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88-723: Sefer may refer to: Sefer (Hebrew) , a term for a book People with the surname [ edit ] Franjo Šefer (born 1905), Yugoslav tennis player Bela Šefer , Yugoslav footballer playing in 1924 People with the forename [ edit ] Sefer Reis , Turkish privateer and Ottoman admiral Sefer Turan , Turkish journalist and author Hoca Sefer , 15th-century Ottoman captain Sefer Daja (1897-1977), person from Tirana, Albania See also [ edit ] All pages with titles beginning with Sefer All pages with titles containing Sefer Topics referred to by

176-514: A commentary on Shulchan Aruch by Rabbi Moshe Isserles (the Rema) is generally printed together with the Shulchan Aruch in the center of the page, albeit in a different font, with the commentaries of Turei Zahav of Rabbi David HaLevi Segal and Magen Avraham of Rabbi Avraham Gombiner or Siftei Kohen of Rabbi Shabbatai HaKohen printed in the margins. Major commentaries written on

264-698: A commentary on the entire Tanakh written by Rashi . Both are traditionally printed in the Chumash alongside the biblical text. Other commentaries that are sometimes printed alongside the text in the Chumash are commentaries by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher and Rabbi Shabbethai Bass (the Siftei Chachamim ). Commentaries traditionally printed alongside the Nakh are Rashi as well as Metzudat David and Metzudat Zion by Rabbi David Altschuler . In addition to

352-562: A group—if it existed—was only a small minority in early Israel, even though their story came to be claimed by all." Scholars believe Psalm 45 could have northern origins since it refers to a king marrying a foreign princess, a policy of the Omrides . Some psalms may have originated from the shrine in the northern city of Dan. These are the Sons of Korah psalms, Psalm 29 , and Psalm 68 . The city of Dan probably became an Israelite city during

440-525: A people who lived within the cultural and religious context of the ancient Near East . The religions of the ancient Near East were polytheistic , but the Israelites rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism. Biblical scholar Christine Hayes writes that the Hebrew Bible was "the record of [the Israelites'] religious and cultural revolution". According to biblical scholar John Barton , " YHWH

528-592: A rejection of God's kingship; nevertheless, God permits it, and Saul of the tribe of Benjamin is anointed king. This inaugurates the united monarchy of the Kingdom of Israel . An officer in Saul's army named David achieves great militarily success. Saul tries to kill him out of jealousy, but David successfully escapes (1 Samuel 16–29). After Saul dies fighting the Philistines ( 1 Samuel 31 ; 2 Chronicles 10 ),

616-459: A six-volume work expounding on Orach Chayim , was published between 1884 and 1907 and is followed by most Litvishe Jews almost exclusively. Comparative Sephardic works are Kaf HaChaim and Yalkut Yosef . The Ben Ish Hai , by Rabbi Yosef Hayyim , is based on the sermons he delivered, and therefore includes halakha as well as Kabbalah and explanations on the Torah. Many Halakhic works of

704-577: A special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry . Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ"ת , which is also the Hebrew for " truth "). These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However,

792-685: Is Hebrew for "Holy Books", and includes all books that are considered holy in Rabbinic Judaism . This includes all Torah literature as well as Jewish prayer books . Among Orthodox Jews the word ספר ‎ sefer (plural ספרים ‎ s'farim ) is used for books of the Tanakh , the Oral Torah ( Mishnah and Talmud ) or any work of rabbinic literature . Works unrelated to Torah study are rarely called sefer by English-speaking Orthodox Jews. Among Hebrew-speaking Ashkenazi Jews ,

880-616: Is a collective term for the three sections of the Bible, those being the Torah , the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. Separately, the Nevi'im and Ketuvim are also called Nakh . Numerous commentaries on the Tanakh have been written and published over the last thousand years. The most notable ones are Targum Onkelos , a translation of the Torah into Judeo-Aramaic , written by Onkelos ; and Rashi ,

968-582: Is a halakhic work, Mishneh Torah , also known as the Yad HaChazakah or simply as the Rambam , which is fourteen volumes long. Although when it was first written, Mishne Torah received much backlash from contemporary Jewish leaders, it soon became recognized by world Jewry as authentic Torah literature, with many commentaries written on it, including the Ohr Somayach , Tzofnath Paneach and

