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230-645: As with the other major Hellenistic armies , the Seleucid army fought primarily in the Greco-Macedonian style, with its main body being the phalanx . The phalanx was a large, dense formation of men armed with small shields and a long pike called the sarissa . This form of fighting had been developed by the Macedonian army in the reign of Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great. Alongside

460-576: A Hekatontarch (i.e. a Centurion ). The title of Hekatontarch appeared around 150 BCE. As well as this, Asclepiodotus describes in his 'Tactica' a new institution, the Syntagma, which had a standard-bearer, other staff and was composed of two smaller units led by Hekatontarchs. The Phalangarkhia, also described by Asclepiodotus, was about the size of a Roman Legion in strength. The potential Roman influence would have been great. In Ptolemaic Egypt, Roman adventurers and veterans are found commonly serving under

690-465: A band of Jewish dissidents that would eventually absorb other groups opposed to Seleucid rule and grow into an army. While unable to directly strike Seleucid power at first, Judas's forces could maraud the countryside and attack Hellenized Jews, of whom there were many. The Maccabees destroyed Greek altars in the villages, forcibly circumcised boys, burnt villages, and drove Hellenized Jews off their land. Judas's nickname "Maccabee", now used to describe

920-532: A cavalry force of 400 'Household' cavalry, called the Royal or Sacred Ile in a campaign in 219 BCE. This small number of native horse was then supplemented by mercenary cavalry. In Ptolemaic Egypt , the cavalry forces were led by a hipparchos , who commanded a hipparchia . The hipparchiai were divided into ilai , then into lochoi and then into dekades (sing. dekas , a file of 10 men). Hipparchiai fall into two categories. There were five known hipparchiai in

1150-535: A comparison was also attempted in the ancient days, as is attested by Polybius ' own effort to explain why the Macedonian sarissa was eventually conquered by the Roman gladius. In the end, such a juxtaposition can be misleading, since both infantry formations had clear advantages and disadvantages that were historically oftentimes exploited. Numerous individual units of the phalanx infantry are attested in use during

1380-552: A considerable number of men, adventurers or mercenaries from the west." The Hellenistic armies based their strength on the pike-bearing phalanx , the legacy of Philip II and Alexander the Great . Throughout the age of the Diadochi and the Epigonoi, the phalanx, as the line of the pikemen was commonly referred to by ancient authors, remained the backbone of armies as diverse as those of Antiochos III and Philip V . The phalanx

1610-514: A core of good infantry. In this sense, there was a sense of the overvaluing of cavalry as an offensive arm. Antiochus III was an excellent cavalry commander, his assault at Tapuria in 208 BC as described by Polybius could almost act as a 'military treatise on how to conduct a cavalry battle'. However, Antiochus III was not as apt when dealing with infantry, be it Greek or Roman. At Magnesia, Antiochus' disregard for his phalanx and his misdirected cavalry charge led to his defeat. The Seleucid cavalry, after

1840-470: A corps of 'Chalkaspides' against Sulla at Chaeroneia . The majority of the Seleucid phalanx was probably formed by the two corps that are mentioned in the Daphne Parade of 166 BCE, namely the 10,000 Chrysaspides and the 5,000 Chalkaspides . Little else is known specifically about them, although they may have been present at the battle of Beth-Zachariah in 162 BCE. Leukaspides are mentioned in

2070-584: A corps of about 10,000 men who were picked from the entire kingdom to serve in this unit. The whole kingdom may mean 'regions like Syria and Mesopotamia, which were the nucleus of the Seleucid Kingdom, there was a greater density of Greek soldiers'. In 166 BC, at the Daphne Parade under Antiochus IV, the Argyraspides corps is only seen to be 5,000 strong. However, 5,000 troops armed in the Roman fashion are present and they are described as being in

2300-504: A corps of the Seleucid army. Livy describes them as a Royal Cohort in the army of Antiochus III the Great . Fighting in phalanx formation, the Argyraspides were present at Raphia (217 BCE) and Magnesia (190 BCE). Chosen from across the kingdom, they constituted a corps of roughly 10,000 men. By the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes ' parade at Daphne in 166 BCE, the Argyraspides are counted as being only 5,000 strong. However, Bar-Kochva

2530-484: A coup against his rivals at home and used their demise to push forward a reform to increase Spartan manpower. In 227 BCE, Cleomenes cancelled all debts, pooled and divided the large estates and increased the citizen body by enfranchising 5,000 Perioikoi and ' metics ' (resident foreigners). Before long, he increased the citizen body further by allowing Helots to buy their freedom for five minae and therefore he "acquired 500 talents, some of which he used to arm 2,000 men in

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2760-790: A deal with the Seleucids involved first defeating them militarily and attaining functional independence. In 2 Maccabees, intended for an audience of Egyptian Jews who still lived under Greek rule, peaceful coexistence was possible, but misunderstandings or troublemakers forced the Jews into defensive action. Josephus wrote over two centuries after the revolt, but his friendship with the Flavian dynasty Roman emperors meant he had access to resources undreamt of by other scholars. Josephus appears to have used 1 Maccabees as one of his main sources for his histories, but supplements it with knowledge of events of

2990-430: A defeat suffered by other commanders named Joseph and Azariah as because "they did not listen to Judas and his brothers. But they did not belong to the family of those men through whom deliverance was given to Israel." 2 Maccabees is an abridgment by an unknown Egyptian Jew of a lost five-volume work by an author named Jason of Cyrene. It is a separate work from 1 Maccabees and not a continuation of it. 2 Maccabees has

3220-540: A foreign power. Written after the revolt was complete, the books urged unity among the Jews; they describe little of the Hellenizing faction other than to call them lawless and corrupt, and downplay their relevance and power in the conflict. While many scholars still accept this basic framework, that the Hellenists were weak and dependent on Seleucid aid to hold influence, this view has since been challenged. In

