The conservation movement , also known as nature conservation , is a political, environmental, and social movement that seeks to manage and protect natural resources , including animal , fungus , and plant species as well as their habitat for the future. Conservationists are concerned with leaving the environment in a better state than the condition they found it in. Evidence-based conservation seeks to use high quality scientific evidence to make conservation efforts more effective.
208-626: Seeadler (German for White-tailed_eagle , resp. the Genus Haliaeetus ) may refer to: Vessels [ edit ] DFS Seeadler , German flying boat sailplane HMPNGS Seeadler , patrol vessel of the Papua New Guinean Maritime Component SMS ; Seeadler , German cruiser SMS Seeadler (1888) , German merchant raider Other uses [ edit ] Seeadler Harbor ,
416-478: A Living Planet Index and ecological footprint calculation. In addition, WWF has launched several notable worldwide campaigns including Earth Hour and Debt-for-Nature Swap , and its current work is organized around these six areas: food, climate, freshwater, wildlife, forests, and oceans. Institutions such as the WWF have historically been the cause of the displacement and divide between Indigenous populations and
624-466: A Romantic poem urging a lumberjack to avoid an oak tree that has sentimental value. The poem was set to music later that year by Henry Russell . Lines from the song have been quoted by environmentalists. Conservation was revived in the mid-19th century, with the first practical application of scientific conservation principles to the forests of India. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that human activity damaged
832-483: A buff colouration. In worn or bleached plumages these light areas can be even paler at times, ranging to almost whitish, which can render a resemblance in such eagles to a washed-out bald eagle. Some of the palest birds can appear anywhere from cream-tawny to light greyish. It is thought that in some populations perhaps paleness increases with age, although it is possible that there is an historical genetic factor to these pale variations. In contrast, some adults can also be
1040-607: A species pair with the bald eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ), which occupies a similar niche in North America. The first formal description of the white-tailed eagle was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Falco albicilla . The genus Haliaeetus was introduced in 1809 by the French naturalist Marie Jules César Savigny in
1248-577: A conservative school of thought which aims to preserve natural resources expressly for their continued sustainable use by humans. The conservation movement can be traced back to John Evelyn 's work Sylva , which was presented as a paper to the Royal Society in 1662. Published as a book two years later, it was one of the most highly influential texts on forestry ever published. Timbre resources in England were becoming dangerously depleted at
1456-487: A considerably more massive and paler bill, which is yellow even in juveniles unlike in bald and white-tailed eagles. Juvenile Steller's sea eagles are a distinctly darker soot colour than juvenile white-tailed eagles with even less whitish showing on the body than the latter species but, on the other hand, the underwing often as white marked as juvenile bald eagles (dissimilarly from juvenile white-tailed eagles), albeit in different pattern. In all three large northern sea eagles,
1664-446: A country has been heralded its champion in the current times. Costa Rica hosts an astonishing number of species, given its size, having more animal and plant species than the US and Canada combined hosting over 500,000 species of plants and animals. Despite this, Costa Rica is only 250 miles long and 150 miles wide. A widely accepted theory for the origin of this unusual density of species
1872-465: A dozen gulls are known in the prey spectrum from the smallest to all four largest extant species. In the United Kingdom , northern fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis ) are noted as a common prey species and as such may contribute to locally high levels of DDT and PCB chemicals in nesting eagles. However, fulmars defend themselves by regurgitating a smelly, tar-like oily substance that can impair
2080-421: A few attacks also start to exhaust the eagle, as one immature gave up after 15–28 attempts at a little grebe ( Tachybaptus ruficollis ). While bald eagles may attack diving ducks in the same way, they appear to do so somewhat less regularly and successfully. White-tailed eagles usually have less success hunting dabbling ducks because their normal predator response behaviour is to take flight. In one instance,
2288-551: A harbor on Manus Island, Papua New Guinea See also [ edit ] Seeadler-class fast attack craft Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Seeadler . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seeadler&oldid=1175997007 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
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#17327730064302496-759: A hundred years of systematic persecution by humans (from the early 1800s to around World War II ) followed by inadvertent poisonings and epidemics of nesting failures due to various manmade chemical pesticides and organic compounds , which have threatened eagles since roughly the 1950s and continue to be a potential concern. Due to this, the white-tailed eagle was considered endangered or extinct in several countries. Some populations have since recovered well, due to governmental protections, dedicated conservationists and naturalists protecting habitats and nesting sites, partially regulating poaching and pesticide usage, as well as careful reintroductions into parts of their former range. White-tailed eagles usually live most of
2704-420: A long time for them to dry. This may also make them vulnerable to losing their catch to other white-tailed eagles since their flight may be impaired until the wings are dried. Therefore, when hunting fish, they will fly to a feeding perch or nest as soon as possible most of the time. Another option when taking particularly large fish is for the eagle to stay in the water and row, swimming using their wings, across
2912-454: A longer and differently marked tail. At all ages, the white-tailed eagle averages a duller, slightly darker and browner colour overall than the Pallas's fish eagle. Pallas's fish eagles are mid-brown on the body in juvenile plumage with no paler feather edging as seen in juveniles and especially subadults of the larger species. Adult Pallas's fish eagles are immediately distinctive rufous hue with
3120-432: A lower yield, fish of up to 30 cm (12 in) are taken secondarily and fish between 30 and 60 cm (0.98 and 1.97 ft) are preferred since they have the highest nutritional benefit. Fish taken can exceed 0.9 to 1 m (3.0 to 3.3 ft) but since they can start to considerably exceed the weight of the eagle itself, they may prove too heavy to carry. One large Atlantic halibut ( Hippoglossus hippoglossus )
3328-648: A lowland species, the species is known to live at elevations of 1,500 to 2,300 m (4,900 to 7,500 ft) so long as there is water access in some parts of Central Asia and Siberia . In coastal areas, the species may range from high sea cliffs down to low-lying islands and archipelagos . Especially in winter, many white-tailed eagles often frequent low coastal spots, estuaries and coastal marshes . Several studies have supported that coastal areas are preferred when available during winter. In many areas, white-tailed eagles can seem to switch freely between usually cliff habitat and wooded spots for nesting sites and
3536-567: A majority staying near the Baltic coast. However, some eagles that hatched from nests in Germany have been found as far south as in Italy, 1,030 km (640 mi) away to the southeast, or to Gironde , France , 1,520 km (940 mi) to the southwest. In several parts of Russia, quite unlike many European populations, the white-tailed eagle seems to be largely migratory. In the far east,
3744-620: A mallard was caught while flying in mid-air, but usually the much larger eagle is unable to capture ducks in flight. While somewhat less swift in flight, healthy geese can usually outpace a heavier eagle as well and one bean goose ( Anser fabalis ) was even recorded to have defended itself successfully against an eagle's attack even though this goose was injured. White-tailed eagles often hunt dabbling ducks and geese most successfully when they are moulted into their eclipse plumage which renders them temporarily flightless. Swans during winter may find themselves forced to land due to their bulk on
3952-575: A more restricted but more sharply demarked paler buffy head. Bald eagle juveniles may be found together with white-tailed eagles in the Aleutian islands (where the white-tailed eagle formerly bred until about 30 years ago) and when vagrants of white-tails occur in Alaska. Juveniles of bald and white-tailed eagles often strongly resemble each other but the bald eagles have a shorter neck, a relatively longer and squarer tail, and somewhat less broad wings. In
4160-635: A much stronger preference for fish in Greenland by 1983, as fish comprised an extreme 91.8% of 660 items. However, this kind of direct continuous observation of food deliveries to nests is not always possible. Furthermore, despite similar bias for prey that is large and leaves conspicuous remains (including any larger fish, bird or mammal), in the bald eagle it was found that fish were usually detectable and dominant in remains and pellets. Most modern biologists may need to leave some fish unidentified but will account for different methodologies of prey study to get
4368-422: A national priority, and has been at the forefront of preserving its natural environment with 28% of its land protected in the form of national parks, reserves, and wildlife refuges, which is under the administrative control of SINAC (National System of Conservation Areas) a division of MINAE (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications). SINAC has subdivided the country into various zones depending on
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#17327730064304576-536: A nature which includes humans rather than excluding them from the necessity of conservation. While other conservation theories integrate some of the elements of convivial conservation, none move away from both dichotomies and capitalist valuation principles. Source: The early years of the environmental and conservation movements were rooted in the safeguarding of game to support the recreation activities of elite white men, such as sport hunting . This led to an economy to support and perpetuate these activities as well as
4784-438: A nest is approached (usually recorded while directed towards humans). The young let out a monotonous veee-veee when hungry (or "bored") which intensifies if the eaglets are not fed or brooded immediately. Given reasonable view, adult white-tailed eagles are difficult to mistake for any other bird. There are no other eagles with fully white tails in their range except for in the easternmost limits of their range, their cousins
4992-441: A nest with some security. Although a relatively gregarious raptor, especially among wintering birds and juveniles and immature birds, they are territorial and intrusion by a male in adult plumage often provokes vigorous fighting, in which either combatant can even die. In some cases, these vicious fights can cause damage to the nest as the two fighting eagles plummet down trying to slash at each other. The white-tailed eagle's diet
5200-454: A part of nature. The emphasis on nature as for and by humans creates a human responsibility to care for the environment as a way of caring for themselves. It also redefines nature as not only being pristine and untouched, but cultivated by humans in everyday formats. The theory is a long-term process of structural change to move away from capitalist valuation in favor of a system emphasizing everyday and local living. Convivial conservation creates