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1056-474: Is also printed in book form, known as a Chumash (and in some cases a tikkun ). The term "Torah" can also include the Nevi'im and Ketuvim ) and rabbinic texts, and such books are therefore sometimes also referred to as "Torah literature" ( Hebrew : ספרות תורנית , romanized :  Sifrut Toranit ). The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, also known as Torah Shebikhtav ("Written " as opposed to "Oral" Torah)

1144-606: Is closest to the Urtext is debated. There are many similarities between the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament . The Protestant Old Testament has the same books as the Hebrew Bible, but the books are arranged in different orders. The Catholic , Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , and Assyrian churches include the Deuterocanonical books , which are not included in certain versions of

1232-733: Is consistently presented throughout the [Hebrew Scriptures] as the God who created the world, and as the only God with whom Israel is to be concerned". This special relationship between God and Israel is described in terms of covenant . As part of the covenant, God gives his people the Promised Land as an eternal possession. The God of the covenant is also a God of redemption . God liberates his people from Egypt and continually intervenes to save them from their enemies. The Tanakh imposes ethical requirements , including social justice and ritual purity (see Tumah and taharah ) . The Tanakh forbids

1320-563: Is credited as the author of at least 73 of the Biblical Psalms . His son, Solomon , is identified as the author of Book of Proverbs , Ecclesiastes , and Song of Solomon . The Hebrew Bible describes their reigns as a golden age when Israel flourished both culturally and militarily. However, there is no archeological evidence for this, and it is most likely a "retrospective extrapolation" of conditions under King Jeroboam II ( r.  781–742 BCE). Modern scholars believe that

1408-528: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Sefer (Hebrew) Sifrei Kodesh ( Hebrew : ספרי קודש , lit.   'Holy books'), commonly referred to as sefarim ( Hebrew : ספרים , lit.   'books'), or in its singular form, sefer , are books of Jewish religious literature and are viewed by religious Jews as sacred. These are generally works of Torah literature, i.e. Tanakh and all works that expound on it, including

1496-495: Is highly likely that extensive oral transmission of proverbs, stories, and songs took place during this period", and these may have been included in the Hebrew Bible. Elements of Genesis 12–50, which describes the patriarchal age , and the Book of Exodus may reflect oral traditions . In these stories, Israelite ancestors such as Jacob and Moses use trickery and deception to survive and thrive. King David ( c.  1000 BCE )

1584-672: Is known as the Mishnah (the Zohar , a book chronicling the hidden parts of the Torah, was written down as well around this time by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai ). Three hundred years later the Talmud was written, expounding on the Mishnah. For generations, the Oral Torah had been transmitted by word of mouth, largely with the help of the Sanhedrin , the leading Jewish authority. However, after

1672-524: Is mentioned in the Midrash Koheleth 12:12: Whoever brings together in his house more than twenty four books brings confusion . The original writing system of the Hebrew text was an abjad : consonants written with some applied vowel letters ( " matres lectionis " ). During the early Middle Ages , scholars known as the Masoretes created a single formalized system of vocalization . This

1760-413: Is roughly 2000. The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books, counting as one book each 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel , 1 Kings and 2 Kings , 1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles , and Ezra–Nehemiah . The Twelve Minor Prophets ( תרי עשר ) are also counted as a single book. In Hebrew, the books are often referred to by their prominent first words . The Torah ( תּוֹרָה , literally "teaching") is also known as

1848-436: Is the proper way to approach God. "Serve God with gladness!" "Taste and see that God is good!" "For me the closeness of God is best!"... The Hasidic masters used the language of Kabbalah and to a lesser extent that of Jewish philosophy, to teach the average individual how he could experience God. The first Hasidic book to be published, Toldot Yaakov Yosef by Rabbi Yaakov Yosef of Pollonye and interlaced with quotations from

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1936-644: The Harvard Theological Review and conservative Protestant journals like the Bibliotheca Sacra and the Westminster Theological Journal , suggests that authors "be aware of the connotations of alternative expressions such as ... Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either. "Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to