3450-659: A frightening effect on badly trained, inexperienced opponents, such as Asiatic tribal armies. The idea that the Romans had no previous experience in fighting chariots might be the reason why Antiochus III used them against the Roman army , with disastrous results for his own army. Appian suggests that wounding the horses drawing a war chariot can cast the formation in disorder, because an out-of-control chariot forces other chariots to engage in evading maneuvers to avoid being hit by its scythes . Archelaus also used them against Sulla in

3680-684: A general named Cendebeus, but it was repulsed. The Hasmonean leaders did not immediately call themselves "king" or establish a monarchy; Simon called himself merely " nasi " (in Hebrew, "Prince" or "President") and " ethnarch " (in Koine Greek, "Governor"). In 135 BCE, Simon and two of his sons (Mattathias and Judas) were murdered by his son-in-law, Ptolemy son of Abubus , at a feast in Jericho . All five sons of Mattathias were now gone with Simon joining his brothers in death, leaving leadership to

3910-463: A generation. Many states had to rely on mercenaries to bulk up their citizen forces: For example, the army of the Achaean League under Aratus of Sicyon was re-organized to contain a permanent corps of mercenaries that numbered 8,000 foot soldiers and 500 on horseback, compared with the corps of picked Achaean troops, which numbered only 3,000 foot and 500 horse. To take another example, by

4140-664: A geographical significance and was used purely as a tactical term. War chariots were rarely used during the Hellenistic era. Their value against any opponent or commander of notable skill was very low as was already proven by the Ten Thousand (the Greek mercenaries with whom Xenophon served) at Cunaxa and Alexander in Arbela. Their use is considered more harmful than beneficial in the Greek tactical manuals, yet they could have

4370-410: A government response to formal independence of the new state difficult. New Seleucid King Antiochus VII Sidetes refused an offer of help from Simon's troops while pursuing their mutual enemy Diodotus Tryphon, and made demands for both tribute and for Simon to cede control of the border towns Joppa and Gazara . Antiochus VII sent an army to Judea at some point between 139 and 138 BCE under command of

4600-595: A guarantee of good behavior. Judas's younger brother Jonathan Apphus (Hebrew: Yonatan) became the new leader of the Maccabees. A new tragedy struck the Hasmonean family when Jonathan's brother John Gaddi was seized and killed while on a mission in Nabatea . Jonathan fought Bacchides and his troops for a time, but the two eventually made a pact for a cease-fire. Bacchides then returned to Syria in 160 BCE. While

4830-463: A mail shirt. These troops were used as a link between the light infantry and the phalanx, a form of medium infantry to bridge the gaps. Numerous armies used this form of troop, for example the Achaean League 's armies before Philopoemen . By the end of the 3rd century BCE, the 'Macedonian' phalanx had become the dominant fighting style even for states such as Sparta. Both the Thureophoroi and

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5060-544: A mixture of horsemen of many races from the same part of the world. Both corps of cavalry could escort the king into battle, or both could be brigaded together into one unit of 2,000. Both units were armed with a xyston , a cavalry lance not so dissimilar to the sarissa. They were also equipped with a cuirass and helmet. After the introduction of the Cataphract, the Hetairoi were given similar but lighter protection. As for

5290-465: A more directly religious focus than 1 Maccabees, crediting God and divine intervention for events more prominently than 1 Maccabees; it also focuses personally on Judas rather than other Hasmoneans. It has a special focus on the Second Temple: the controversies over the position of High Priest, its pollution by Menelaus into a Greek-Jewish mix, its eventual cleansing, and the threats by Nicanor at

5520-490: A new consensus themselves. Modern defenders of more direct readings of the sources cite that evidence of such an unrecorded popular rebellion is thin-to-nonexistent. Assuming that Antiochus IV would not have started an ethno-religious persecution for irrational reasons is an ahistorical position in this criticism, as many leaders both ancient and modern clearly were motivated by religious concerns. Later scholars and archaeologists have found and preserved various artifacts from

5750-584: A number of Tarantine cavalry , either as mercenaries or – more likely – equipped and trained in the "Tarantine fashion". They were present at the Battle of Panium and the Battle of Magnesia. Camels are attested in use in the Seleucid army at the battle of Magnesia, but their small number (500) suggests they were not a regular addition. According to Xenophon, their scent scared off horses. The Seleucids fielded several types of mercenary, vassal and allied cavalry. At

5980-477: A place of primacy in Judea and fostered the new sense of Jewish nationalism that had sprouted during the revolt. The dynasty would last until 37 BCE, when Herod the Great , making use of heavy Roman support, defeated the last Hasmonean ruler to become a Roman client king . Both sides were influenced by Hellenistic army composition and tactics. The basic Hellenistic battle deployment consisted of heavy infantry in

6210-779: A polis". Unlike the Ptolemaic military settlers, who were known as Kleruchoi , the Seleucid settlers were called Katoikoi . The settlers would maintain the land as their own and in return they would serve in the Seleucid army when called. The majority of settlements were concentrated in Lydia , northern Syria , the upper Euphrates and Media . The Greeks were dominant in Lydia, Phrygia and Syria. For example, Antiochus III brought Greeks from Euboea , Crete and Aetolia and settled them in Antioch . These Greek settlers would be used to form

6440-498: A result. Historians and students of the field alike have often compared the Hellenistic-era phalanx with the Roman legion, in an attempt to ascertain which of the formations was truly better. Detractors of the former point out that in many engagements between the two - such as at Pydna and Cynosephalae - the legion was the clear victor, and hence represented a superior system. Opposing schools of thought, however, point to