5408-409: A politics of equity, structural change and environmental justice, convivial conservation is considered a radical theory as it focuses on the structural political-economy of modern nation states and the need to create structural change. Convivial conservation creates a more integrated approach which reconfigures the nature-human configuration to create a world in which humans are recognized as
5616-478: A racially weaker nation. This lead Roosevelt to support the passing of many immigration restrictions, eugenics legislations and wildlife preservation laws. For instance, Roosevelt established the first national parks through the Antiquities Act of 1906 while also endorsing the removal of Indigenous Americans from their tribal lands within the parks. This move was promoted and endorsed by other leaders of
5824-425: A relatively smaller head. Young white-tailed eagles are also potentially confusable with any Aquila , but should be obvious even as a silhouette in its huge wings, relatively truncated and slightly wedge-shaped tail and obvious projection of the neck and head. All Aquila lack pale the axillary band often visible on juvenile and subadult white-tailed eagles. Some greater spotted eagles ( Clanga clanga ) can suggest
6032-431: A richer, more deeply dark brown (or somewhat rufescent ) than average with perhaps a mild increase in average darkness of hue to the east of the species' range. When many of the feathers are freshly moulted, they can take on a slight purplish gloss. The brownish hue of the adult overall makes the somewhat wedge-shaped white tail stand out in contrast. All the bare parts of the adult's body are yellow in colour, including
6240-523: A sheet of ice over water if they can find no open water, which can make their feet stuck to the ice. White-tailed eagles have been recorded utilizing this disability to attack and kill swans. They've also been seen to attack numerous waterfowl when the birds are injured by buckshot from duck hunters. Due to their status as enemy of other large birds, they are frequently mobbed by them and white-tailed eagles have been recorded utilizing violent mobbings to suddenly turn over in flight and predaceously grab one of
6448-416: A single meal upon capturing a large fish. The crop can bulge to the size of a small grapefruit after they've consumed a large meal. Many studies have reflected that the primary foods of white-tailed eagles are fish and water birds. These are the primary food as well for other sea eagle species. However, unlike most Haliaeetus , including the bald eagle and Steller's sea eagle, the water birds tend to take
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6656-717: A specific conservation topic. This includes assessing the current effectiveness of different management interventions, threats and emerging problems and economic factors. Evidence-based conservation was organized based on the observations that decision making in conservation was based on intuition and or practitioner experience often disregarding other forms of evidence of successes and failures (e.g. scientific information). This has led to costly and poor outcomes. Evidence-based conservation provides access to information that will support decision making through an evidence-based framework of "what works" in conservation. Deforestation and overpopulation are issues affecting all regions of
6864-436: A specimen from Greenland which measured 2.53 m (8 ft 4 in) while another specimen apparently spanned 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in). The bald eagle broadly overlaps in size with the white-tailed eagle. In direct comparison, the white-tailed eagle averages somewhat larger in body mass than the bald eagle and may be marginally larger in bill and talon size, although these linear aspects can be quite similar between
7072-526: A supporting role in the decline of liberalism and the rise of modern environmentalism. Although Americans consistently rank environmental issues as "important", polling data indicates that in the voting booth voters rank the environmental issues low relative to other political concerns. The growth of the Republican party's political power in the inland West (apart from the Pacific coast) was facilitated by
7280-456: A thousand eiders were taken here). Eiders also appeared to be the main prey species in Iceland. There is evidence that a growing white-tailed eagle population is having a net negative effect on eider numbers in some areas, and locally eiders have altered to partial nocturnal foraging apparently to avoid hunting eagles. In inland regions, an avian prey species preferred by white-tailed eagles
7488-489: A water depth of 1.5 to 2 m (4.9 to 6.6 ft). In addition to trees, they may also use crags , hillocks or high grassy tussocks as hunting perches so long as the perch provides a good overall view of the environment. Fish tend to be grabbed in a shallow dive after a short distance flight from a perch, usually with the eagles only getting their feet wet. Occasionally, though, white-tailed eagles have been recorded plunging right into water, usually while hunting on
7696-558: A white-headed (the bald eagle) and a tan-headed species. They probably diverged in the North Pacific , spreading westwards into Eurasia and eastwards into North America . Like the third large northern species, Steller's sea eagle ( Haliaeetus pelagicus ), adults have yellow feet, beaks and eyes. Another species, likely intermediate between the white-tailed, bald and Steller's sea eagles and the Ichthyophaga type fish eagles,
7904-435: Is 250 to 331 mm (9.8 to 13.0 in) in males, averaging 280 mm (11 in), and 276 to 330 mm (10.9 to 13.0 in) in females, averaging 305 mm (12.0 in). Juvenile tail lengths can reach roughly 380 mm (15 in) in both sexes, however. The tarsus is 90 to 101 mm (3.5 to 4.0 in), averaging 95.5 mm (3.76 in). In terms of their killing apparatuses, their hallux claw ,
8112-465: Is a foundation with 55% of funding from individuals and bequests, 19% from government sources (such as the World Bank , DFID , USAID ) and 8% from corporations in 2014. WWF aims to "stop the degradation of the planet's natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature." The Living Planet Report is published every two years by WWF since 1998; it is based on
8320-506: Is a modern one but its practice has clearly defended some of the sub Arctic wildernesses and the wildlife in those regions for thousands of years, especially by indigenous peoples such as the Evenk, Yakut, Sami, Inuit and Cree. The fur trade and hunting by these peoples have preserved these regions for thousands of years. Ironically, the pressure now upon them comes from non-renewable resources such as oil, sometimes to make synthetic clothing which
8528-458: Is a relatively weak and ponderous flier and so too may be often victimized by the eagles. Otherwise the pale plumage of adult male common eiders while they're diving is reported to make them more vulnerable to eagle attacks. Eiders were the leading prey species in Norway making 18.8% of 1612 prey items, as well as in Åland , Finland where the eider comprised 18.63% of 5161 prey items (thus nearly
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8736-580: Is a tribe of hunters who were influential in establishing the Capitania del Alto y Bajo Isoso (CABI). CABI promotes economic growth and survival of the Izoceno people while discouraging the rapid destruction of habitat within Bolivia's Gran Chaco . They are responsible for the creation of the 34,000 square kilometre Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Area (KINP). The KINP protects
8944-407: Is advocated as a humane substitute for fur. (See Raccoon dog for case study of the conservation of an animal through fur trade.) Similarly, in the case of the beaver, hunting and fur trade were thought to bring about the animal's demise, when in fact they were an integral part of its conservation. For many years children's books stated and still do, that the decline in the beaver population was due to
9152-587: Is considered rare. Nonetheless, they have been recorded eating a few eggs, which they may carry in their beaks rather in their feet, of some seabirds such as kittiwakes , eiders , cormorants and gulls. The most widely recorded avian prey species and, second most widely recorded prey species behind the pike, is the 1.14 kg (2.5 lb) mallard, due to its circumpolar range and commonality in many wetlands areas. However, as aforementioned, healthy mallards are difficult for white-tailed eagles due to their tendency to fly at first sign of danger. However, exploiting
9360-403: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages White-tailed eagle Falco albicilla Linnaeus, 1758 Falco melanaetos Linnaeus, 1766 Falco ossifragus Linnaeus, 1766 Haliaeetus albicilla albicilla Haliaeetus albicilla groenlandicus The white-tailed eagle ( Haliaeetus albicilla ), sometimes known as
9568-511: Is equivalent to about 10% of the birds' body weight, with crop contents commonly of 190–560 g (0.42–1.23 lb). Some semi-captive juveniles on the isle of Rùm , Scotland could eat up to 1.4 kg (3.1 lb) in one sitting. However, in Norway, it was estimated that a family of wild white-tailed eagles including each adult and three fledglings were consuming on average up to 625 g (1.378 lb) per bird each day. Furthermore, one male consumed an estimated 2 kg (4.4 lb) in
9776-442: Is in short supply. White-tailed eagles of all ages typically perch in quite upright positions on exposed branch, rock or other vantage point, but tend to sit more horizontally on the ground or other level surfaces. They have an ample bill with a relatively high culmen, helping to impart a rather narrow and high crowned facial look, especially compared to Aquila eagles . The neck is at times unusually long-looking, more so than in
9984-435: Is known as the ern or erne (depending on spelling by sources), gray sea eagle and Eurasian sea eagle . While found across a wide range, today breeding from as far west as Greenland and Iceland across to as far east as Hokkaido , Japan , they are often scarce and spottily distributed as a nesting species, mainly due to human activities. These have included habitat alterations and destruction of wetlands , about
10192-492: Is known at this age. However, this white mottling then fades late into the fourth year and the plumage becomes less contrasting. Although sexual maturity is considered to be attained at between five and six years of age, usually the fully white tail and the uniform pale head and neck are not obtained until the eighth year. Juveniles first moult in May/June until October/November at just over one year of age. Their second moult
10400-435: Is known in well more than half of all modern birds, essentially all predatory birds of different lineages are particularly strongly territorial because the live prey necessary to feed a family, including the female of the pair (which must remain near the young for them to survive) and the young themselves, tends to be sparser. Furthermore, appropriate habitat is needed in which to execute this hunting and also, of course, to build
10608-473: Is largely unaware of the customs and values held by those within the territory surrounding nature and their role within it. In Japan, the town of Shiraho had traditional ways of tending to nature that were lost due to colonization and militarization by the United States. The return to traditional sustainability practices constituted a “conservation near” approach. This engages those near in proximity to
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#173277300643010816-461: Is more of a bodily or "primitive" consciousness, which is associated with lower-intelligence and people of color. A new, integrated approach to conservation is being investigated in recent years by institutions such as WWF. The socionatural relationships centered on the interactions based in reciprocity and empathy, making conservation efforts being accountable to the local community and ways of life, changing in response to values, ideals, and beliefs of