2024-881: The Kehillos Yaakov , the Shaarei Yosher , and the Birkat Shmuel , as well as many published shiurim (classes) given on the Talmud, including those of Rabbi Nochum Partzovitz ( Chiddushei Reb Nochum and Shiurei Reb Nochum ), Rabbi Shmuel Rozovsky ( Shiurei Reb Shmuel and Chiddushei Reb Shmuel ), Rabbi Reuven Grozovsky ( Chiddushei Rev Reuven ), Rabbi Elchonon Wasserman ( Kovetz Shiurim and Kovetz He'aros ), Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik ( Chiddushei HaGrach al HaShas ), Rabbi Naftoli Trop ( Chiddushei HaGranat ), and Rabbi Aryeh Leib Malin ( Chiddushei Reb Aryeh Leib ). The term Kabbalah refers to

2112-616: The Sefer Yetzirah , which some say was written by Abraham ; and the Book of Enoch , which some say was written by Enoch . As stated earlier, Jewish belief is that the Pentateuch is of Mosaic authorship , meaning that it was dictated by God to Moses . Later writings, the Nevi'im and Ketuvim , were, according to tradition, written by Jewish prophets. For over a thousand years, these books, known as Tanakh , were more or less

2200-808: The Hebrew and Aramaic 24 books that they considered authoritative. The Hellenized Greek-speaking Jews of Alexandria produced a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible called "the Septuagint ", that included books later identified as the Apocrypha , while the Samaritans produced their own edition of the Torah, the Samaritan Pentateuch . According to the Dutch–Israeli biblical scholar and linguist Emanuel Tov , professor of Bible Studies at

2288-732: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , both of these ancient editions of the Hebrew Bible differ significantly from the medieval Masoretic Text. In addition to the Masoretic Text, modern biblical scholars seeking to understand the history of the Hebrew Bible use a range of sources. These include the Septuagint, the Syriac language Peshitta translation, the Samaritan Pentateuch , the Dead Sea Scrolls collection,

2376-717: The Masoretes added vowel markings to the text to ensure accuracy. Rabbi and Talmudic scholar Louis Ginzberg wrote in Legends of the Jews , published in 1909, that the twenty-four book canon was fixed by Ezra and the scribes in the Second Temple period . According to the Talmud , much of the Tanakh was compiled by the men of the Great Assembly ( Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah ), a task completed in 450  BCE, and it has remained unchanged ever since. The 24-book canon

2464-518: The Mikraot Gedolot are the Meam Loez , Malbim , Ha'amek Davar , Torah Temimah , and The Hirsch Chumash . Aside from the Bible, there were several writings of Jewish religious significance in ancient times , known today as " the outer books ". There are some other writings however that most agree were written more recently that have been claimed to be older. These include

2552-497: The Mishnah , Midrash ( Halakha , Aggadah ), Talmud , and all works of Musar , Hasidism , Kabbalah , or machshavah ("Jewish Thought"). Historically, sifrei kodesh were generally written in Hebrew with some in Judeo-Aramaic or Arabic , although in recent years, thousands of titles in other languages, most notably English, were published. An alternative spelling for 'sefarim' is seforim . The term Sifrei Kodesh

2640-730: The Sefer HaHalakhot of Rabbi Yitzchak Alfasi , both of which are often published in the back of the Talmud; and the Arba'ah Turim , also known as the Tur , of Rabbi Yaakov ben Asher , a four volume work written in attempt to organize Jewish law. Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon , known as Maimonides or as the Rambam, was a Rishon who lived in Spain, Morocco, and Egypt in the second half of the twelfth century. The author of several books, his most famous

2728-530: The Targum Onkelos , and quotations from rabbinic manuscripts . These sources may be older than the Masoretic Text in some cases and often differ from it. These differences have given rise to the theory that yet another text, an Urtext of the Hebrew Bible, once existed and is the source of the versions extant today. However, such an Urtext has never been found, and which of the three commonly known versions (Septuagint, Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch)

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2816-672: The Tosefta . A collection of statements not included in the Mishnah was compiled by Rabbi Oshiya and Bar Kappara , known as Baraitot . Circa 349, the Sanhedrin, exiled from Jerusalem and sitting in Tiberias , wrote the Jerusalem Talmud , a mammoth work compiling the teachings of the rabbis of the recent generations, known as Amoraim , as they expounded on the Mishnah. It is largely attributed to Rabbi Yochanan . However,

2904-644: The destruction of the Second Temple , the Sanhedrin had been uprooted and much of the Oral Torah was being forgotten. Therefore, c. 188 CE, Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi , head of the exiled Sanhedrin, compiled the Mishnah , i.e. the teachings of the Oral Torah. Since the Maccabean Revolt however, much had already been lost, which led to many disagreements among the scholars, the Tannaim . Therefore,