6670-525: A rival of Diodotus Tryphon and claimant to the Seleucid throne. Demetrius II exempted Judea from payment of taxes in 142 BCE, essentially acknowledging its independence. The Seleucid settlement and garrison in Jerusalem, the Acra, finally came under Simon's control, peacefully, as did the remaining Seleucid garrison at Beth-Zur. Simon was appointed High Priest around 141 BCE, but he did so by acclamation from

6900-739: A sacrifice at the Temple. For the reprieve and donation, Antiochus VII was referred to as "Eusebes" ("Pious") by the grateful populace. With the suzerainty briefly re-established, Judea sent troops to aid Antiochus VII in his campaigns in Persia. After Antiochus VII's death in 129 BCE, the Hasmoneans ceased offering aid or tribute to the remnants of the declining Seleucid Empire. John Hyrcanus and his children would go on to centralize power more than Simon had done. Hyrcanus's son Aristobulus I called himself " basileus " (king), abandoning pretensions that

7130-505: A second phase of the revolt began. The rebellion had additional resources, but also additional responsibilities. Rather than being able to retreat to the mountains, the rebels now had territory to defend; abandoning cities would leave their loyalists open to reprisals if the pro-Seleucid forces were allowed to take control again. As such, they focused on being able to win open battles, with additional trained heavy infantry. A civil struggle of low-level violence, reprisals, and murders arose in

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7360-457: A series of campaigns from 235–198 BCE. During both Ptolemaic and Seleucid rule, many Jews learned Koine Greek , especially upper class Jews and Jewish minorities in towns further afield from Jerusalem and more attached to Greek trading networks. Greek philosophical ideas spread through the region as well. A Greek translation of the scriptures, the Septuagint , was also created during

7590-493: A shield for protection made the rider and horse more vulnerable. The desire to meet the phalanx head on and the need for protection was remedied after the anabasis of Antiochus III to the eastern satrapies in 210-206 BC. At this time, Antiochus came into contact with the Parthian cavalry, of which some were heavily armed with scale armour for both the rider and horse and longer lances known as a kontos . The kontos 'almost equalled

7820-437: A shoulder harness and a forearm brace, allowing the off-hand to release the hand grip and make wielding the enormous sarissa pike possible. Metallic greaves were also worn to cover the shins of the soldiers as they stood their ground, especially by the front and rear-most ranks. The primary weapon of the phalangite was the sarissa , a massive spear that ranged from 16 feet (mid-late 4th century BC) to as much as 22 feet (near

8050-473: A small fraction of the army. Duncan Head estimates this fraction as 5-10% of the total strength of the Antigonid armies. This may well be due to over-campaigning, high casualties or even because many of the Macedonian noblemen who formed much of the heavy cavalry of Philip II and Alexander went east and never came back. But, by the time of Philip V and Perseus, cavalry strength had slowly increased. Philip V had

8280-466: A small jug of oil that had remained pure and uncontaminated by virtue of a seal, and although it only contained enough oil to sustain the Menorah for one day, it miraculously lasted for eight days, by which time further oil had been procured. During the era of the Hasmonean kingdom, Hanukkah was observed prominently; it acted as a "Hasmonean Independence Day " to commemorate the success of the revolt and

8510-657: A sword, which the Hastati and Principles abandoned between the 3rd and 2nd Century BCE. Also the Romans used the pila , while Greek troops tended to use local variations of Javelins. Also similarity of equipment in regards to helmets and chainmail can be explained by Celtic influence experienced by both the Greeks and Romans at a similar time. In this sense, we can only assume that the Hellenistic kingdoms did reform and re-organize their troops in some regards along Roman lines, but these appear to be superficial at best and quite possibly

8740-407: A thrusting spear and javelins. The Thureophoroi and Thorakitai pre-date any major Roman military influence and while similarly equipped and fought in a similar manner, had actually evolved independently from the Roman legions. Stelae from Hermopolis show a Ptolemaic unit having a standard-bearer and other staff attached. This unit was like a Roman Maniple , being composed of two smaller units led by

8970-402: A type of cavalry not to be confused with the Seleucid, Parthian or Byzantine cataphracts) and aphracts (unarmored). Cataphracts was a term commonly employed to describe fully armored cavalry of various weights, with or without shield (usually a thureos), usually armed with a lance. Unarmored cavalry was classified as lancers, javelineers and bowmen. Lancers ( xystophoroi or doratophoroi ) charged

9200-533: A vague agreement of potential support. While this would be cause for caution to the Seleucid Empire in the long term, it was not a particular concern in the short term, as the Romans would be unlikely to intervene if the Judean unrest could be decisively crushed. In 160 BCE, Seleucid King Demetrius I went on campaign in the east to fight the rebellious Timarchus . He left his general Bacchides to govern

9430-523: Is a term that refers to the various armies of the successor kingdoms to the Hellenistic period , emerging soon after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, when the Macedonian empire was split between his successors, known as the Diadochi ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Διάδοχοι ). Initially, the Hellenistic armies were very similar to those commanded by Alexander the Great, but during the era of

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9660-492: Is also very similar. Most cavalry units of the Hellenistic era were moderately armored and would be armed with javelins or/and lances. Cataphracts were introduced to the Hellenistic world by the Seleucids in the late 3rd century BC and are attested to have also been used, probably as a lighter version and for a very limited time, by the Kingdom of Pergamon . Antiochus III was able to field an extraordinary 6,000 men at Magnesia,

9890-511: Is ambivalent toward the Maccabees. The book of 1 Maccabees is considered mostly reliable, as it was seemingly written by an eyewitness early in the reign of the Hasmoneans, most likely during John Hyrcanus's reign. Its depictions of battles are detailed and seemingly accurate, although it portrays implausibly large numbers of Seleucid soldiers, to better emphasize God's aid and Judas's talents. The book also acts as Hasmonean dynasty propaganda in its editorial slant on events. The new rule of