11024-456: Is poor. Also, they will alternate periods of soaring with perching, especially flying over water or well-watered areas, but do considerably less soaring on average than do golden eagles. Pairs regularly roost together, often near to their nest, either on a crag or tree or crevices, overhung ledges or small isolated trees on a crag. The white-tailed eagle may be considered a rather inconsistent and partial migrant. The species seldom migrates in
11232-602: Is the Pallas's fish eagle ( Haliaeetus leucoryphus ), which in life history seems to range farther from water and to higher elevations than the three northern species normally do. Due to the similar dietary and nesting habits of sea eagles, they are mostly allopatric in distribution as competition can be considerable between these eagles. Currently, eagles occur in the Hawaiian Islands only as vagrants, but Quaternary bones of Haliaeetus have been found on three of
11440-825: Is the common bream ( Abramis brama ). This bream was reported in 10 of 18 dietary studies and was the main prey in the Polesie State Radioecological Reserve , Belarus, in the Ural mountains region of Russia, and in the Kostomuksha Nature Reserve , Russia. Breams taken by reeding eagles at Augustów Forest , Poland ranged from 0.2 to 2 kg (0.44 to 4.41 lb) in weight. Many varieties of fish are taken opportunistically and randomly, as opposed to pike and bream, which can locally appear to be selected out of proportion to their regional population. Particularly diverse in
11648-599: Is the 836 g (1.843 lb) Eurasian coot ( Fulica atra ). The coot is the second most widely represented bird prey species (and fourth species of any class known overall) in 18 dietary studies. Coots bunch together in marshy spots when approached by a flying eagle and as many as five eagles at once have been recorded attacking large flocks on the water. Coots' behaviour often endangers them to large raptors: they seldom dive, are weaker and slower fliers than most water birds and are collectively often less wary and more approachable than most waterfowl are. Coot were strongly
11856-452: Is the following year in March or April, with two more subsequent moults usually beginning around this time for the next couple of years. Like other large raptors, feathers are moulted at slow intervals so as not to inhibit food capture. Only relatively small proportions of the flight feathers are moulted each year. Moulting occurs more or less continuously, although it may pause in winter if food
12064-696: Is the free mixing of species from both North and South America occurring on this "inter-oceanic" and "inter-continental" landscape. Preserving the natural environment of this fragile landscape, therefore, has drawn the attention of many international scholars and scientists. MINAE (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications) and its responsible for many conservation efforts in Costa Rica it achieves through its many agencies, including SINAC (National System of Conservation Areas), FONAFIFO (national forest fund), and CONAGEBIO (National Commission for Biodiversity Management). Costa Rica has made conservation
12272-461: Is typically large as in all Haliaeetus , ranging from 45 to 65 mm (1.8 to 2.6 in), with an average of 56.1 mm (2.21 in). The average culmen length of the bald eagle is 54.3 mm (2.14 in), thus averaging slightly smaller. However, the average culmen length in the large bald eagles of Alaska is considerably larger than other bald eagles as well as most white-tailed eagles at up to 75 mm (3.0 in) and can even rival
12480-435: Is usually more evident in flying than perched birds, with sometimes a slightly bulging section of feathers manifesting on the wing secondaries . The species tends to fly with shallow wing beats; at times the wing beats can be fairly fast for a bird of this size, but interspersed at times with gliding. At a great distance, this flight style may be suggestive of a large brown heron . The wings are held flat or slightly upraised at
12688-404: Is varied, opportunistic and seasonal. Prey specimens can often include fish, birds and, mostly in a secondary capacity, mammals. White-tailed eagles are powerful predators and capable of attacking large prey of considerable sizes but, like most predators, prefer prey that is vulnerable and easy for them to capture. Especially during the winter (and opportunistically in all seasons), many birds of
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#173277300643012896-480: The Description de l'Égypte . The name Haliaeetus is Neo-Latin for "sea-eagle", from Ancient Greek hali- , "sea-" and aetos , "eagle". The specific albicilla , "white-tailed", is from Neo-Latin albi- , "white" and cilla , "tail". The Anglo-Saxon name erne means "soarer", and it is cognate to Swedish örn and Finnish aarni . It has many Gaelic names, including iolar sùil na grèine or 'eagle of
13104-714: The Baltic Sea , western Austria , northeastern Germany , northern and eastern Poland , the Czech Republic, much of the east Baltic countries , the non-montane areas of Ukraine , eastern Slovenia , central and southern Hungary (and adjacent northeastern Croatia ), sporadically in Greece , the Danube sections of Romania and Bulgaria to the Black Sea and western and eastern Moldova . The bird returned to
13312-525: The Brahminy kite ( Haliastur indus ) (historically sometimes referred to as the "red-backed sea eagle") and the palm-nut vulture ( Gypohierax angolensis ) (which was once widely referred to as the "vulturine fish eagle"). The relation of these species to the sea eagles is partially borne out by their genetic sequencing. Other groups, beyond milvine kites and Old World vulture, of modern accipitrids that are seemingly in some way related, albeit distantly, to
13520-593: The Griffon vulture ( Gys fulvus ), as the colouring of the two species is vaguely similar and they can overlap somewhat in size although the vulture can average rather heavier and longer winged. However even at long range, the relatively tiny head, distinctly curved trailing wing-edges and more raised wings make the vulture distinctive from the white-tailed eagle. Juveniles may be harder to distinguish, mainly from other sea eagles in few areas of overlap. In northern Mongolia (perhaps spilling over into southern Siberia ),
13728-512: The Levant countries, Azerbaijan and Iran down to even the Persian Gulf , albeit seldom is the species to be found commonly or reliably anywhere in these regions. Further east, rare wintering areas are known in a few small, scarce pockets of Turkmenistan, Afghanistan , Uzbekistan , Tajikistan and Pakistan . It is a rare winter visitor to India , namely the extreme northwest and along
13936-702: The Middle East , the white-tailed eagle may still be found breeding only along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea in northern Iran and southwestern Turkmenistan . Discontinuously, they are found as residents in Kazakhstan where they live in a long strip of the southern part of the country starting at the Aral Sea and the northwestern portion (but not, as far as is known, breeding in the Kazakh part of
14144-595: The Netherlands in 2006 and in 2020 the number of breeding pairs had increased to 20. It might have bred in the Faroe Islands up until the 17th century, but evidence is lacking; there are only about a dozen records of vagrant white-tailed eagles from the archipelago since 1800. In Anatolia , it only remains as a breeder in sparse and small pockets of Turkey and Georgia , taken as a region there are likely to be fewer than 30 breeding pairs in this region. In
14352-647: The Pittman–Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act was signed into law, providing funding for state agencies to carry out their conservation efforts. Environmental reemerged on the national agenda in 1970, with Republican Richard Nixon playing a major role, especially with his creation of the Environmental Protection Agency . The debates over the public lands and environmental politics played
14560-643: The United States Forest Service , signed into law the creation of five national parks, and signed the year 1906 Antiquities Act , under which he proclaimed 18 new national monuments . He also established the first 51 bird reserves , four game preserves , and 150 national forests , including Shoshone National Forest , the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230,000,000 acres (930,000 km ). Gifford Pinchot had been appointed by McKinley as chief of Division of Forestry in
14768-635: The Wigry National Park , Poland,1,062.1 g (2.342 lb) in the Rybinsk Reservoir , Russia and 1.72 kg (3.8 lb) in the Volga-Kama Nature Reserve , Russia. Thus, the mean prey size falls just slightly short of the mean prey mass of the golden eagle, which globally averages about 1.35 to 1.63 kg (3.0 to 3.6 lb). Overall, nearly 70 species of fish are known to be taken from throughout
14976-606: The alluvial wetlands of Croatia, 95% of nests were found within 4 km (2.5 mi) of deep freshwater. In some areas, white-tailed eagles readily visit commercial fish farms , carp ponds and similar areas with easily accessible food but they will usually avoid areas where human disturbances (especially noisy varieties such as construction , water sporting and heavy boating activities and hunting ) commonly occur. However, forestry activity and resulting lessened numbers of tall mature trees and large tree stands in Estonia
15184-429: The common lumpsucker ( Cyclopterus lumpus ), which averages up to 1.43 kg (3.2 lb) but is usually smaller, made up 24% of fish taken and the 2.13 kg (4.7 lb) Atlantic wolffish ( Anarhichas lupus ) made up 17% of fish taken. However, fish were secondary to birds overall in Norway. Per two studies from Sweden, fish were usually the main food unlike in Norway and Finland, and could comprise 51–60% of
15392-441: The environment , that there was a civic duty to maintain the environment for future generations, and that scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. Sir James Ranald Martin was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for
15600-410: The waterfowl favoured in the avian diet tend to be highly wary and will more often than not escape. The white-tailed eagles must then attack birds at times of vulnerability or injury, or will often utilize the prey's escape tactics against them. Diving ducks and other diving water birds will be taken preferentially where they are available. In hunting diving birds, they utilize a technique of forcing
15808-523: The white-bellied sea eagle juvenile, likely a closely related species) more typical of juveniles in other species and it also dwells more so in dense, coastal forests where it feeds mostly on birds and mammals rather than fish and water birds . Outside of the genus Haliaeetus , among other extant forms, they appear to be most closely related to milvine kites and Old World vultures , based on modern forms from these subfamilies that broadly share morphological and life history traits with sea eagles:
16016-533: The "taungya" system, in which Karen villagers provided labor for clearing, planting and weeding teak plantations. After seven years in Burma, Brandis was appointed Inspector General of Forests in India, a position he served in for 20 years. He formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. The Imperial Forest School at Dehradun was founded by him. Germans were prominent in
16224-421: The ' sea eagle ', is a large bird of prey, widely distributed across temperate Eurasia . Like all eagles, it is a member of the family Accipitridae (or accipitrids) which also includes other diurnal raptors such as hawks , kites , and harriers . One of up to eleven members in the genus Haliaeetus , which are commonly called sea eagles, it is also referred to as the white-tailed sea-eagle . Sometimes, it
16432-656: The 1.23 kg (2.7 lb) red-breasted goose ( Branta ruficollis ) to the non-native 3.69 kg (8.1 lb) Canada goose ( Branta canadensis ). Goslings and juveniles are usually targeted, but adult geese are also taken, especially while incubating or weakened by various reasons. Another large water bird taken as adults are 4.98 kg (11.0 lb) common loons ( Gavia immer ). Large waders are taken when possible, including grey herons and great bitterns ( Botaurus stellaris ), both weighing between 1 and 2 kg ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 4 and 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 lb). Larger 2.93 kg (6.5 lb) black and