2992-542: The patriarchs : Abraham , his son Isaac , and grandson Jacob . God promises Abraham and his descendants blessing and land. The covenant God makes with Abraham is signified by male circumcision . The children of Jacob become the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel . Jacob's son Joseph is sold into slavery by his brothers, but he becomes a powerful man in Egypt. During a famine, Jacob and his family settle in Egypt. Jacob's descendants lived in Egypt for 430 years. After

3080-412: The "Pentateuch", or as the "Five Books of Moses". Printed versions (rather than scrolls) of the Torah are often called Chamisha Chumshei Torah ( חמישה חומשי תורה "Five fifth-sections of the Torah") and informally as Chumash . Nevi'im ( נְבִיאִים Nəḇīʾīm , "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim . This division includes the books which cover

3168-507: The "hidden parts of the Torah," often described as "Jewish metaphysics ." Kabbalistic works show how every physical thing is a metaphor for a spiritual concept. The primary Kabbalistic work, the Zohar, was written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai , a Tanna who lived in the second century, although it was lost for many years. However, it was discovered in Spain in the thirteenth century and transcribed by hand numerous times, leading to changes between

3256-584: The 5th century BCE. This is suggested by Ezra 7 :6, which describes Ezra as "a scribe skilled in the law ( torah ) of Moses that the Lord the God of Israel had given". The Nevi'im had gained canonical status by the 2nd century BCE. There are references to the "Law and the Prophets" in the Book of Sirach , the Dead Sea Scrolls , and the New Testament . The Book of Daniel, written c.  164 BCE ,

3344-644: The Acharonim are responsa. These include the Igros Moshe of Rabbi Moshe Feinstein , the Noda B'Yehudah of Rabbi Yechezkel Landau , She'eilot U'teshuvot Rabbi Akiva Eiger of Rabbi Akiva Eiger , Beis HaLevi by Rabbi Yosef Dov Soloveitchik , Shevet HaLevi of Rabbi Shmuel Wosner , and Tzitz Eliezer of Rabbi Eliezer Waldenberg . Another notable Halakhic work is the Chofetz Chaim , dealing with

3432-538: The Baal Shem Tov, was published in 1780. Later Hasidic works include Noam Elimelech by Rabbi Elimelech of Lizensk , Bnei Yissaschar by Rabbi Tzvi Elimelech Spira , Kedushat Levi by Rabbi Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev , and Tanya by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi . While the study of musar (spiritual and interpersonal self-improvement) always existed in Jewish circles, it became more widespread with

3520-530: The Exodus , the Israelites wander in the wilderness for 40 years. God gives the Israelites the Law of Moses to guide their behavior. The law includes rules for both religious ritual and ethics (see Ethics in the Bible ) . This moral code requires justice and care for the poor, widows, and orphans. The biblical story affirms God's unconditional love for his people, but he still punishes them when they fail to live by

3608-550: The Hebrew Bible resulting from centuries of hand-copying. Scribes introduced thousands of minor changes to the biblical texts. Sometimes, these changes were by accident. At other times, scribes intentionally added clarifications or theological material. In the Middle Ages, Jewish scribes produced the Masoretic Text , which became the authoritative version of the Tanakh. Ancient Hebrew was written without vowels, but

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3696-410: The Hebrew Bible were composed and edited in stages over several hundred years. According to biblical scholar John J. Collins , "It now seems clear that all the Hebrew Bible received its final shape in the postexilic, or Second Temple, period." Traditionally, Moses was considered the author of the Torah, and this part of the Tanakh achieved authoritative or canonical status first, possibly as early as

3784-574: The Hebrew Bible. In Islam , the Tawrat ( Arabic : توراة ) is identified not only with the Pentateuch (the five books of Moses ), but also with the other books of the Hebrew Bible. Tanakh is an acronym , made from the first Hebrew letter of each of the Masoretic Text 's three traditional divisions: Torah (literally 'Instruction' or 'Law'), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings)—hence TaNaKh. The three-part division reflected in

3872-671: The Hebrew canon, but modern scholars believe there was no such authoritative council of rabbis. Between 70 and 100 CE, rabbis debated whether certain books "make the hands unclean" (meaning the books are holy and should be considered scripture), and references to fixed numbers of canonical books appear. There were several criteria for inclusion. Books had to be older than the 4th century BCE or attributed to an author who had lived before that period. The original language had to be Hebrew, and books had to be widely used. Many books considered scripture by certain Jewish communities were excluded during this time. There are various textual variants in