10120-655: Is believed to have favored the Zadokite line of succession to the High Priesthood. The commentary ( pesher ) describes a situation wherein a " Righteous Teacher " is unfairly driven from their post and into exile by a " Wicked Priest " and a "Man of the Lie" (possibly the same person). Many figures have been proposed as the identity of the people behind these titles; one theory goes that the Righteous Teacher

10350-596: Is evident in many ancient descriptions of battles. According to Arrian, when Alexander faced the Indian tribe of the Malli, he did not dare assault them with his, by now, veteran Heteroi or Thessalians , but he followed the customary cavalry tactics of attacks and retreats (perispasmoi). Thus, most cavalry types of the Hellenistic armies can be considered heavy, regardless of their armor, as long as they are equipped with lances and act in dense formations. Traditional Greek cavalry

10580-446: Is from the historian Polybius , who recorded in detail units in a military parade in 166–165 BC at Daphne, near its capital Antioch . At the Daphne Parade, it was largely trusted Greek soldiers capable of being deployed anywhere on display, rather than "ethnic" contingents. This was most likely due to the army reform that was undertaken by Antiochus IV . In his reign, Antiochus IV had built 15 new cities "and their association with

10810-453: Is generally credited as popularizing this alternative viewpoint in 1937, and other historians such as Martin Hengel have continued the argument. For example, Josephus's account directly blames Menelaus for convincing Antiochus IV to issue his anti-Jewish decrees. Alcimus, Menelaus's replacement as High Priest, is blamed for instigating a massacre of devout Jews in 1 Maccabees, rather than

11040-640: Is in its depiction of the king of the north desecrating the temple with an abomination of desolation , and stopping the tamid , the daily sacrifice at the Temple; these agree with the depictions in 1 and 2 Maccabees of the changes at the Second Temple. Other works appear to have at least been influenced by the Maccabean Revolt include the Book of Judith , the Testament of Moses , and parts of

11270-493: Is of the opinion that the 5,000 men dressed and armed in the 'Roman' style counts for the other half of the corps. This is because the men of the 'Roman Contingent' are described as being in their prime of life. In the Ptolemaic army the Graeco-Macedonian troops formed the phalanx. But Ptolemy IV Philopator and his ministers reformed the army in order to keep up manpower by allowing the native Egyptian warrior class,

11500-453: Is speculated that diaspora Jews in countries hostile to the Seleucids, such as Ptolemaic Egypt and Pergamon , may have joined the cause as volunteers, bringing their own local talents to the rebel army. The rebel forces grew with time. There were 6,000 men in Judas's army near the start of the revolt, 10,000 men at the Battle of Beth Zur, and possibly as many as 22,000 soldiers by the time of

11730-419: Is unfortunately mentioned in the existent descriptions of cavalry battles, but all ancient Greek tactical manuals, including Asclepiodotus' Techne Taktike written in the 1st century BC, clearly and in detail describe the wedge and the rhombus formations , stating that they were in use at least at the time of their compilation as well as the more common square and rectangular formations. Thus, we have to accept

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11960-529: Is unknown. The true extent of the adoption of Roman techniques is unknown, some have suggested that the infantry are in fact more likely to be Thureophoroi or Thorakitai , troops armed with an oval shield of the Celtic type, a thrusting spear and javelins. The Seleucid phalanx may have been divided into corps, similar to a manner proposed of the Antigonid Macedonian army . Polybius's account of

12190-647: The Thureophoroi and the Thorakitai , were developed. They used the Celtic Thureos shield, of an oval shape that was similar to the shields of the Romans, but flatter. The Thureophoroi were armed with a long thrusting spear, a short sword, and, if needed, javelins. While the Thorakitai were similar to the Thureophoroi , they were more heavily armoured, as their name implies, usually wearing

12420-413: The makhaira , for example. Any sword-fighting in the vicinity of the phalanx's front was complicated by the sarissa projecting from the 2nd-5th ranks around the 1st rank combatants. The primary drawback of the phalanx was its vulnerability to attacks from the rear and flanks. This is the reason why it depended on the units on its flanks to at least hold off the enemy until he would naturally break from

12650-479: The Acra ; it might resolve a seeming contradiction between Josephus's account of the Acra's fate (he claimed it was torn down) and 1 Maccabees's account (it was merely occupied) in favor of the 1 Maccabees version. The Jewish festival of Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Temple following Judas Maccabeus's victory over the Seleucids. According to rabbinic tradition , the victorious Maccabees could only find

12880-402: The Battle of Adasa led to an annual festival as well, albeit one less prominent and remembered than Hanukkah. The defeat of Seleucid general Nicanor is celebrated on 13 Adar as Yom Nicanor . The traumatic time period helped define the genre of the apocalypse and heightened Jewish apocalypticism . The portrayal of an evil tyrant like Antiochus IV attacking the holy city of Jerusalem in

13110-404: The Battle of Beth Zechariah next, with the Seleucids defeating the Maccabees. Judas's younger brother Eleazar Avaran died in battle after bravely attacking a war elephant and being crushed. Lysias's army next besieged Jerusalem. With supplies of food short on both sides and reports of a political rival returning from the eastern provinces to Antioch, Lysias decided to sign an agreement with

13340-417: The Book of Enoch . The Book of Judith is a historical novel that describes Jewish resistance against an overwhelming military threat. While the parallels are not as stark as Daniel, some of its depictions of oppression seem influenced by Antiochus's persecution, such as General Holofernes demolishing shrines, cutting down sacred groves, and attempting to destroy all worship other than of the king. Judith,

13570-509: The Greek gods at Modein's new altar. Mattathias killed a Jew who had stepped forward to take Mattathias' place in sacrificing to an idol as well as the Greek officer who was sent to enforce the sacrifice. He then destroyed the altar. Afterwards, he and his five sons fled to the nearby mountains, which sat directly next to Modein. After Mattathias' death about one year later in 166 BCE, his son Judas Maccabeus (Hebrew: Judah Maccabee) led