16640-538: The 1960s. The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) was formed in 1962 by the husband and wife team: Robert Kay and June Kay, environmentalists working in conjunction with the Batawana tribes to preserve wildlife habitat. The FPS promotes habitat conservation and provides local education for preservation of wildlife. Conservation initiatives were met with strong opposition from the Botswana government because of
16848-445: The 1979 study, 68% of the diet would have been represented by birds and only 20% by fish but comprehensive observation shifted it to show fish were the primary food at 58% and birds were secondary at 30%. This study claimed this is often because the bones of fish are dissolved by the large digestive tract of the eagles upon consumption and may thus leave almost nothing in remains and to some extent in pellets. Subsequent studies here showed
17056-987: The 2.82 kg (6.2 lb) Japanese cormorant ( Phalacrocorax capillatus ), which was the second most numerous prey species, making up 11.63% of 533 prey items in Hokkaido, and opportunistically, when their north Atlantic colonies are accessed, great numbers of 3 kg (6.6 lb) northern gannets ( Morus bassanus ). Vagrant white-tailed eagles in Hawaii were recorded to prey on several Laysan albatross ( Phoebastria immutabilis ) and were suspected to prey on black-footed albatross ( Phoebastria nigripes ), both weighing about 3.17 kg (7.0 lb). Conservation movement The early conservation movement evolved out of necessity to maintain natural resources such as fisheries , wildlife management , water , soil , as well as conservation and sustainable forestry . The contemporary conservation movement has broadened from
17264-531: The 20th century turned to the wilderness to escape the industrialization of cities. However, many of these early conservationists became part of and influenced the Nazi party . Like elite and influential Americans of the early 20th century, they embraced eugenics and racism and promoted the idea that Nordic people are superior . Although the conservation movement developed in Europe in the 18th century, Costa Rica as
17472-692: The 3.44 kg (7.6 lb) white stork ( Ciconia ciconia ) of all ages can be preyed upon. Black and white storks are the primary prey species in the Polesie State Radioecological Reserve, Belarus, where they comprised 12.6% (second most regular prey species) and 6.3% (fourth most regular) of the diet, respectively. Large numbers of black storks were also taken in Augustów Primeval Forest where remains of nearly 50 individuals were found around eagle nests. White-tailed eagles even attack and prey on both
17680-612: The Association on the failure of agriculture in India. These lectures influenced the government under Governor-General Lord Dalhousie to introduce the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation program in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to other colonies , as well the United States . In the same year, Cleghorn organised the Madras Forest Department and in 1860 the department banned
17888-544: The Black Sea which have been recorded 330 km (210 mi) north of their natal site and 510 km (320 mi) northeast of their natal site. Territory size in white-tailed eagles may vary from 52 to 415 km (20 to 160 sq mi), usually less than 130 km (50 sq mi), per one estimate. However, home ranges in northeastern Germany were much smaller than this, at 2.25 to 19.16 km (0.87 to 7.40 sq mi). While territorial behaviour
18096-539: The Caspian Sea coast). The only country in which the white-tailed eagle is found over a continuous and extremely large area is Russia . The species is found broadly everywhere in Russia from European Russia in the west to the Bering Sea in the east, only being fully absent as a nester as far as is known from the high Arctic regions and a section bordering westernmost Kazakhstan, although it breeds to south of this in
18304-648: The Department of Agriculture. In 1905, his department gained control of the national forest reserves. Pinchot promoted private use (for a fee) under federal supervision. In 1907, Roosevelt designated 16 million acres (65,000 km ) of new national forests just minutes before a deadline. In May 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the Conference of Governors held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered
18512-464: The Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History", which based its premise on eugenics and outlined a hierarchy of races, with white, "Nordic" men at the top, and all other races below. The German translation of this book was used by Nazi Germany as the source for many of their beliefs and was even proclaimed by Hitler to be his "Bible". One of the first established conservation agencies in
18720-531: The Hawaiian mtDNA lineage probably diverged around the Middle Pleistocene. Thus, although not clearly differentiated in morphology from its relatives, the Hawaiian eagle likely represented an isolated, resident population in the Hawaiian archipelago for more than 100,000 years, where it was the largest terrestrial predator. The reasons for its extinction are unknown. The white-tailed eagle is one of
18928-611: The Netherlands, even with infrequent modern breeding in the northern coastal areas. A wintering population is known in western Germany from North Rhine-Westphalia to Bonn , as well as far northern Germany. In Denmark, they both breed and winter throughout much of the country, but in particular the Wadden Sea region attracts many white-tailed eagles, mostly immatures, from elsewhere in Denmark and neighbouring countries during
19136-910: The Russian Far East are known to occasionally disperse across the Bering Sea to North America in several parts of the Aleutian Islands , the Pribilof Islands and some of mainland coastal Alaska down to Kodiak Island . Some white-tailed eagles even bred in Alaska on Attu Island in the late 1970s to the early 1980s (until 1984 when the last attempts were recorded) but it was not clear whether young were ever successfully fledged. White-tailed eagles may be found in varied habitat but usually are closely associated with water and generally occurs in lowland areas. Although mainly
19344-903: The Russian coastal part of the Caspian Sea. Their northern limits occur in Russia to the Ob river to 70 degrees north at the mouth of the Yenisei River and on the Gyda and Yamal Peninsulas , to the Kolyma , Indigirka and Lena rivers to above 72 degrees north, even to 75 degrees north on the Taymyr Peninsula . They are said to be common around the White Sea , reportedly even the most abundant bird of prey locally and found both on coasts and inland lakes, although breeding rates are low due to
19552-633: The Scandinavian countries, up to at least 30–50 individuals. Wintering congregations at the Baltic coast and on the River Elbe from 37 winters show that arrivals begin in November, with numbers peaking in January and then declining during March and early April. Although juveniles usually return to their natal area some apparently overshoot these areas, such as those returning to Romania or on
19760-517: The Steller's sea eagle may rival it in that respect. In one sample from Norway , five male white-tailed eagles were found to average 2.26 m (7 ft 5 in) and eight females were found to average 2.37 m (7 ft 9 in). In another sample of wild birds of unspecified origin, five males were found to average 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) and seven females averaged 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in). Record wingspans have included
19968-608: The U.S. and on how to structure the Forest Service. Both conservationists and preservationists appeared in political debates during the Progressive Era (the 1890s–early 1920s). There were three main positions. The debate between conservation and preservation reached its peak in the public debates over the construction of California's Hetch Hetchy dam in Yosemite National Park which supplies
20176-518: The United States is the National Audubon Society . Founded in 1905, its priority was to protect and conserve various waterbird species. However, the first state-level Audubon group was created in 1896 by Harriet Hemenway and Minna B. Hall to convince women to refrain from buying hats made with bird feathers- a common practice at the time. The organization is named after John Audubon , a naturalist and legendary bird painter. Audubon
20384-493: The White Sea were found well over 2,000 km (1,200 mi) away to the west, in countries such as Hungary and Italy. Return spring migration to the White Sea is by February–March. During winter, whether long-distance migrants or short-distance dispersers, white-tailed eagles tend to become gregarious, especially younger immature birds. Many such groups can contain up to 10 and, in areas near large breeding populations such as
20592-542: The adults, although the juveniles typically have a somewhat larger average wing and tail length than the adults. In the white-tailed eagle, body mass can typically range from 4 to 6.9 kg (8.8 to 15.2 lb) in females. The slightly smaller male may typically weigh from 3.1 to 5.4 kg (6.8 to 11.9 lb). Average weights in European white-tailed eagles can range from 4.02 kg (8.9 lb) in five males and 5.11 kg (11.3 lb) in nine females to (from
20800-565: The aforementioned water birds are modest of size and taken largely due to ease (diving water birds, whether healthy or infirm, and usually infirm or moulting dabbling water birds), white-tailed eagles routinely attack larger water birds as well. In many areas, large numbers of greylag geese ( Anser anser ), Europe's largest native wild goose, are taken. For example, they were the main prey, making up 28.2% of 192 prey items, for wintering eagles in Oostvaardersplassen , Netherlands, and
21008-513: The average female white-tailed eagle (the average weight of male Steller's is not known) while the average European golden eagle may weigh about 11–12% less than the average European white-tailed eagle and the bald eagle species as a whole about 10% less than the white-tailed eagle species. The most reliable method to sex birds is by tarsus width and depth and bill depth but these are infrequently measured. In some cases females are as much as 25% heavier and 15% greater in linear dimensions, though
21216-416: The bald eagle and Steller's sea eagle, which in adults are different in all other respects of plumage. Even in poor light, the bald species shows a sharp demarcation from white to dark brown whereas the colour contrast is far subtler in white-tailed eagles between their brown body (of a paler hue than that of a bald eagle) and buff-coloured head. At a great distance, the adult may be potentially confusable with
21424-448: The bald eagle, which can give the upper body a vulturine appearance. The tail is relatively short, and in some adults it can appear disproportionately stubby in relation to the massive body, and slightly wedge-shaped. All ages have a well-feathered tibia but bare tarsi . In flight, the wings are extremely broad and deeply fingered, with the usual tendency for at least six fingers to be visible. Juveniles are longer tailed than adults, which
21632-403: The belief that the cities, industries and factories that were overtaking the wilderness and threatening the native plants and animals were also consuming and threatening the racial vigor that they believed white Americans held which made them superior. Roosevelt was a big believer that white male virility depended on wildlife for its vigor, and that, consequently, depleting wildlife would result in
21840-457: The bill, cere , feet and eyes. Juvenile and immature white-tailed eagles are a much darker brown than the adults and are more unevenly marked, with whitish feather edgings variably showing, mostly manifesting in some small areas of the underside and under-wing, with a narrow white axillary strip usually apparent. The upperside is usually similarly darkish brown but variable based on extent of blackish-brown tip to otherwise buff-brown feathers of