3960-409: The Hebrew scriptures. In modern spoken Hebrew , they are interchangeable. Many biblical studies scholars advocate use of the term Hebrew Bible (or Hebrew Scriptures ) as a substitute for less-neutral terms with Jewish or Christian connotations (e.g., Tanakh or Old Testament ). The Society of Biblical Literature 's Handbook of Style , which is the standard for major academic journals like

4048-477: The Jacob cycle must be older than the time of King Josiah of Judah ( r.  640 – 609 BCE ), who pushed for the centralization of worship at Jerusalem. The story of Moses and the Exodus appears to also originate in the north. It existed as a self-contained story in its oral and earliest written forms, but it was connected to the patriarchal stories during the exile or post-exile periods. The account of Moses's birth ( Exodus 2 ) shows similarities to

4136-450: The Jerusalem Talmud is generally overshadowed by the Babylonian Talmud , a similar yet much larger work, compiling the teachings of the Amoraim , and completed in Babylonia circa 500. The teachings were largely legalistic in nature, stating halakha . There were other teachings, known as aggadah , which incorporates narratives, parables, practical advice, remedies, and insights. The Babylonian Talmud, attributed to Rav Ashi and Ravina ,

4224-437: The Jews of the Second Temple era and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day. The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in Aramaic (mostly in the books of Daniel and Ezra ), written and printed in Aramaic square-script , which was adopted as the Hebrew alphabet after the Babylonian exile . The Tanakh includes a variety of genres, including narratives of events set in

4312-469: The Mishnah includes their differing opinions. As Maimonides wrote in the introduction to his Mishneh Torah : [Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi] gathered together all the traditions, enactments, interpretations, and expositions of every position of the Torah, that either came down to Moses, our teacher , or had been deduced by the courts in successive generations . A similar project was carried out by Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba and his student Rabbi Hoshaiah , known as

4400-490: The Rambam, titled Even HaEzel . Likely the most monumental Halakhic work ever written, Rabbi Yoseph Karo completed the Shulchan Aruch (or Code of Jewish Law , sometimes shortened to Codes ) in 1565 in Safed . It was a condensation of his previous Halakhic work, Beit Yosef , which was written as commentary on the Arba'ah Turim . Like the Tur , it was divided into four sections: Orach Chayim , Yoreh De'ah , Even Ha'ezer , and Choshen Mishpat . The Mapah ,

4488-477: The Shulchan Aruch include the Ketzos Hachoshen , Avnei Milu'im , and the Nesivos Hamishpat . Many later Halakhic works were based on Shulchan Aruch . These include Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi 's Shulchan Aruch HaRav , Rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein 's Aruch HaShulchan , Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried 's Kitzur Shulchan Aruch , and Rabbi Avraham Danzig 's Chayei Adam and Chochmas Adam (only on Orach Chayim and Yoreh De'ah ). Mishnah Berurah ,

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4576-489: The Talmud. Rabbi Moshe Shapiro, rabbi of Slavuta , Ukraine and owner of a printing press, published the Slavita Shas in the early 1800s. In 1886, the Romm Publishing House in Vilnius published the Vilna Shas , which has since been reprinted and remains the classic print of the Talmud. In the past years, there have been numerous commentaries written on the Talmud. While the most commonly referenced commentaries are those of Rashi and Tosafot, and as mentioned, are printed in

4664-406: The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them; two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic . The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Talmud gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles. This order

4752-466: The Torah to Moses . In later Biblical texts, such as Daniel 9:11 and Ezra 3:2, it is referred to as the " Torah (Law) of Moses ". However, the Torah itself credits Moses with writing only some specific sections. According to scholars , Moses would have lived in the 2nd millennium BCE , but this was before the development of Hebrew writing. The Torah is dated to the 1st millennium BCE after Israel and Judah had already developed as states. Nevertheless, "it

4840-411: The acronym Tanakh is well attested in the rabbinic literature . During that period, however, Tanakh was not used. Instead, the proper title was Mikra (or Miqra , מקרא, meaning reading or that which is read ) because the biblical texts were read publicly. The acronym 'Tanakh' is first recorded in the medieval era. Mikra continues to be used in Hebrew to this day, alongside Tanakh, to refer to

