rankings in the various categories of this most recent poll were as follows: public persuasion (22), crisis leadership (17), economic management (15), moral authority (11), international relations (13), administrative skills (21), relations with congress (24), vision/setting an agenda (20), pursued equal justice for all (15), performance with context of times (19). A 2024 poll of
7198-497: The bloodless Fries's Rebellion broke out. Led by Revolutionary War veteran John Fries , rural German-speaking farmers protested what they saw as a threat to their republican liberties and to their churches. The tax revolt raised the specter of class warfare , and Hamilton led the army into the area to put down the revolt. The subsequent trial of Fries gained wide national attention. Adams pardoned Fries and two others after they were sentenced to be executed for treason. The rebellion,
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#17327719182807316-423: The body whose deliberations he had presided over for eight years. The American two-party system came into being during the run-up to the 1796 election – the only election to date in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing parties. The rivalry between New England and the South, with the middle states holding the balance of power, began to germinate at this time as well. Adams
7434-408: The causes of the party's trouncing, Adams wrote, "No party that ever existed knew itself so little or so vainly overrated its own influence and popularity as ours. None ever understood so ill the causes of its own power, or so wantonly destroyed them." Stephen G. Kurtz argues that Hamilton and his supporters were primarily responsible for the destruction of the Federalist Party. They viewed the party as
7552-407: The chains which were forging and the rod of iron that was lifted up, but frankly cut asunder the ties which had bound them, and launched into an ocean of uncertainty. The 2,308-word speech included an eloquent tribute to George Washington, a call for political unity, and a pledge to support the development of institutions of learning. To the chagrin of some of his Federalist allies, Adams also praised
7670-544: The conservative "ultra-Federalists," deeply feared the radical influence of the French Revolution. Economics also drove the divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, as Federalists sought financial ties with England, while many Democratic-Republicans feared the influence of English creditors. The president saw no advantage in joining the British-led alliance against France. He therefore pursued
7788-464: The constitutionality of the acts, Jefferson and Madison secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions , in which the governments of Kentucky and Virginia purportedly nullified the acts. As debate over the acts continued, the election of 1800 became a bitter and volatile contest, with each side expressing extraordinary fear of the other and its policies. After Democratic-Republicans prevailed in
7906-488: The country during the debate over the Alien and Sedition Acts, and Adams never signed a deportation order. The Virginia and Kentucky state legislatures also passed the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, secretly authored by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, denouncing the federal legislation. While the eventual resolutions followed Madison in advocating " interposition ", Jefferson's initial draft would have nullified
8024-541: The country, with some of the largest being seen in Kentucky, where the crowds were so large they filled the streets and the entire town square of Lexington . Critics argued that they were primarily an attempt to suppress voters who disagreed with the Federalist party and its teachings, and violated the right of freedom of speech in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . They also raised concerns that
8142-521: The deployment of the army, and the results of the trials alienated many in Pennsylvania and other states from the Federalist Party, damaging Adams's re-election hopes. From early in his presidency, Adams had advocated for the creation of new federal judgeships , but had been rebuffed by Congress. After the Federalists lost control of both houses of Congress and the presidency in the election of 1800, many previously opposed Federalists came to support
8260-479: The election to Pinckney. He coerced South Carolina Federalist electors, who had pledged to vote for " favorite son " Pinckney, to scatter their second votes among candidates other than Adams. Hamilton's scheme was undone, however, when several New England state electors heard of it, conferred, and agreed not to vote for Pinckney. The votes of the 138 members of the Electoral College were counted during
8378-471: The elections of 1800, they used the acts against Federalists before the laws finally expired. To pay for the military buildup of the Quasi-War, Adams and the Federalists in Congress enacted the Direct Tax of 1798. Direct taxation by the federal government was widely unpopular, and the government's revenue under Washington had mostly come from excise taxes and tariffs . Though Washington had maintained