22048-622: The birds mobbing them, including large gulls and even a northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ). As an opportunistic predator, it often takes young birds freely as well as adult and fledged juvenile birds. In general, due to different nesting situations, white-tailed eagles instead of dabbling or diving water birds usually attack the more conspicuous or open nests of gulls, those of several other types of seabird , large corvids or other accipitrids. In Germany and Scotland, up to 86% of gulls taken were nestlings and juveniles. Cases of white-tailed eagles eating eggs, instead of nestlings or older birds,
22256-784: The birds to dive repeatedly to avoid attacks, until the victim is exhausted from the efforts and can then be caught. Usually while hunting like this, the white-tailed eagle tends to circle low to stay close to the intended victim, with birds diving in shallower water being preferred. Ducks with conspicuous plumage, such as male common eiders ( Somateria mollissima ), with their pale plumage, may be easier to see under water and so may be taken somewhat more via this hunting method. Beyond waterfowl, both loons and grebes have been seen to be successfully hunted in this way. Eagles were recorded doing up to 12 attacks on eiders in Russia and were usually successful in procuring prey. Even as many as 65 passes have recorded in less than 45 minutes but more than
22464-421: The border of Nepal to Bhutan and extreme northern Bangladesh . Scattered pockets of wintering birds are known to occur too in central and southern China , into northeastern Myanmar , and more broadly and regularly in much of Northeast China. Good numbers winter too in much of South Korea and Japan down to as far as Honshu . White-tailed eagles dispersing from their breeding grounds or natal sites in
22672-466: The center of their home range habitat. In some areas, such as Japan, this species may occur in regions with intensive human fishing activity and they may become unusually partially habituated to this human presence. Inland, white-tailed eagles usually require secluded woods, forested areas or groups of trees with tall mature trees and access to freshwater wetlands such as lakes , river systems , marshes or extensive, low-disturbance farmland . In
22880-534: The colder months, especially in coastal areas such as Norway when preferred fish prey often move to deeper water during winter. Among both fish and bird prey, it is thought that a majority that are caught weigh between 0.5 and 3 kg (1.1 and 6.6 lb). At times it has been said that "most" prey of white-tailed eagles will weigh only 0.5 to 1 kg (1.1 to 2.2 lb). However, the mean prey sizes caught can show greater variability. Three studies showed that mean prey size varied from 578 g (1.274 lb) in
23088-428: The colouring, the bald juvenile is similarly as dark or even darker brown above as white-tailed eagle juveniles but on the underside often has more extensive whitish mottling, especially on the underwing. Steller's sea eagles are usually distinctly larger and longer tailed, with a taller, bulkier look in eagles standing on the ground or perched. Steller's juveniles have a different wing shape (roughly paddle-shaped) and
23296-428: The conservation movement, including Frederick Law Olmsted , a leading landscape architect, conservationist, and supporter of the national park system, and Gifford Pinchot , a leading eugenicist and conservationist. Furthering the economic exploitation of the environment and national parks for wealthy whites was the beginning of ecotourism in the parks, which included allowing some Indigenous Americans to remain so that
23504-430: The continued wilderness conservation to support the corporate interests supplying the hunters with the equipment needed for their sport. Game parks in England and the United States allowed wealthy hunters and fishermen to deplete wildlife , while hunting by Indigenous groups, laborers and the working class, and poor citizens - especially for the express use of sustenance - was vigorously monitored. Scholars have shown that
23712-518: The diet. Fish were also somewhat dominant in the foods from two studies in Belarus, making up 48.1–53.7% of the diet. Fish similarly were important to nesting eagles in Hokkaido, Japan where 54% of 533 prey items were fish, led by the 800 g (1.8 lb) Alaska pollock ( Gadus chalcogrammus ) at 18.4%. In different studies of the Danube Delta of Romania, from 44.6% to 79% of the diet
23920-447: The distinction of a subspecies. However, the population appears to be demographically isolated and deserves special protection. At one time an eastern subspecies ( H. a. brooksi ) was proposed as well but there is little evidence supporting this as more than a case of clinal variation in colouring and size (i.e. the eastern average slightly darker and smaller than more westerly ones). As in other sea-eagle species pairs, this one consists of
24128-1213: The dominant food in Wigry National Park, Poland where they made up 44.1% of 299 items, and were also the leading prey in Augustów Primeval Forest (Poland) where they made up 11.59% of the foods. Overall at Wigry and Augustów, birds altogether made up 66.2% and 47.83% of the diets, respectively. In the Danube Delta, Romania, birds climbed in importance of the diet from 21% in 1970 to 50% by 2015, thanks largely to increased numbers of coots. In total, about 38 species of waterfowl are known to be hunted, as well as all available species of loons and grebes, several types of rails , tubenoses as well as herons , storks and other assorted large waders. White-tailed eagles also are known to hunt some 42 species of shorebird , most significantly gulls and alcids . Even shorebirds as small as 21.1 g (0.74 oz) little stint ( Calidris minuta ), 62.6 g (2.21 oz) wood sandpiper ( Tringa glareola ) and 64 g (2.3 oz) common ringed plover ( Charadrius hiaticula ) are known to be preyed upon, albeit quite rarely. More than
24336-411: The early movement's emphasis on use of sustainable yield of natural resources and preservation of wilderness areas to include preservation of biodiversity . Some say the conservation movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching environmental movement , while others argue that they differ both in ideology and practice. Conservation is seen as differing from environmentalism and it is generally
24544-437: The ecological diversity of that region - as seen in figure 1. The country has used this ecological diversity to its economic advantage in the form of a thriving ecotourism industry , putting its commitment to nature, on display to visitors from across the globe. The tourism market in Costa Rica is estimated to grow by USD 1.34 billion from 2023 to 2028, growing at a CAGR of 5.76%. You know, when we first set up WWF, our objective
24752-491: The environment . It was formerly named the "World Wildlife Fund", which remains its official name in Canada and the United States . WWF is the world's largest conservation organization with over five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 1,300 conservation and environmental projects. They have invested over $ 1 billion in more than 12,000 conservation initiatives since 1995. WWF
24960-464: The establishment of the U.S. national parks , while setting aside land for preservation, was also a continuation of preserving the land for the recreation and enjoyment of elite white hunters and nature enthusiasts. While Theodore Roosevelt was one of the leading activists for the conservation movement in the United States, he also believed that the threats to the natural world were equally threats to white Americans. Roosevelt and his contemporaries held
25168-432: The federal government at the expense of resource conservation. In 2019, convivial conservation was an idea proposed by Bram Büscher and Robert Fletcher. Convivial conservation draws on social movements and concepts like environmental justice and structural change to create a post-capitalist approach to conservation. Convivial conservation rejects both human-nature dichotomies and capitalistic political economies. Built on
25376-403: The female when receiving food from male calls out with tschie-tschie or vueee-vueee . Single or repeated krlee or similar component of calls used in other circumstances, can be variable. Alarm calls tend to be 3–4 short, loud klee or klek notes. Sometimes a different call of alarm or anger, a deep gah-gah-gah or jok-jok-jok , similar to alarm calls of a large gull , is also uttered when
25584-500: The fish prey will float to the surface when infected by fish tapeworm , as is often the case with some fish families such as carp . Fish are also caught after being battered, injured, and killed at power plants, from large-scale fishing nets, or are taken directly from human fishermen. Benthic fish which tend to cling to rocks or sandy soil in shallows may be more vulnerable since they tend to look downward rather than upward and are less competent at escaping predators coming from above
25792-455: The five-volume Manual of Forestry (1889–96) on silviculture , forest management , forest protection , and forest utilization, which became the standard and enduring textbook for forestry students. The American movement received its inspiration from 19th century works that exalted the inherent value of nature, quite apart from human usage. Author Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) made key philosophical contributions that exalted nature. Thoreau
26000-456: The flight of predators and may even kill some intended predators when it is in large quantity, and young juvenile eagles, being less cautious and experienced, are most prone to being severely "oiled". Alcids such as murres tend to become especially important in the diet of eagles in coastal Norway during winter, especially near offshore islands, when coastal fish tend to move to deeper waters. At least eight species of dabbling duck are known in
26208-426: The foreign ideals that are often imposed by foreign activists. Evidence-based conservation is the application of evidence in conservation biology and environmental management actions and policy making. It is defined as systematically assessing scientific information from published, peer-reviewed publications and texts, practitioners' experiences, independent expert assessment, and local and indigenous knowledge on
26416-504: The forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees." Theodore Roosevelt's view on conservationism remained dominant for decades; Franklin D. Roosevelt authorised the building of many large-scale dams and water projects, as well as the expansion of the National Forest System to buy out sub-marginal farms. In 1937,
26624-493: The forestry administration of British India. As well as Brandis, Berthold Ribbentrop and Sir William P.D. Schlich brought new methods to Indian conservation, the latter becoming the Inspector-General in 1883 after Brandis stepped down. Schlich helped to establish the journal Indian Forester in 1874, and became the founding director of the first forestry school in England at Cooper's Hill in 1885. He authored
26832-555: The frigid weather. From Russia, breeding populations spill somewhat into northernmost Mongolia, extreme northwestern China and northern North Korea . The white-tailed eagle also breeds on Sakhalin Island , the Kuril Islands and Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan. The wintering range is less well understood for the white-tailed eagle given the extreme reductions and fluctuations of northern breeding populations over
27040-440: The fur trade. In reality however, the decline in beaver numbers was because of habitat destruction and deforestation, as well as its continued persecution as a pest (it causes flooding). In Cree lands, however, where the population valued the animal for meat and fur, it continued to thrive. The Inuit defend their relationship with the seal in response to outside critics. The Izoceño - Guaraní of Santa Cruz Department , Bolivia ,