4928-477: The ancient Israelites mostly originated from within Canaan. Their material culture was closely related to their Canaanite neighbors, and Hebrew was a Canaanite dialect . Archaeological evidence indicates Israel began as loosely organized tribal villages in the hill country of modern-day Israel c.  1250  – c.  1000 BCE . During crises, these tribes formed temporary alliances. The Book of Judges , written c.  600 BCE (around 500 years after

5016-402: The beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system. The five relatively short books of the Song of Songs , Ruth , Lamentations , Ecclesiastes , and Esther are collectively known as the Ḥamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). In many Jewish communities, these books are read aloud in the synagogue on particular occasions, the occasion listed below in parentheses. Besides

5104-512: The birth of Sargon of Akkad , which suggests Neo-Assyrian influence sometime after 722 BCE. While the Moses story is set in Egypt, it is used to tell both an anti-Assyrian and anti-imperial message, all while appropriating Assyrian story patterns. David M. Carr notes the possibility of an early oral tradition for the Exodus story: "To be sure, there may have been a 'Moses group,' themselves of Canaanite extraction, who experienced slavery and liberation from Egypt, but most scholars believe that such

5192-414: The classic printings of Tanakh which don't include many more commentaries than Rashi and Targum Onkelos , there is the Mikraot Gedolot edition which was first published in the early sixteenth century. Commentaries in the Mikraot Gedolot on the Torah are generally those of Abraham ibn Ezra ( Sefer ha-Yashar ), Nachmanides , Rabbi Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz (the Keli Yakar ), Chaim ibn Attar , and

5280-418: The content of the Ketuvim remained fluid until the canonization process was completed in the 2nd-century CE. There is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars argue that it was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty , while others argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later. The speculated late-1st-century Council of Jamnia was once credited with fixing

5368-511: The covenant. God leads Israel into the Promised Land of Canaan , which they conquer after five years. For the next 470 years, the Israelites were led by judges . In time, a new enemy emerged called the Philistines . They continued to trouble Israel when the prophet Samuel was judge (1 Samuel 4:1–7:1). When Samuel grew old, the people requested that he choose a king because Samuel's sons were corrupt and they wanted to be like other nations ( 1 Samuel 8 ). The Tanakh presents this negatively as

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5456-404: The differentiation between books related to Torah study and other books is made by referring to the former with traditional Ashkenazi pronunciation (SEY-fur) and to the latter with Modern Hebrew pronunciation (SEF-fer). The term "Torah" has two meanings. It can refer solely to the Five Books of Moses . Traditionally, it is written on a parchment scroll, known as a Sefer Torah , although it

5544-430: The events it describes), portrays Israel as a grouping of decentralized tribes, and the Song of Deborah in Judges 5 may reflect older oral traditions. It features archaic elements of Hebrew and a tribal list that identifies Israel exclusively with the northern tribes. By the 9th or 8th centuries BCE, the scribal culture of Samaria and Judah was sufficiently developed to produce biblical texts. The Kingdom of Samaria

5632-432: The exploitation of widows, orphans, and other vulnerable groups. In addition, the Tanakh condemns murder, theft, bribery, corruption, deceitful trading, adultery, incest, bestiality, and homosexual acts. Another theme of the Tanakh is theodicy , showing that God is just even though evil and suffering are present in the world. The Tanakh begins with the Genesis creation narrative . Genesis 12–50 traces Israelite origins to

5720-408: The future. A prophet might also describe and interpret visions. The Book of Daniel is the only book in the Tanakh usually described as apocalyptic literature . However, other books or parts of books have been called proto-apocalyptic, such as Isaiah 24–27, Joel, and Zechariah 9–14. A central theme throughout the Tanakh is monotheism , worshiping one God . The Tanakh was created by the Israelites ,

5808-456: The kingdom is divided between his son Eshbaal and David (David ruled his tribe of Judah and Eshbaal ruled the rest). After Eshbaal's assassination, David was anointed king over all of Israel ( 2 Samuel 2–5). David captures the Jebusite city of Jerusalem ( 2 Samuel 5 :6–7) and makes it his capital. Jerusalem's location between Judah in the southern hills and the northern Israelite tribes made it an ideal location from which to rule over all