8496-632: The electors should support Adams and Pinckney equally. Thanks to Burr, who had covertly obtained a copy, the pamphlet became public knowledge and was distributed throughout the country by Republicans, who rejoiced in what it contained. The pamphlet destroyed the Federalist Party, ended Hamilton's political career, and helped ensure Adams's already-likely defeat. When the electoral votes were counted, Adams finished in third place with 65 votes, and Pinckney came in fourth with 64 votes (one New England Federalist elector voted for John Jay instead). Jefferson and Burr tied for first place with 73 votes each. Because of
8614-474: The enemies of "all who love order, peace, virtue, and religion." They were said to be libertines and dangerous radicals who favored states' rights over the Union and would instigate anarchy and civil war. Jefferson's rumored affairs with slaves were used against him. Republicans, for their part, accused federalists of undermining republican principles through punitive federal laws, as well as of favoring Britain and
8732-706: The first Secretary of the Navy, and Stoddert emerged as one of Adams's most important advisers. As a split grew between Adams and the Hamiltonian wing of the Federalists during the second half of Adams's term, the president relied less on the advice of Pickering, McHenry, and Wolcott. Upon apprehending the scope of Hamilton's behind the scenes manipulations, Adams dismissed Pickering and McHenry in 1800, replacing them with John Marshall and Samuel Dexter , respectively. Adams and Jefferson started off cordially; they had become friends 20 years earlier, while serving together in
8850-579: The implementation of the Treaty of San Lorenzo. In 1790, Congress, through the Residence Act , had set the site for a permanent national capital along the Potomac River . December 1800 was set as the deadline for completion of government buildings in the new capital. The nascent city was named after President Washington, and the federal district surrounding it was named Columbia , which was
8968-434: The inauguration, Jefferson informed Adams that Madison was not interested in the diplomatic mission to France. Adams replied that, in any event, he would not have been able to select Madison because of pressure from within his cabinet to appoint a Federalist. That was the last time Adams consulted Jefferson on an issue of national significance. For his part, the vice president turned exclusively to his political role as leader of
9086-527: The judiciary as a co-equal branch of the federal government alongside the executive and legislative branches. Later, Adams reflected, "My gift of John Marshall to the people of the United States was the proudest act of my life." Throughout his entire life, Adams disliked slavery and refused to own any slaves. In 1800, the Slave Trade Act of 1800 restricted the international trade in slaves and Adams signed it into law on May 10, 1800. George Logan
9204-416: The law was not directly enforced, it resulted in the voluntary departure of foreigners who feared that they would be charged under the act. The Adams administration encouraged these departures, and Secretary of State Timothy Pickering would ensure that the ships were granted passage. Though Adams did not delegate the final decision-making power, Secretary Pickering was responsible for overseeing enforcement of
9322-583: The major American complaints against the British, including the ongoing British impressment of American sailors, and President Washington viewed the treaty as the best method of avoiding another war with the British. The French were outraged by the Jay Treaty and began seizing American merchant ships that were trading with the British. In the 1796 elections, the French supported Jefferson for president, and they became even more belligerent at his loss. Nevertheless, when Adams took office, pro-French sentiment in
9440-455: The mid-20th century has indicated that aspects of the laws would likely be found unconstitutional. The acts were mentioned by president-elect Donald Trump during a campaign rally held at Madison Square for the 2024 presidential election , indicating that he would use them to remove illegal immigrants on "day one" if he were to win the presidency by invoking the acts. The Alien Friends Act (officially "An Act Concerning Aliens") authorized
9558-503: The navy achieved several victories, including the capture of L'Insurgente , a powerful French warship. The navy also opened trade relations with Saint-Domingue (now known as Haiti ), a rebellious French colony in the Caribbean Sea . Over the opposition of many in his own party, Adams resisted the escalation of the war. The president's continued support for Elbridge Gerry, a Democratic-Republican who Adams had sent to France at
9676-576: The newly created courts, and returning the federal court system to its earlier structure. After being swept out of power in 1800 by Jefferson and the Democratic-Republican Party, the Federalists focused their hopes for the survival of the republic on the federal judiciary . During Marshall's 34 years as chief justice, the Marshall Court played a major role in increasing the federal government's power and in establishing
9794-412: The next president a nation "with its coffers full" and "fair prospects of peace". The transfer of presidential power between Adams and Jefferson represented the first such transfer between two different political parties in U.S. history, and set the precedent for all subsequent inter-party transitions. The complications arising out of the 1796 and 1800 elections prompted Congress and the states to refine