13800-711: The Levant and Palestine . At the time, Judea was home to many Jews who had returned from exile in Babylon thanks to the Persians. Alexander's empire was partitioned in 323 BCE after Alexander's death, and after the Wars of the Diadochi , the territory was taken by what would become Ptolemaic Egypt in 302–301 BCE. Another of the Greek successor states, the Seleucid Empire , would conquer Judea from Egypt during

14030-532: The Machimoi , into the phalanx. Up until that point the Machimoi had only performed auxiliary duties such as archery , skirmishing and so on. The Machmioi Epilektoi, or 'Picked Machimoi', first saw service at the battle of Raphia and from then on were featured in more important positions within the Ptolemaic army. It was customary for the Hellenistic warlords to name individual units of phalangites according to

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14260-488: The Pyrrhic , Hannibalic and Mithridatic victories as evidence to the contrary. Finally, one might note that these were not conflicts that solely featured Republican Roman Legionaries engaged against Hellenistic phalangites. The Roman victories of Magnesia , Cynoscephalae and Pydna were won by armies that included thousands of non-Roman (often Hellenic) cavalry, elephants , as well as assorted heavy and light infantry. Such

14490-582: The Roman Republic helped guarantee their independence. Simon would go on to establish an independent Hasmonean kingdom . The revolt had a great impact on Jewish nationalism, as an example of a successful campaign to establish political independence and resist governmental anti-Jewish suppression. Beginning in 338 BCE, Alexander the Great began an invasion of the Persian Empire . In 333–332 BCE, Alexander's Macedonian forces conquered

14720-474: The Sellasia campaign in 222 BCE. These units are mentioned by classical writers when describing the Antigonid army in battle. Although these units most probably ceased to exist after the battle of Pydna in 168 BCE, as the Antigonid kingdom had been crushed by Rome. These names were not only limited to the Antigonid (or Achaean) phalanx though. Plutarch tells us of Mithridates VI of Pontus , "The Great", having

14950-447: The Thorakitai were able to fight both in a phalanx formation, armed with long spears, or in more loose, irregular formations to be used against enemy light infantry or to occupy difficult terrain. Reforms in the late Seleucid and Ptolemaic armies re-organised them and tried to add some Roman aspects to formations. This, however, would not be out of place as some Roman style tactics were used by Pyrrhus of Epirus in his campaigns against

15180-412: The battle of Chaeronea , again to no avail. War elephants were considered unreliable by Greek military writers and thinkers, but played an important role in many battles of the Hellenistic era, especially in the east. As was proven many times before, as well as in the wars of Pyrrhus of Epirus and Hannibal , elephants could throw a competent enemy battle line into confusion and win the day, as long as

15410-511: The defeat of the Antigonids at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC was a great culture shock, showing the complete destruction of the Macedonian military system at the hands of the Roman legion. It has been suggested that the fact that these 5,000 men are marching at the head of the army was meant to show Antiochus IV's intention of reforming the entire Seleucid army along Roman lines, though whether or not this complete reform actually took place

15640-496: The deuterocanonical books of First Maccabees and Second Maccabees , as well as Josephus 's The Jewish War and Book XII and XIII of Jewish Antiquities . The authors were not disinterested parties; the authors of the books of Maccabees were favorable to the Maccabees, portraying the conflict as a divinely sanctioned holy war and elevating the stature of Judas and his brothers to heroic levels. In comparison, Josephus did not want to offend Greek pagan readers of his work, and

15870-516: The mishnah , the writings of the Tannaim , after these Jewish defeats. Rabbinical displeasure with the later rule of the Hasmoneans after the revolt also contributed to this; even when stories were explicitly set during the Maccabean period, references to Judas by name were explicitly removed to avoid hero-worship of the Hasmonean line. The books of Maccabees were downplayed and relegated in

16100-624: The "Book of Dreams", was likely written after the Revolt had at least partially succeeded; it portrays the events of the revolt in the form of prophetic dream visions. A more uncertain work that has nevertheless attracted much interest is the Qumran Habakkuk Commentary , part of the Dead Sea Scrolls . The Qumran religious community was not on good terms with the Hasmonean religious establishment in Jerusalem, and

16330-473: The "Great Revolt") and the Bar Kochba revolt from 132 to 136 CE. After the failure of these revolts, Jewish interpretation of the Maccabean Revolt became more spiritual; it instead focused on stories of Hanukkah and God's miracle of the oil, rather than practical plans for an independent Jewish polity backed by armed might. The Maccabees were also discussed less as time went on; they appear only rarely in

16560-494: The "king of the north" and describes his earlier actions, such as being repelled and humiliated by the Romans in his second campaign in Egypt, but also that the king of the north would "meet his end". Additionally, all those who had died under the king of the north would be revived, with those who suffered rewarded while those who had prospered would be subjected to shame and contempt. The main historical items taken away from Daniel

16790-480: The 1st century BC, the Seleucid kingdom was still troubled by instability caused by civil war between the northern and southern branches of the Seleucid royal household. The loss of manpower and political instability may well have ensured that the Seleucid army was dependent on mercenaries and citizen militias and unable to maintain a phalanx of the size seen at Raphia and Magnesia. Ancient sources Modern sources Hellenistic armies The Hellenistic armies

17020-645: The 3rd century, of which the 4th and 5th are known to have been in existence in the 2nd century BC. Other than these, there were four hipparchiai of lower status known by 'ethnic' names; the Thessalians, Thracians, Mysians and Persians. These probably were not actual cavalry troops from those ethnic groups, but more like the Tarantine cavalry mercenaries who did not need to be from Taras to be called thus. The Seleucid empire 's cavalry were placed in units of oulamoi and then into divisions of ilai . Other than