27248-584: The hunters participating in the program has provided CABI with important data required to make educated decisions about the use of the land. Hunters have been willing participants in this program because of pride in their traditional activities, encouragement by their communities and expectations of benefits to the area. In order to discourage illegal South African hunting parties and ensure future local use and sustainability, indigenous hunters in Botswana began lobbying for and implementing conservation practices in
27456-704: The hunting success rates on healthy birds can be low as revealed in studying wintering eagles in Sweden attempting to hunt mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ). White-tailed eagles also regularly pirate food from otters and other birds including cormorants , gulls , ospreys , corvids and various other raptors . Carrion is often the primary food source during lean winter months, with fish and ungulates preferred but everything from cetaceans to livestock to even humans being eaten after death. From studies of captive white-tailed eagles, daily food requirements were estimated at 500 to 600 g (1.1 to 1.3 lb), which
27664-477: The institutionalization of forest conservation activities in British India through the establishment of Forest Departments . Edward Percy Stebbing warned of desertification of India. The Madras Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by Alexander Gibson , a professional botanist who systematically adopted a forest conservation program based on scientific principles. This
27872-461: The lands in the conservation efforts and holds them accountable for their direct effects on its preservation. While conservation-far drills visuals and sight as being the main interaction medium between people and the environment, conservation near includes a hands-on, full sensory experience permitted by conservation-near methodologies. An emphasis on observation only stems from a deeper association with intellect and observation. The alternative to this
28080-620: The lands they inhabit. The reason is the organization's historically colonial, paternalistic, and neoliberal approaches to conservation. Claus, in her article "Drawing the Sea Near: Satoumi and Coral Reef Conservation in Okinawa", expands on this approach, called "conservation far", in which access to lands is open to external foreign entities, such as researchers or tourists, but prohibited to local populations. The conservation initiatives are therefore taking place "far" away. This entity
28288-483: The largest living birds of prey. It is the largest of the dozen species of eagle found in Europe and the largest eagle across its distribution, excluding the Russian Far East and (during the winter) Hokkaido, Japan, where it co-exists with its larger cousin, Steller's sea eagle. The white-tailed eagle is sometimes considered the fourth largest eagle in the world and is, on average, the fourth heaviest eagle in
28496-457: The largest males perhaps the heaviest recorded modern male eagle, as male harpy and Philippine eagles (being more sexually dimorphic in favour of the female) are not known to exceed 5 kg (11 lb) (the highest weights for male Steller's sea eagle are not known). The global mean body mass of white-tailed eagles is estimated at approximately 5 kg (11 lb). The average female Steller's sea eagle may weigh just under 25% more than
28704-578: The largest seabirds they encounter, such as great cormorants ( Phalacrocorax carbo ), and in some cases, such as in the Baltic Sea, have nearly destroyed whole colonies, from the eggs to the adults which average about 2.57 kg (5.7 lb). In the Estonian island of Hiiumaa , home to at least 25 pairs of sea eagles, as many as 26 individuals have been observed simultaneously culling a single cormorant colony. Similarly large numbers were taken of
28912-421: The largest talon on all accipitrids, is 37 to 46 mm (1.5 to 1.8 in) in length, averaging 40.9 mm (1.61 in). The hallux claw averages about a centimeter less than that of a golden eagle and is more sharply curved, an adaptation to prevent escape of slippery prey such as fish, while that of a bald eagle is similarly about 40.4 mm (1.59 in) and of similar curvature. The exposed culmen
29120-454: The largest wingspan of any living eagle. The Steller's sea eagle, which is larger in weight, total length and non-wing standard measurements, may be the closest rival for median wingspan amongst living eagles. The white-tailed eagle does appear to outsize the average wingspan of the wedge-tailed eagle ( Aquila audax ), which is sometimes also titled the largest winged extant eagle due to an exceptionally large individual shot in 1931, although
29328-402: The last call ended with a lower ko-ko-ko , the perched call of females is similar but deeper, a krau-krau-krau-uik-ik . Typically, the perched version of their calls tend to be shriller and higher than those issued in flight. In courtship display, male calls krau-krau-krau-uik-ik-ik answered by females with a lower ra-rack-rack-rack-rack . Young in nest call a shrilly piieh-piieh , while
29536-489: The last few centuries, so that the delineation of regular wintering areas versus areas of mere vagrancy is difficult to ascertain. It is known that a small number winter on Etang de Lindre of Lorraine , France as well as an area on the border of France to Germany around Strasbourg , with vagrants to elsewhere in France, as well as to Spain , Portugal and Malta . A well-defined wintering population may occur in much of
29744-476: The latest, possibly (if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this genus) as early as the early or middle Oligocene , about 28 mya . A recent genetic study of mitochondrial DNA is consistent with this idea. Greenlandic white-tailed eagles (proposed as H. a. groenlandicus ) form, on evolutionary time scales, a relatively recently founded population that has not yet accumulated many unique genetic characteristics and may not strictly fulfill
29952-607: The leading prey species is the salmonid, the Arctic char ( Salvelinus alpinus ), which comprised 27.2% of 660 prey items. The secondary prey in Greenland was recorded as two species of cod . While the average weight of cod taken here was estimated at only 420 to 640 g (0.93 to 1.41 lb) and the average char at 660 to 740 g (1.46 to 1.63 lb), The eagles occasionally brought larger individuals up to 2.2 kg (4.9 lb) for cods and up to 3.2 kg (7.1 lb) for chars respectively. In Norway, of 524 fish prey items,
30160-417: The length (but perhaps not the girth) of the truly massive bill of the Steller's sea eagle. The adult white-tailed eagle is a greyish mid-brown colour overall. The plumage is fairly uniform over most of the body and wings, but the upper wing coverts are typically somewhat paler. In the adult, the head, neck and upper breast have a distinctly paler appearance than the rest of the plumage and most often have
30368-456: The locals. Japanese seascapes are often integral to the identity of the residents and includes historical memories and spiritual engagements which need to be recognized and considered. The involvement of communities gives residents a stake in the issue, leading to a long-term solution which emphasizes sustainable resource usage and the empowerment of the communities. Conservation efforts are able to take into consideration cultural values rather than
30576-443: The major islands. An ancient DNA study published in 2015 characterized the rapidly evolving mitochondrial control region of one of these specimens. DNA from a ~3,500-year-old sea eagle skeleton found in a lava cave on Maui was sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that the Hawaiian eagle represents a distinct (>3% divergent) mtDNA lineage that is most closely related to extant white-tailed eagles. Based on fossil calibration,
30784-493: The mallard's flightlessness during eclipse plumage may result in eagles hunting them intensely only in late summer. Due to this mallards are usually a secondary prey species year around. The largest known representation of mallards in the diet were from Müritz National Park in Germany, where mallards were the third best represented prey species at 10.1% of 247 items and from Augustów Primeval Forest in Poland, where mallards were
30992-413: The mantle, back and upper wing. The head of the juvenile is normally a blackish-brown hue, somewhat darker and always more uniform than most of the other feathers. The juvenile's tail tends to be a washed out greyish-cream colour with messy blackish colour on the feather edges and on the tips. Some individual juveniles may exhibit some faint barring on the tail while others may appear largely dirty whitish on
31200-489: The monies tied to big-game hunting. In 1963, BaTawanga Chiefs and tribal hunter/adventurers in conjunction with the FPS founded Moremi National Park and Wildlife Refuge , the first area to be set aside by tribal people rather than governmental forces. Moremi National Park is home to a variety of wildlife, including lions, giraffes, elephants, buffalo, zebra, cheetahs and antelope, and covers an area of 3,000 square kilometers. Most of
31408-712: The most biodiverse portion of the Gran Chaco, an ecoregion shared with Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. In 1996, the Wildlife Conservation Society joined forces with CABI to institute wildlife and hunting monitoring programs in 23 Izoceño communities. The partnership combines traditional beliefs and local knowledge with the political and administrative tools needed to effectively manage habitats. The programs rely solely on voluntary participation by local hunters who perform self-monitoring techniques and keep records of their hunts. The information obtained by
31616-600: The most complete picture attainable. During winter, mammal prey can become more important in foods locally, as indicated in Scotland and shown in Norway and eastern Germany. As much as 41% of the diet can be made up of mammals, as was the case on the Kola Peninsula . There is evidence of strong seasonal shifts in food habits in several parts of the range, usually the largest portions of fish are caught during warmer months while birds and mammals are more important in
31824-411: The most diverse group in their prey spectrum. While hunting birds, this massive, relatively slow-flying eagle requires an element of surprise, with often a tactful use of cover or bright sunlight upon the approach from a nearby perch. For example, grey herons ( Ardea cinerea ) have been caught after an eagle used a low flight over turbulent water to ambush them. However, even with a stealthy attack,
32032-461: The northern part of the Caspian Sea and some central and southern parts of Kazakhstan, the white-tailed eagle may (or may not) live alongside the rarer, relatively poorly-known Pallas's fish eagle . The Pallas's juveniles are more distinctively whitish marked on the underwing. In flight or perched, the Pallas's fish eagle are usually markedly smaller and slighter than white-tailed eagles with
32240-697: The opening address: "Conservation as a National Duty". In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with John Muir , who had a very different view of conservation, and tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests. Working through the Sierra Club he founded, Muir succeeded in 1905 in having Congress transfer the Mariposa Grove and Yosemite Valley to the federal government. While Muir wanted nature preserved for its own sake, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make
32448-822: The prey spectrum. Due to the social inclination of dabbling ducks, they perhaps have the most success hunting isolated birds but they've also been taken from panic-stricken flocks as well. Despite the difficulty of taking them, dabbling ducks of unidentified species were found to be the main food of white-tailed eagles in Lake Baikal , where they comprised 51.8% of 199 prey items. In Fennoscandia , they are attracted to coastal waters during winter to attack large numbers of diving ducks including eiders, common goldeneye ( Bucephala clangula ), goosander ( Mergus merganser ) and red-breasted merganser ( Mergus serrator ), tufted ducks ( Aythya fuligula ) and scoters . Year around in Åland , 66.2% of 5161 food items were birds, while in