9912-583: The next vacancy. This was done to deny Jefferson an opportunity to appoint a justice until two vacancies occurred. As Adams filled these new positions during the final days of his presidency, opposition newspapers and politicians soon began referring to the appointees as "midnight judges." Most of these judges lost their posts when the Democratic-Republican-dominated 7th Congress approved the Judiciary Act of 1802 , abolishing
10030-405: The nomination, but he finally agreed to run a few weeks later. Federalist members of Congress held an informal nominating caucus and named Adams and Thomas Pinckney as their presidential candidates. The campaign, was, for the most part, unorganized and sporadic, confined to newspaper attacks, pamphlets, and political rallies. Federalists attacked Jefferson as a Francophile and an atheist, while
10148-513: The opposition Democratic-Republicans enraged over the Alien and Sedition Acts and the expansion of the military, Adams faced a daunting reelection campaign . Even so, his position within the party was strong, bolstered by his enduring popularity in New England, the main Federalist base. In early 1800, Federalist members of Congress nominated Adams and Charles C. Pinckney for the presidency; the caucus did not explicitly indicate which individual
10266-465: The other coalition countries in their war with France in order to promote aristocratic, anti-republican values. Jefferson was portrayed as an apostle of liberty and man of the people, while Adams was labelled a monarchist. He was accused of insanity and marital infidelity. James T. Callender , a Republican propagandist secretly financed by Jefferson, launched strong attacks on Adams's character and accused him of attempting to make war with France. Callender
10384-609: The other side's leaders of corruption, incompetence, and treason. The spreading unrest in Europe and calls for secession in the United States appeared to threaten the newly formed American republic. Some of this agitation was seen by Federalists as having been caused by French and French-sympathizing immigrants. The Alien and Sedition Acts were opposed for different reasons, including the prevention of potential unrest by targeting immigrants, restriction of speech that may induce crime, reduction of partisan divides by penalizing expressly partisan speech, and suppression of political opponents of
10502-450: The ousted cabinet secretaries and Wolcott. The letter was initially intended for only a few Federalist electors. Upon seeing a draft, several Federalists urged Hamilton not to send it. Wolcott wrote that "the poor old man" could do himself in without their help. But Hamilton did not heed their advice. On October 24, he sent a pamphlet strongly attacking Adams on a number of points. Hamilton denounced many of Adams's policy decisions, including
10620-460: The president could authorize the arrest, relocation, or deportation of any male over the age of 14 who hailed from a foreign enemy country. It also provided some legal protections for those subject to the law. Unlike the other acts, this act was largely unopposed by the Democratic-Republicans. The Alien Enemies Act was not allowed to expire with the other Alien and Sedition Acts, and it remains in effect as Chapter 3, Sections 21–24 of Title 50 of
10738-660: The president found the public buildings "in a much greater forwardness of completion than expected." The north (Senate) wing of the Capitol was nearly completed, as was the White House . The president moved into the White House on November 1, and First Lady Abigail Adams arrived a few weeks later. Upon arriving, Adams wrote to her, "Before I end my letter, I pray Heaven to bestow the best of Blessings on this House and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise Men ever rule under this roof." The Senate of
10856-408: The president to arbitrarily deport any non-citizen that was determined to be "dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States." Once a non-citizen was determined to be dangerous, or was suspected of conspiring against the government, the president had the power to set a reasonable amount of time for departure, and remaining after the time limit could result to up to three years in prison. The law
10974-411: The president to imprison and deport non-citizens who were deemed dangerous or who were from a hostile nation, and criminalized making false statements that were critical of the federal government. The Federalist majority argued that the bills strengthened national security during a time of conflict, while the Democratic-Republicans harshly criticized the laws. Opposition to the Quasi-War and the Alien and
11092-628: The president to imprison and deport non-citizens, the Alien Enemies Act of 1798 gave the president additional powers to detain non-citizens during times of war, and the Sedition Act of 1798 criminalized false and malicious statements about the federal government. The Alien Friends Act and the Sedition Act expired after a set number of years, and the Naturalization Act was repealed in 1802. The Alien Enemies Act, as amended,