17250-476: The 3rd century, they were considered the best in Greece. Despite this fact, cavalry remained only a small proportion of its total military force. We can deduce this from the 400 cavalry accompanying 3,000 foot on campaign in 218 BCE. All we know of specific organisation is a reference to oulamoi , small squadrons of uncertain strength. The cavalry of the Achaean League was supposedly inefficient. Philopoemen , in

17480-620: The Achaeans. The light cavalry was used to skirmish, so troops such as those that fought in the Tarentine style were common within this category, although there were numerous native contingents too. Along with the guard infantry unit, there were two guard cavalry regiments, each 1,000 strong. These were the Agema (the 'Guards') and the Hetairoi ('Companions'). The Hetairoi were recruited from the younger generation of military settlers and acted as

17710-533: The Agema, they were probably equipped the same as the cataphracts. Another regiment of horse that was similarly armed to the cataphracts was the Nisian cavalry (Nisaioi), which was composed of Iranians. At the Daphne parade, there was also a regiment of 'picked', known as Epilektoi, horsemen, numbering 1,000. The Epilektoi were most likely recruited from the city of Larissa, which was founded by colonists from Larissa on

17940-506: The Antigonid king had to think radically as to how to improve his nation's performance in the next war. In between the Second and Third Macedonian Wars , Philip V embarked on a major reform and re-organization of the kingdom. Expansion could secure "the great reservoir of available man-power" that lay north in Thrace . Philip then transported segments of the populations of the coastal cities to

18170-436: The Battle of Magnesia Antiochus deployed Dahae horse archers, Gallograecian (Galatian) cavalry and camel-borne Arab archers. Appian later also identifies Mysian and Elymais horse archers in that battle, which Livy said to be foot archers. Despite the numerous advantages that the Seleucids had at the height of their power, the empire soon began to fall into decline, especially with the coming of so many dynastic wars between

18400-600: The Book of Daniel became a common theme during later Roman rule of Judea, and would contribute to Christian conceptions of the Antichrist . The persecution of the Jews under Antiochus, and the Maccabees response, would influence and create new trends in Jewish strains of thought with regard to divine rewards and punishments. In earlier Jewish works, devotion to God and adherence to the law led to rewards and punishments in life:

18630-574: The Book of Daniel describing a future resurrection of the dead, or 2 Maccabees describing in detail the martyrdom of a woman and her seven sons under Antiochus, but who would be rewarded after their deaths. As a victory of the "few over the many", the revolt served as inspiration for future Jewish resistance movements, such as the Zealots . The most famous of these later revolts are the First Jewish–Roman War in 66–73 CE (also called

18860-519: The Daphne parade is again the main source, but unfortunately the suriving fragment is only in a single manuscript and bears signs of a miscopying or lacuna. The surviving sentence says that 20,000 "Macedonians" were at the parade, 5,000 chalkaspides ('Bronze-Shields'), and agryaspides ('Silver-Shields'). The best guess at what the original sentence was by Georg Kaibel was that there were 20,000 Macedonians, divided into 10,000 chrysaspides (Greek: Χρυσάσπιδες 'Golden-Shields'), 5,000 chalkaspides , and

19090-464: The Elburz range in 210 BC. The Persian and Iranian troops were most likely of a higher professional military standing than most of the other contingents, as they are seen on garrison duty throughout the empire. In the review at Daphne in 166 BC, the large numbers of allied and vassal contingents are missing. They were of doubtful reliability, usefulness and efficiency. So much so that Appian blamed them for

19320-450: The Epigonoi (Ἐπίγονοι, "Successors") the differences became obvious, with the Diadochi growing to favor large masses of soldiers rather than smaller, well-trained ones, and weight was valued over maneuverability. The limited availability of Greek conscripts in the east led to an increasing dependence on mercenary forces, whereas the Hellenistic armies in the west were continuously involved in wars, which soon exhausted local manpower, paving

19550-484: The Graeco-Roman world to employ pure, advanced skirmishing tactics. It was unarmored and normally equipped with a shield and javelins, which it hurled at the enemy, evading any attempt to engage in close combat. In the Hellenistic era, we have numerous references to Tarantine units, even in the armies of the eastern Macedonian empires, but unfortunately no definite account of their equipment or their tactical use. From

19780-522: The Greek mainland. After the loss of Media, the main recruiting ground for the Agema, to the Parthians, the Epilektoi were given the title and role of the Agema by Alexander Balas . Despite the prospect of a mobile cavalry phalanx, the cavalry still faced problems. The xyston was still too short to meet the sarissa phalanx head on. The weight of their armour restricted movement, but the elimination of

20010-435: The Greek tactical manuals we learn that Tarantines is the collective name of the lightly armored cavalry, which was equipped with javelins and lance , that first skirmishes with the enemy and then charges. Cavalry that avoided using the charge, preferring to remain at a distance and skirmish, was called Tarantines proper. From these texts, we can safely deduce that, during Hellenistic times, the term "Tarantines" no longer bore

20240-550: The Hasmonean takeover: the first Essenes . The date of the work is unknown, and others scholars have proposed different candidates as possible identities of the Wicked Priest, so the identification with Jonathan is only a possibility, yet an intriguing and plausible one. In the First and Second Books of the Maccabees, the Maccabean Revolt is described as a collective response to cultural oppression and national resistance to

20470-597: The Hasmoneans was not without its own internal enemies; the office of High Priest had been occupied for generations by a descendant of the High Priest Zadok . The Hasmoneans, while of the priestly line ( Kohens ), were seen by some as usurpers, did not descend from Zadok, and had taken the office originally only via a deal with a Seleucid king. As such, the book emphasizes that the Hasmoneans' actions were in line with heroes of older scripture; they were God's new chosen and righteous rulers. For example, it dismisses