32656-620: The primary position in the diet. From 26 accumulated food studies for this species, prey remains and pellets show that about 48.5% of the diet is made up of birds, 39.95% by fish, 9.95% by mammals and 1.6% by other foods. In total, more than 300 prey species are known throughout the bird's range. However, based on studies of prey remains and pellets in laboratories from Greenland white-tailed eagles, birds were shown to be biased in both kinds of remains (pellets and prey remains) whereas in situ study and direct nest observation favour fish. Going on pellet/remains alone here in Greenland from 557 items in
32864-422: The rapidly increasing Danish population have found that when well-protected, they may regularly forage in habitats near significant humans populations, even in the outskirts of cities, and they can also successfully breed in such locations. White-tailed eagles spend much of their day perched on trees or crags, and may often not move for hours. Perhaps up to 90% of a day may be spent perched, especially if weather
33072-548: The reintroduced birds of Scotland of Norwegian stock) 4.98 kg (11.0 lb) in 39 males and 6.06 kg (13.4 lb) in 43 females. In comparison, the weight ranges for white-tailed eagles from Northeast China were claimed to be only 2.8 to 3.78 kg (6.2 to 8.3 lb) in males and 3.75 to 4.6 kg (8.3 to 10.1 lb) in females. The heaviest female white-tailed eagles can apparently weigh as much as 7.5 to 8 kg (17 to 18 lb) and even males can sometimes weigh up to 6.5 kg (14 lb), which would make
33280-580: The rise of popular opposition to public lands reform. Successful Democrats in the inland West and Alaska typically take more conservative positions on environmental issues than Democrats from the Coastal states. Conservatives drew on new organizational networks of think tanks, industry groups, and citizen-oriented organizations, and they began to deploy new strategies that affirmed the rights of individuals to their property, protection of extraction rights, to hunt and recreate, and to pursue happiness unencumbered by
33488-413: The sea eagles include Accipiters , harriers , chanting-goshawks and buteonines . Notably excluded from their relations are most other species referred to as "eagles", including booted eagles and snake and serpent eagles . The white-tailed eagle itself forms a species pair with the bald eagle . These diverged from other sea eagles at the beginning of the early Miocene (c. 10 mya ) at
33696-425: The second most numerous prey and made up 9.84% of 803 items. Taken more preferentially where they occur are common eiders. When hunting eiders, perhaps the largest of diving ducks at a mean weight of 2.06 kg (4.5 lb), white-tailed eagles frequently force the eider to dive repeatedly until it is exhausted and can be captured. When sitting on the nest, the female common eider will try to escape in flight but
33904-573: The second most often recorded prey species in both Müritz National Park (Germany), where they made up 16.42% of 247 prey items, and in Austria, where they made up 9.5% of 349 items. They will take many goslings during summer, as greylag goslings alone can comprise up 23% of the seasonal bird prey. Fully-grown greylag geese up to 4 kg (8.8 lb), especially infirm individuals are also taken in other seasons. White-tailed eagles are also known to attack and prey on other geese, ranging in size from
34112-584: The sexes are rarely this discrepant in standard measurements. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 552 to 695 mm (21.7 to 27.4 in) in males, averaging 606 and 645 mm (23.9 and 25.4 in) in European adults and juveniles, respectively, and 646.5 mm (25.45 in) in Greenland males. In females, the wing chord may measure 605 to 740 mm (23.8 to 29.1 in), averaging 668 and 685 mm (26.3 and 27.0 in) in European adults and juveniles, respectively, and 691.3 mm (27.22 in) in Greenland females. Adult tail length
34320-461: The short summers ), northern and western Iceland , and the reintroduced populations in some areas of England (re-established in 2019 ), Ireland and Scotland, particularly conserved coastal spots. In mainland Europe the range is expanding, with Europe's largest population breeding in coastal Norway (broadly), northern and southwestern Finland , eastern Sweden , broadly in Denmark , islands of
34528-417: The size of the bird". The male call is oft transcribed as gri-gri-gri or krick-krick-krick , while the female is a deeper gra-gra-gra-gra or krau-krau-krau-krau . These will increase in tempo and pitch, with about 15–30 calls in a sequence. Often pairs will duet during early spring, in flight or from a perch. When perched, the male calls kyi-kyi-kyi-kli-kliek-yak with the head thrown back and upwards in
34736-492: The slighter, more angular skull possessed by males. In disposition, the male juveniles are said to be more highly strung and higher voiced than their female counterparts. The head gradually grows paler over several years. The whitish mottling may increase on the upperparts, belly and especially on the underwing area later into their third year (considered the first subadult plumage) and subadult birds can appear fairly blotched with white but much individual variation in colouring
34944-535: The southwesterly direction to the shores of the Baltic Sea. One from Finland was recovered 520 km (320 mi) west in northern Norway and another was found as far south as Bulgaria. In more southerly areas, winter movements are drawn-out and irregular, with most mature pairs probably never leaving their nesting haunts year-around. Those that breed on inland waterways may migrate to sea coast. German juveniles usually do not travel far, with most recorded to travel less than 50 km (31 mi) from their nests and
35152-619: The species appear to take different migratory routes in autumn and spring, traveling from north-central Kamchatka thru the Kurile islands to Hokkaido in autumn, while in spring these eagles travel north through Sakhalin and the Okhotsk Coast . In the White Sea area, southward moments begin in September with most white-tailed eagles being gone by November but in mild winters some adults may remain behind. Some white-tailed eagles from
35360-423: The species live largely as scavengers, usually by coming across available carrion or watching for the activity of corvids , vultures or other raptors. White-tailed eagles in northeastern Germany were shown to hunt mostly from perches, in a "sit-and-wait" style, usually from a prominent tree perch. Like other sea eagles, they can only capture fish normally in the littoral zone , seldom hunting fish when they exceed
35568-512: The sun's eye.' The white-tailed eagle is a member of the genus Haliaeetus , a monophylic group comprising 11 living species, including the closely related Ichthyophaga fish eagles which may or may not be part of a separate genus. The latter group, comprising the lesser ( Haliaeetus humilis ) and the grey-headed fish eagle ( Haliaeetus ichthyaetus ), differ mostly in life history, being more fully devoted to fish eating and habituating wooded areas, especially in mountainous areas. In appearance
35776-404: The tail colour is similar at the various stages of development but the shape is more distinctive, especially the bolder wedge shape of the Steller's. The cinereous vulture ( Aegypius monachus ) may too be considered superficially similar to the juvenile white-tailed eagle, but it is considerably larger and longer-winged and possesses a more uniform and darker hue with conspicuous paler legs and
35984-399: The tail. The bill of juveniles is usually almost half dark brown from the tip and half dirty, dull yellowish or grey to the base, while the feet are usually a dirty yellow and the eyes are a darkish brown. Juvenile males may average a slightly darker brown plumage with less speckling on the upper body than like-age females; their head and neck plumes may also appear shorter, which can accentuate
36192-630: The three sites in different parts of Finland birds made up 51.1% of 3152 food items. In Germany, 52.4% of 1637 prey items were birds, mostly coots and unidentified waterfowl. More locally in Germany, in Müritz National Park the percentage of birds in the diet climbs to 65.73% Birds were strongly dominant in food records from Scotland, making up 73.53% of 1930 prey items, and in Kandalaksha Nature Reserve , where they comprised 75% of 523 prey items. While most of
36400-470: The time, and Evelyn advocated the importance of conserving the forests by managing the rate of depletion and ensuring that the cut down trees get replenished. The field developed during the 18th century, especially in Prussia and France where scientific forestry methods were developed. These methods were first applied rigorously in British India from the early 19th century. The government was interested in
36608-447: The tip in flight and the white-tailed eagle is well known to soar extensively. This species can be surprisingly maneuverable on the wing, usually during aerial displays or dogfights with other birds. These eagles may also maneuver by half-closing both wings or fully closing one wing. The white-tailed eagle is considered a vocal bird of prey during the breeding season, although some authors consider their voice "not loud or impressive for
36816-528: The tourists could get what was to be considered the full "wilderness experience". Another long-term supporter, partner, and inspiration to Roosevelt, Madison Grant , was a well known American eugenicist and conservationist. Grant worked alongside Roosevelt in the American conservation movement and was even secretary and president of the Boone and Crockett Club. In 1916, Grant published the book "The Passing of
37024-583: The two Ichthyaetus are slenderer, longer tailed and more uniform and grey in colour than typical sea eagles. This species pair may not be genetically distinct enough to warrant division into separate genera. Other than these Ichthyophaga -type species found farther north in Asia, Sanford's sea eagle ( Haliaeetus sanfordi ) of the Solomon Islands is the most atypical Haliaeetus , retaining rufous-brown plumage into adulthood (this particularly resembling
37232-535: The two species. The white-tailed eagle does have a significantly larger wing chord and average wingspan than the bald eagle, but the latter usually possesses a longer tail, resulting in a larger total length than the white-tailed eagle and a larger mean tarsal length. Size variation is generally a clinal trend and is normally quantified using standard measurements such as wing, tail and tarsal length, or body mass, rather than wingspan or total length. As expected for many widely distributed animals of varied lineages,
37440-704: The use shifting cultivation . Cleghorn's 1861 manual, The forests and gardens of South India , became the definitive work on the subject and was widely used by forest assistants in the subcontinent. In 1861, the Forest Department extended its remit into the Punjab . Sir Dietrich Brandis , a German forester, joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the teak forests of Pegu division in eastern Burma . During that time Burma's teak forests were controlled by militant Karen tribals. He introduced
37648-508: The use of forest produce and began managing the forests with measures to reduce the risk of wildfire in order to protect the "household" of nature, as it was then termed. This early ecological idea was in order to preserve the growth of delicate teak trees, which was an important resource for the Royal Navy . Concerns over teak depletion were raised as early as 1799 and 1805 when the Navy
37856-464: The water supply of San Francisco. Muir, leading the Sierra Club , declared that the valley must be preserved for the sake of its beauty: "No holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man." President Roosevelt put conservationist issues high on the national agenda. He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, Gifford Pinchot and