11210-488: The president, and often actively worked against Adams's proposals. "The Hamiltonians by whom he is surrounded," wrote Jefferson in a May 1797 letter, "are only a little less hostile to him than to me." The other holdover from the Washington administration, Attorney General Charles Lee , worked well with Adams and remained in the cabinet for the duration of Adams's presidency. In 1798, Benjamin Stoddert of Maryland became
11328-683: The president, it was silent on termination of cabinet appointments. When Adams became president, there was no precedent regarding the continued service of the previous president's top officials. Rather than seize the opportunity to use patronage to build a loyal group of advisors, Adams retained Washington's cabinet, although none of its members had ever been close to him. Three cabinet members, Timothy Pickering , James McHenry , and Oliver Wolcott Jr. , were devoted to Hamilton and referred every major policy question to him in New York. These cabinet members, in turn, presented Hamilton's recommendations to
11446-436: The previous two presidential elections, no candidates were put directly before the voters in 1796. The Constitution instead provided that each state selected presidential electors , and a vote of the presidential electors selected the president. As the election took place before the ratification of the 12th Amendment , each presidential elector cast two votes for president, though electors were not allowed to cast both votes for
11564-495: The process whereby the Electoral College elects a president and a vice president. The new procedure was enacted through the 12th Amendment, which became a part of the Constitution in June 1804 and first took effect in the 1804 presidential election . Historian Stephen Kurtz has argued: Polls of historians and political scientists rank Adams toward the top of the middle third of presidents. Historian George Herring argues that Adams
11682-412: The proposal, as the expansion of the courts would allow for the appointment of numerous Federalists to life-tenured government positions. The lame-duck session of the 6th Congress approved the Judiciary Act of 1801 , which created a set of federal appeals courts between the district courts and the Supreme Court. It also reduced the size of the Supreme Court from six justices to five, to take effect upon
11800-548: The residency requirement for American citizenship from five to 14 years and increased the notice time from three to five years. At the time, the majority of immigrants supported Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans—the political opponents of the Federalists. It did not have an expiration date, but it was repealed by the Naturalization Law of 1802 . The Federalist-controlled Congress passed
11918-428: The same person. The Constitution prescribed that the person receiving the most votes would become president, provided that they won votes from a majority of the electors, while the person with the second most electoral votes would become vice president. Voters chose the presidential electors in seven states. In the remaining nine states, they were chosen by the state's legislature. Adams and Hamilton both wanted to lead
12036-420: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Sedition Act . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sedition_Act&oldid=688300549 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
12154-444: The tie, the election devolved upon the House of Representatives. As specified by the Constitution, each state's delegation voted en bloc , with each state having a single vote; an absolute majority (nine, as there were 16 states at the time) was required for victory. On February 17, 1801 – on the 36th ballot – Jefferson was elected by a vote of 10 to 4 (two states abstained). It is noteworthy that Hamilton's scheme, although it made
12272-543: The time, "Hamilton I know to be a proud Spirited, conceited, aspiring Mortal always pretending to Morality," he wrote, but "with as debauched Morals as old Franklin who is more his Model than anyone I know." Due to his support for the expansion of the navy and the creation of the United States Department of the Navy , Adams is "often called the father of the American Navy". During the quasi-war,
12390-499: The two leading figures in the administration— Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Their competing visions of domestic and foreign policy caused a rift within the administration, and led to the founding of the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party . Washington's announcement that he would not be a candidate for a third term ignited an intense partisan struggle over the presidency. Like
12508-400: The whole and over the parts of this extensive country. Relying, however, on the purity of their intentions, the justice of their cause, and the integrity and intelligence of the people, under an overruling Providence which had so signally protected this country from the first, the representatives of this nation, then consisting of little more than half its present number, not only broke to pieces
12626-407: Was inaugurated as the second president of the United States , and ended on March 4, 1801. Adams, who had served as vice president under George Washington , took office as president after winning the 1796 presidential election . The only member of the Federalist Party to ever serve as president, his presidency ended after a single term following his defeat in the 1800 presidential election . He