20700-483: The Hasmoneans wished to show only themselves as capable of bringing victory. Sylvie Honigman argues that the depictions of Seleucid religious oppression are misleading and likely false. She advances the view that the loss of civil rights by the Jews in 168 BCE was an administrative punishment in the aftermath of local unrest over increased taxes; that the struggle was fundamentally economic, and merely interpreted as religiously driven in retrospect. She also argues that

20930-416: The Hellenistic era, more importance was usually given to the role of the infantry than to cavalry, most major battles of the era were gained because of good or bad cavalry performance. Antigonus was defeated at Ipsus , because his victorious cavalry failed to return from the pursuit before the 400 enemy elephants effectively blocked its way back. Antiochus was defeated at Raphia , when, engaging in pursue of

21160-601: The Hellenistic military tradition with the Seleucid Antiochus III the Great 's anabasis in the east from 212-205 BC. With his campaigns in Parthia and Bactria , he came into contact with Cataphracts and copied them. Most of the Seleucid heavy cavalry after this period were armed in this manner, despite keeping their original unit names. The Cataphract generally only served in the eastern Hellenistic armies. Both man and horse were entirely encased in armour—in

21390-541: The Hellenistic period. Some of the old Alexandrian unit names were kept and units were named after Alexander's. An example of this are the Argyraspides ('silver shields'), who were originally a unit of Alexander's most fearsome and disciplined veterans. However, they were disbanded not long after having surrendered their commander Eumenes to Antigonus the One-Eyed . The name, however, was kept alive and formed into

21620-620: The High Priest managing political matters was a temporary arrangement. The Hasmoneans exiled leaders on the council or gerusia that they felt might threaten their power. The council of elders – which some see as a precursor to the Sanhedrin – ceased to be an independent check on the monarchy. After the success of the Maccabean Revolt, leaders of the Hasmonean dynasty continued their conquest to surrounding areas of Judea, especially under Alexander Jannaeus . The Seleucid Empire

21850-421: The Jewish partisans as a whole, is probably taken from the word "hammer" (Aramaic: maqqaba ; Hebrew: makebet ); the term "Maccabee" or "Maccabeus" would later be used as an honorific for Judas's brothers as well. Judas's campaign in the countryside became a full-scale revolt. Maccabean forces employed guerrilla tactics emphasizing speed and mobility. While less trained and under-equipped for pitched battles,

22080-509: The Jewish people rather than appointment by the Seleucid king. Both Jonathan and now Simon had maintained diplomatic contact with the Roman Republic; official recognition by Rome came in 139 BCE, as the Romans were eager to weaken and divide the Greek states. This new Hasmonean-Roman alliance was also worded more firmly than Judas Maccabeus's hazy agreement 22–23 years earlier. Continuing strife between rival Seleucid rulers made

22310-581: The Jewish tradition and not included in the Jewish Tanakh (Hebrew Bible); it would be Christians who would produce more art and literature referencing the Maccabees during the medieval era, as the books of Maccabees were included in the Catholic and Orthodox Biblical canon . Medieval Christians during the Carolingian era esteemed the Maccabees as early examples of chivalry and knighthood, and

22540-422: The Jews are threatened with death, they face it calmly, and are saved in the end, a relevant message among Jewish opposition to Antiochus IV. The final chapters of the book of Daniel include apocalyptic visions of the future. One of the motives for the author was to give heart to devout Jews that their victory was foreseen by prophecy 400 years earlier. Daniel's final vision refers to Antiochus Epiphanes as

22770-487: The Jews. Shortly afterward, both regent Lysias and 11-year old king Antiochus V were executed after losing a succession struggle with Demetrius I Soter , who became the new Seleucid king. In the winter of late 162 BCE to early 161 BCE, Demetrius I appointed a new high priest, Alcimus , to replace Menelaus and sent an army led by general Bacchides to enforce Alcimus's station. Judas did not give battle, perhaps still rebuilding after his defeat at Beth Zechariah. Alcimus

23000-471: The Maccabees as examples of independence and victory. Proponents of Jewish nationalism of that era saw past events, such as the Maccabees, as a hopeful suggestion to what was possible, influencing the nascent Zionist movement. A British Zionist organization formed in 1896 is named the Order of Ancient Maccabeans , and the Jewish sporting organization Maccabi World Union names itself after them. The revolt

23230-477: The Maccabees could control which battles they took and retreat into the wilderness when threatened. They defeated two minor Seleucid forces at the Battle of the Ascent of Lebonah in 167 BCE and the Battle of Beth Horon in 166 BCE. Toward the end of summer in 165 BCE, Antiochus IV departed for Babylonia in the eastern half of his empire, and left Lysias in charge of the western half as regent. Shortly afterward,

23460-435: The Maccabees did eventually train a standing army similar to the Seleucids, complete with Hellenic-style heavy infantry phalanxes, horse-mounted cavalry, and siege weaponry. However, while manufacturing the mostly wooden sarissa would have been easy for the rebels, their body armor was lower quality. They likely used simple leather armor due to a paucity of metals and craftsmen capable of making Greek-style metal armor. It

23690-489: The Maccabees had lost control of the cities, they seem to have built a rival government in the countryside from 160–153 BCE. The Maccabees avoided direct conflict with the Seleucids, but the internal Jewish civil struggle continued: the rebels harassed, exiled, and killed Jews seen as insufficiently anti-Greek. According to 1 Maccabees, "Thus the sword ceased from Israel. Jonathan settled in Michmash and began to judge

23920-509: The Maccabees held. In 162 BCE, Judas began a long siege of the fortified Acra citadel in Jerusalem, still controlled by Seleucid loyalist Jews and a Greek garrison. Regent Lysias, having dealt with rivals back in Antioch, returned to Judea with an army to aid the Seleucid forces. The Seleucids besieged Beth-Zur and took it without a fight, as it was a fallow year and food supplies were meager. They battled Judas's forces in an open fight at