38064-469: The water to the nearest bank or shore. While this would leave them waterlogged, of course, the food yield from such a catch is obviously attractive. White-tailed eagles have been photographed doing this with a large fish successfully in Greenland and 35 such cases were reported in Norway alone. The most frequently recorded prey species in 18 food studies from across the range is the northern pike ( Esox lucius ), present in at least 16 of those studies. Pike
38272-525: The water's surface. Therefore, lurking benthic fish such as lumpsuckers are more vulnerable than many. Besides vulnerability, habitat, and prey behavior, fish body size may be a driver in the piscivore's dietary preferences. White-tailed eagles usually can take various fish from 0.1 to 8 kg (0.22 to 17.64 lb), but fish ranging 0.5 to 3 kg (1.1 to 6.6 lb) typically preferred. Similarly, studies have indicated that fish less than 20 cm (7.9 in) are taken infrequently, since they have
38480-517: The western part of its range, with eagles even breeding as far north as Greenland, Iceland and coastal Norway not moving at all for winter, but for some southward juvenile movements following dispersal. Juveniles overall are more migratory and dispersive and leave natal areas sooner, which is by August–September in northwestern Europe and return later, by March/April, than adults do. Few Norwegian juveniles, per banding studies, were recorded to travel any considerable distance. Extreme cases include one that
38688-622: The white-tailed eagle and tends to be more dashing in flight, which is usually done with a distinct dihedral. When perched, the golden eagle looks more sleek and compact than the rangier white-tailed eagle and tends to be a darker, richer hue of brown. Golden eagles have a much shorter neck, with a smaller head and bill and a longer, squarer tail. White wing patches of juveniles are also differently distributed in golden than juvenile white-tailed eagles. This eagle breeds in northern Europe and northern Asia. Their range extends to as far west as southern Greenland (prevented from breeding further north due to
38896-563: The white-tailed eagle conforms to Bergmann's rule in that more northerly birds tend to outsize those found relatively closer to the Equator . Average size also decreases from west to east across its distribution. The largest white-tailed eagles appear to be found in Greenland , these being slightly larger than those from Ireland , Scotland and Scandinavia and notably larger than eagles from central Europe , especially in proportions of
39104-400: The white-tailed eagle's prey spectrum are the family Cyprinidae , of which more than 20 species are known to be predated including the common bream. Others taken with some preference may include salmonids and cod and their allies , both families known to obtain relatively large body sizes and occasional habituate shallow water, as well as lumpsuckers because they are benthic. In Greenland,
39312-559: The white-tailed eagle's range. White-tailed eagles can hunt fish in fresh or saltwater as well as those that prefer brackish water areas. However, they are restricted to taking fish in extremely shallow water, often by preference in water less than 1 m (3.3 ft) deep. Ideal fishing areas can be found in areas such as the Baltic Sea, where low coasts and archipelagos often have relatively shallow water. While healthy, large fish are often taken as well, white-tailed eagles often take out sickly, injured, or already dead fish. In some cases,
39520-537: The wing area. Those from the southerly portions of the breeding range, such as Asia Minor (principally Turkey ), southern Kazakhstan , and Korea Bay , appear to be the smallest-bodied population but there have been limited measurements and published weights known for these extremely sporadic and rare Asian populations of eagle. Furthermore, weights of fully grown eagles from Greenland are not known. Unlike many accipitrids, juvenile white-tailed eagles (and seemingly other sea eagles as well) are often of similar weight to
39728-591: The wing at a height of at least 200 m (660 ft). In Norway, plunge-diving is considered rare. At times they will also fish by wading into shallows, often from shores or gravel islands. The species will at times variously follow fishing boats , readily exploits commercial fisheries , stocked lakes , carp ponds and the like, and scavenges dead fish or fish-offal in a wide range of situations. When it comes to non-fish prey, it has been said that white-tailed eagles often hunt by flying low over sea coast or lakeshore and attempt to surprise victims. However,
39936-574: The wing shape of a white-tailed eagle but are far smaller and shorter winged and never bear a protruding head. Similarly, the eastern imperial eagle ( Aquila heliaca ) may suggest a white-tailed eagle in its flat wing profile and relatively large head and neck but is also visibly smaller with far less broad wings and a relatively longer tail. Like all Clanga and Aquila , both greater spotted and eastern imperial eagles should be obviously distinct from white-tailed eagles by plumage characteristics. The golden eagle usually appears slightly smaller than
40144-444: The winter. Other established wintering areas are known in Europe in west-central Italy , northern Austria, fairly broadly in southern Slovakia and northern Hungary and a few protected pockets of Southeast Europe apart from the portions in the north and east where they still breed. Intermittent forms of vagrancy and migration (most from eagles that breed in or disperse from Russia) are known to occur in several areas of Turkey,
40352-407: The world. The consequent destruction of wildlife habitat has prompted the creation of conservation groups in other countries, some founded by local hunters who have witnessed declining wildlife populations first hand. Also, it was highly important for the conservation movement to solve problems of living conditions in the cities and the overpopulation of such places. The idea of incentive conservation
40560-441: The world. The only extant eagle species known to be more massive in mean bulk are the Steller's sea eagle ( Haliaeetus pelagicus ), the harpy eagle ( Harpia harpyja ) and the Philippine eagle ( Pithecophaga jefferyi ). The white-tailed eagle measures anywhere from 66 to 94 cm (26 to 37 in) in total length with a typical wingspan of 1.78 to 2.45 m (5 ft 10 in to 8 ft 0 in). This species may have
40768-400: The year near large bodies of open water, including coastal saltwater areas and inland freshwater lakes , wetlands, bogs and rivers . It requires old-growth trees or ample sea cliffs for nesting, and an abundant food supply of fish and birds (largely water birds ) amongst nearly any other available prey. Both a powerful apex predator and an opportunistic scavenger , it forms
40976-537: The young and adults of 5.1 kg (11 lb) common cranes ( Grus grus ). The largest waterbirds species preyed upon are swans, including mute ( Cygnus olor ), whooper ( Cygnus cygnus ) and Bewick's swans ( Cygnus columbianus bewickii ). While cygnets and disabled birds (either by natural conditions such as ice or by human hunters) are at the greatest risk for eagle predation, white-tailed eagles have preyed upon even healthy adult swans up to 10 kg (22 lb). They are reported to have attacked and eaten
41184-412: Was also a slaveholder who also included many racist tales in his books. Despite his views of racial inequality, Audubon did find black and Indigenous people to be scientifically useful, often using their local knowledge in his books and relying on them to collect specimens for him. The ideology of the conservation movement in Germany paralleled that of the U.S. and England. Early German naturalists of
41392-536: Was comprised by fish, led by the common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ) and Prussian carp ( Carassius gibelio ). Similarly, in Podlaskie Voivodeship , Poland 55% of all the identified fish species brought to the nest were common carps, up to 2.1 kg (4.6 lb) in weight with the mean mass of 493 g (1.087 lb). However, there are reports that white-tailed eagles managed to catch extreme sizes of carps, up to 15 kg (33 lb)in weight. White-tailed eagles are known to prey on about 170 species of bird,
41600-420: Was deeply committed to conserving natural resources. He encouraged the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 sq mi; 930,000 km ) under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more federal land for national parks and nature preserves than all of his predecessors combined. Roosevelt established
41808-469: Was found 720 km (450 mi) south of its nest near Karlstad , Sweden, another set of four colour-marked first-year juveniles were also recorded to turn up in southern Sweden but one was found down to the Wadden Sea in the Netherlands and it is likely that trickling down numbers of Norwegian post-dispersal juveniles have gone onto form much of the known Dutch white-tailed eagle population. In contrast, young from Finland and Sweden tend to distribute to
42016-419: Was found to affect breeding white-tailed eagles less so than it seemed to affect breeding black storks ( Ciconia nigra ). On the other hand, from studying wintering white-tailed eagles in partially or heavily disturbed wetlands in parts of the Netherlands shows that such areas cannot support the eagles for any long-term period and may only be visited for a day or two by individual eagles. Conversely, reviews of
42224-662: Was found to be the main prey species in both the Baltic Sea and Lapland in Sweden, at three breeding locations in Finland, in two studies from Germany, and in Belarus . The maximum representation of pike known was in Lapland, where they comprised 38.2% of 809 food items. While an average mature weight for a pike is around 1.4 kg (3.1 lb), white-tailed eagles often attack larger-sized pike, with an estimated average weight range of 2 to 5 kg (4.4 to 11.0 lb). The largest pike taken by white-tailed eagles were even estimated to weigh around 12 to 15 kg (26 to 33 lb). The next most widely reported fish prey species
42432-399: Was found with the disembodied feet of a white-tailed eagle still embedded in its back, presumed the eagle drowned after being overpowered and drug under only to rot off, leaving only feet. Since they do not have the waterproofing oils on the plumage of the more accomplished raptorial diver, the osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ), white-tailed eagles prefer not to get their feathers wet as it can take
42640-490: Was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book Walden , which argued that people should become intimately close with nature. The ideas of Sir Brandis , Sir William P.D. Schlich and Carl A. Schenck were also very influential— Gifford Pinchot , the first chief of the USDA Forest Service , relied heavily upon Brandis' advice for introducing professional forest management in
42848-480: Was the first case of state management of forests in the world. These local attempts gradually received more attention by the British government as the unregulated felling of trees continued unabated. In 1850, the British Association in Edinburgh formed a committee to study forest destruction at the behest of Hugh Cleghorn a pioneer in the nascent conservation movement. He had become interested in forest conservation in Mysore in 1847 and gave several lectures at
43056-399: Was to save endangered species from extinction. But we have failed completely; we haven't managed to save a single one. If only we had put all that money into condoms, we might have done some good. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of human impact on
43264-555: Was undergoing a massive expansion during the Napoleonic Wars ; this pressure led to the first formal conservation Act, which prohibited the felling of small teak trees. The first forestry officer was appointed in 1806 to regulate and preserve the trees necessary for shipbuilding. This promising start received a setback in the 1820s and 30s, when laissez-faire economics and complaints from private landowners brought these early conservation attempts to an end. In 1837, American poet George Pope Morris published "Woodman, Spare that Tree!",
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