5896-444: The laws of proper speech, and written by Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan . Also known as chasidus , Hasidism is an Orthodox Jewish movement originating in Eastern Europe in the mid-eighteenth century, founded by the Baal Shem Tov . Describing Hasidic thought, Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan writes: In the teachings of Hasidic masters, one comes across a new way of approaching God and the spiritual. Neither Kabbalah nor philosophy, but experience

5984-403: The leaders of Jewry in the Early Middle Ages primarily in Babylonia , were not prolific writers like later generations. However, among their few writings is the famed Sheiltot de-Rav Ahai written by Rabbi Achai Gaon . The Rishonim , the leading rabbis of the Middle Ages after the Geonim, have left many written Halakhic works, including the Piskei HaRosh of Rabbi Asher ben Yechiel and

6072-399: The margins of the Talmud, other famous commentaries (which often are recognized as Halakhic works as well) include the Piskei HaRosh , Shitah Mekubetzet , Maharsha (the Piskei Halachot and Piskei Aggadot ), the Pnei Yehoshua , the Mordechai , the Chiddushia HaRitva , the Meiri , the Maharshal 's Chochmas Shlomo and Yam Shel Shlomo , the Meir Einei Chachmamim ,

6160-411: The modern Hebrew Bible used in Rabbinic Judaism is the Masoretic Text (7th to 10th century CE), which consists of 24 books, divided into chapters and pesuqim (verses). The Hebrew Bible developed during the Second Temple Period , as the Jews decided which religious texts were of divine origin; the Masoretic Text , compiled by the Jewish scribes and scholars of the Early Middle Ages , comprises

6248-450: The past. The Torah ( Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers and Deuteronomy ) contains legal material. The Book of Psalms is a collection of hymns, but songs are included elsewhere in the Tanakh, such as Exodus 15, 1 Samuel 2, and Jonah 2. Books such as Proverbs and Ecclesiastes are examples of wisdom literature . Other books are examples of prophecy . In the prophetic books, a prophet denounces evil or predicts what God will do in

6336-602: The reign of King Jeroboam II (781–742   BCE). Before then, it belonged to Aram , and Psalm 20 is nearly identical to an Aramaic psalm found in the 4th century BCE Papyrus Amherst 63 . The author of the Books of Kings likely lived in Jerusalem. The text shows a clear bias favoring Judah, where God's worship was centralized in Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Samaria is portrayed as a godless breakaway region whose rulers refuse to worship at Jerusalem. The books that make up

6424-574: The revelation at Sinai , since it is impossible to read the original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses. The combination of a text ( מקרא mikra ), pronunciation ( ניקוד niqqud ) and cantillation ( טעמים te`amim ) enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning and the nuances in sentence flow of the text. The number of distinct words in the Hebrew Bible is 8,679, of which 1,480 are hapax legomena , words or expressions that occur only once. The number of distinct Semitic roots , on which many of these biblical words are based,

6512-464: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Sefer . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sefer&oldid=1059632605 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with given-name-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description

6600-418: The sole writings of Judaism. However, there was much material that was not written down, and instead memorized. Known as the Oral Torah , it includes over five hundreds laws learned out from Talmudical hermeneutics as well as the laws given to Moses at Sinai ( Hebrew : הלכה למשה מסיני , romanized :  Halakhah leMoshe miSinai ). However, circa 200 C.E., much of the Oral Torah was written down, and

6688-779: The start of Musar movement in the nineteenth century. The classic musar library of Shaarei Teshuvah , Chovot HaLevavot , Maalot HaMiddot , Orchot Tzaddikim , Mesillat Yesharim , and Derech Hashem was later expanded with the writings of rabbis and mashgiachs after the Musar movement began. Later works include Rabbi Yisrael Salanter 's Or Yisrael , Rabbi Simcha Zissel Ziv 's Chochmah U'Mussar , Rabbi Yosef Yozel Horowitz 's Madreigas HaAdam , Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler 's Michtav MeEliyahu , Rabbi Yeruchom Levovitz 's Daas Chochmah U'Mussar and Daas Torah , Rabbi Chaim Shmuelevitz 's Sichos Musar , and Rabbi Shlomo Wolbe 's Alei Shur . Hebrew Bible The authoritative form of