12744-521: Was a Senator who secretly negotiated with France in 1798. Many were outraged that an average citizen went to Paris to negotiate with a foreign power and so they passed the Logan Act in response. John Adams signed the bill. The intent behind the Act is to prevent unauthorized negotiations from undermining the government's position. With the Federalist Party deeply split over his negotiations with France, and
12862-476: Was arrested and jailed under the Sedition Act, which only further inflamed Republican passions. At times, opposition from the Federalist Party was equally intense. Some, including Pickering, accused Adams of colluding with Jefferson so that he would end up either president or vice president. Hamilton was hard at work, attempting to sabotage the President's reelection. In planning an indictment of Adams' character, he requested and received private documents from both
12980-435: Was favored for the presidency or the vice presidency. The Democratic-Republicans, meanwhile, nominated Jefferson and Burr, their candidates in the previous election, but designated Jefferson as the party's first choice. The campaign was bitter and marked by malicious insults from both sides' partisan press. The Federalists claimed that the Republicans were radicals who would ruin the country through revolution. Republicans were
13098-427: Was first perceived, in early times, that no middle course for America remained between unlimited submission to a foreign legislature and a total independence of its claims, men of reflection were less apprehensive of danger from the formidable power of fleets and armies they must determine to resist than from those contests and dissensions which would certainly arise concerning the forms of government to be instituted over
13216-544: Was inaugurated as the nation's 2nd president on March 4, 1797, in the House of Representatives Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia . Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth administered the oath of office , making Adams the first president to receive the oath from a Supreme Court chief justice. Adams began his inaugural address ( Full text [REDACTED] ) with a review of the struggle for independence, When it
13334-497: Was marked by disputes concerning the country's role in the expanding conflict in Europe, where Britain and France and their respective allies were at war . Hamilton and the Federalists supported Britain, while Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans favored France. The intense battle over the Jay Treaty in 1795 had previously polarized politics throughout the nation and alienated the French. The Jay Treaty had resolved some of
13452-420: Was never directly enforced, but it was often used in conjunction with the Sedition Act to suppress criticism of the Adams administration. Upon enactment, the Alien Friends Act was authorized for two years, and it was allowed to expire at the end of this period . Democratic-Republicans opposed the law, with Thomas Jefferson referring to it as "a most detestable thing... worthy of the 8th or 9th century." While
13570-429: Was so pleased with the outcome that he had it engraved on his tombstone. Historian Ralph Adams Brown argues that, by keeping the United States out of war with France, Adams allowed the fledgling nation to grow and prosper into the transcontinental nation it eventually became in the 19th century. Polls of historians and political scientists have generally ranked Adams as an average or above-average president, and one of
13688-522: Was succeeded by Thomas Jefferson of the opposition Democratic-Republican Party . When Adams entered office, the ongoing major European war between France and Great Britain was causing great difficulties for American merchants on the high seas and arousing intense partisanship among contending political parties nationwide. Attempts to negotiate with the French led to the XYZ Affair , in which French officials demanded bribes before they would assent to
13806-887: Was the most independent-minded of the founders. Though he aligned with the Federalists, he was somewhat a party unto himself, disagreeing with the Federalists as much as he did the Jeffersonian Republicans. He was often described as "prickly", but his tenacity was fed by good decisions made in the face of universal opposition. Adams was often combative, which diminished presidential decorum, as Adams himself admitted in his old age: "[As president] I refused to suffer in silence. I sighed, sobbed, and groaned, and sometimes screeched and screamed. And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore." Adams' resolve to advance peace with France, rather than to continue hostilities, especially reduced his popularity. This played an important role in his reelection defeat, however he
13924-478: Was uneasy." Nonetheless, Adams was able to avoid war with France, arguing that war should be a last resort to diplomacy. In this argument, he won the nation the respect of its most powerful adversaries. Although Adams was fiercely criticized for signing the Alien and Sedition Acts, he never advocated their passage nor personally implemented them, and he pardoned the instigators of Fries's Rebellion. "Seen in this light," observed historian C. James Taylor, "Adams's legacy
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