6776-665: The texts. Between 1558 and 1560, it was printed in Mantua based on ten different manuscripts in order to glean the correct text. A separate printing took place in Cremona around the same time, using only six manuscripts, leading to differences in the two printings. The Zohar was largely expounded on by Rabbi Yitzchak Luria (known as the Arizal) and his teachings were summarized in the book Etz Chaim by his chief student, Rabbi Chaim Vital . Jewish law, known in Hebrew as Halakha ,

6864-460: The three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel , Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles . Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics: their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e. the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion);

6952-715: The time from the entrance of the Israelites into the Land of Israel until the Babylonian captivity of Judah (the "period of prophecy" ). Their distribution is not chronological, but substantive. The Former Prophets ( נביאים ראשונים Nevi'im Rishonim ): The Latter Prophets ( נביאים אחרונים Nevi'im Aharonim ): The Twelve Minor Prophets ( תרי עשר , Trei Asar , "The Twelve"), which are considered one book: Kəṯūḇīm ( כְּתוּבִים , "Writings") consists of eleven books. In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in

7040-471: The translation and commentary attributed to Rabbi Jonathan ben Uzziel , known as Targum Pseudo-Jonathan , all in addition to Rashi and Targum Onkelos ; while commentaries on Nakh are those of Rashi, Rabbi David Altschuler , Rabbi David Kimhi , Rabbi Joseph Kara , and on some volumes, Rabbi Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno (the Sforno or Sepornu ). Among the numerous commentaries of Tanakh not published in

7128-691: The tribes. He further increased Jerusalem's importance by bringing the Ark of the Covenant there from Shiloh ( 2 Samuel 6 ). David's son Solomon built the First Temple in Jerusalem. After Solomon's death, the united kingdom split into the northern Kingdom of Israel (also known as the Kingdom of Samaria) with its capital at Samaria and the southern Kingdom of Judah with its capital at Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Samaria survived for 200 years until it

7216-531: The writings of the Soloveitchik dynasty , including Chiddushei Rabbeinu Chaim by Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik ; works by his sons, Chiddushei HaGram HaLevi of Rabbi Moshe Soloveitchik and Chiddushei Maran Ryz HaLevi of Rabbi Yitzchak Zev Soloveitchik ; and by his grandson Rabbi Meshulam Dovid Soloveitchik , titled Chiddushei Rabbeinu Meshulam Dovid Halevi . A student of Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik, Rabbi Isser Zalman Meltzer wrote his own commentary on

7304-408: Was chiefly done by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher , in the Tiberias school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the name Tiberian vocalization . It also included some innovations of Ben Naftali and the Babylonian exiles . Despite the comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews hold the pronunciation and cantillation to derive from

7392-684: Was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 BCE. The Kingdom of Judah survived for longer, but it was conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. The Temple was destroyed, and many Judeans were exiled to Babylon . In 539 BCE, Babylon was conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, who allowed the exiles to return to Judah . Between 520 and 515 BCE, the Temple was rebuilt (see Second Temple ) . Religious tradition ascribes authorship of

7480-408: Was first printed in 1483 by Joshua Solomon Soncino . Soncino's layout of the Talmud, with the original Talmud text in the center of the page, with the commentary of Rashi on the outer margins and the commentary of Tosafot on the inner ones, was later imitated by Christian printer Daniel Bomberg , who printed the entire Talmud between the years 1519 and 1523, and by all subsequent major printings of

7568-549: Was more powerful and culturally advanced than the Kingdom of Judah. It also featured multiple cultic sites, including the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan . Scholars estimate that the Jacob tradition (Genesis 25–35) was first written down in the 8th century BCE and probably originated in the north because the stories occur there. Based on the prominence given to the sanctuary at Bethel (Genesis 28), these stories were likely preserved and written down at that religious center. This means

7656-485: Was not grouped with the Prophets presumably because the Nevi'im collection was already fixed by this time. The Ketuvim was the last part of the Tanakh to achieve canonical status. The prologue to the Book of Sirach mentions "other writings" along with the Law and Prophets but does not specify the content. The Gospel of Luke refers to "the Law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms" ( Luke 24 :44). These references suggest that

7744-771: Was transcribed first in the Mishnah and later in the Talmud, with the differing opinions spread out over sixty three tractates . However, later rabbis — namely the Geonim of the Early Middle Ages , the Rishonim of the High and Late Middle Ages , and the Acharonim of modern times — wrote more conclusive works. Many of these works are responsa ( she'eilot u'teshuvot in Hebrew), printed questions and answers. The Geonim,

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