24150-521: The Maccabees in where they could be surrounded and defeated, their own retreat cut off. Regardless of whether it was intentional or not, the Seleucids regained their formation and trapped the rebel army with their own left flank. Judas was eventually killed and the remaining Judeans fled. The Seleucids had reasserted their authority in Jerusalem. Bacchides fortified cities across the land, put allied Greek-friendly Jews in command in Jerusalem, and ensured children of leading families were held as hostages as

24380-528: The Maccabees were invoked in the later Middle Ages as holy warriors to emulate during the Crusades . In the 14th century, Judas Maccabeus was included in the Nine Worthies , medieval exemplars of chivalry for knights to model their conduct on. The Jewish downplaying of the Maccabees would be challenged centuries later in the 19th century and early 20th century, as Jewish writers and artists held up

24610-541: The Maccabees won a more substantial victory at the Battle of Emmaus . The factions attempted to negotiate a compromise, but failed; a large Seleucid army was sent to quash the revolt. After the Battle of Beth Zur in 164 BCE as well as news of the death of Antiochus IV in Persia, the Seleucid troops returned to Syria. The Maccabees entered Jerusalem in triumph. They ritually cleansed the Second Temple , reestablishing traditional Jewish worship there; 25 Kislev ,

24840-537: The Maccabees, the Seleucid army was called the 'Power of the Cities', probably owing to the high proportion of citizen militia mobilized from the coastal cities. Citizens of Antioch played a major role in the overthrowing of Demetrius II Nicator . Demetrius, having taken the throne, decided to disband the majority of the regular army and reduce its pay by a large amount. In place of the regular army, Demetrius' power rested with his Greek, especially Cretan, mercenaries in what

25070-444: The Macedonian fashion as phalangites ". However, the defeat at Sellasia in 222 BCE and the attendant great loss of manpower forced a reliance on mercenary soldiers, who were the basis of power for Machanidas and Nabis , his successors. The extreme losses affected Philip V of Macedon greatly, especially after his defeat at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BCE. With such a small population, and such drastic losses in battle,

25300-527: The Parthians and the Greco-Bactrians. The Parthian style of warfare was based around heavily armoured cavalrymen, Cataphracts, and horse archers, which were used in hit and run style tactics. The eastern style of horse warfare would have a deep impact in the reign of Antiochus III, when he armed his heavy cavalry along Parthian lines. However, unfortunately for the Seleucids, their main rivals, the Romans and Ptolemies, used armies that were centered around

25530-409: The Parthians' sweeping into and taking over their eastern satrapies. These conquests took place at the same time as the bitter civil wars in the empire. There was a moment of success and strength with the Parthian campaign of Antiochus VII , but his death in battle led to further defeat and decline. The loss of these territories meant the loss of vital economic and manpower resources. By the beginning of

25760-583: The Pontic phalanx. 'Legions' of this sort are described by Julius Caesar in his campaigns against Juba in Numidia and alongside Deiotarus of Galatia whilst in the Middle East . If anything, these forces, as described by N. Sekunda, are nothing more than ersatz -legions. The cavalry organization differed in the various Hellenistic states. Different variants of tactical formations were used to organize

25990-465: The Ptolemies. Romans are found in Ptolemaic service as early as 252-1 BCE. The Ptolemaic army was odd in that, out of all the Hellenistic armies, it was the only army where you could find Romans in Greek service. As Sekunda suggests 'such individuals would have spread knowledge of Roman military systems within the Ptolemaic military and political establishment'. However, there are numerous aspects of

26220-603: The Roman army that were not carried into the Ptolemaic and Seleucid ones. For example, the differentiation of the Hastati , Principes and Triarii , or the integration of light-armed troops into the infantry structure. Hence, because of this, there was no Hellenistic equivalent to the Cohort . Instead, there was a system of larger units that had no relation to Roman organization. In terms of equipment, most of these so-called 'Romanized' troops did not abandon their traditional spear for

26450-409: The Romans and by Antigonus III Doson at Sellasia in 222 BCE. Pyrrhus and Antigonus both placed units of lighter troops in between the units of their phalanx. This was after Pyrrhus had 'observed the formation of the Roman legions and noticed how mobile they were and how unwieldy were his own forces... He therefore adapted his own formation to the Roman model, deploying light mobile detachments alongside

26680-401: The Romans. In Sellasia , it was Philopoemen 's cavalry that conquered Oida, earning the admiration of Antigonus Doson . A modern conception, there is no mentioning of a "heavy cavalry" in the Greek military manuals. Unfortunately, even today, we don't have a concrete notion of what "heavy cavalry" should be. According to one school of thought, it is any cavalry capable of shock action against

26910-558: The Seleucid Empire from Greek histories as well as unknown other sources. Josephus seems to be familiar with the work of historians Polybius and Strabo , as well as the mostly lost works of Nicolaus of Damascus . The Book of Daniel appears to have been written during the early stages of the revolt around 165 BCE, and would eventually be included in the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. While

27140-409: The Seleucid cataphracts were certainly of Greek or Persian descent, Livy describes a contingent of 3,000 cavalry "clad in mail armour and known as 'cataphracti'" present at the Battle of Magnesia , standing next to a contingent of Galatian infantry, which Appian later also describe being of Galatian descent. Along with the citizen militia infantry, there were also militia cavalry units recruited in

27370-443: The Seleucid heartland. In 143 BCE, regent Diodotus Tryphon , perhaps eager to reassert control over the restive province, invited Jonathan to a conference. The conference was a trap; Jonathan was captured and executed, despite Jonathan's brother Simon raising the requested ransom and sending hostages. This betrayal led to an alliance between the new leader of the Maccabees, Simon Thassi (Hebrew: Simeon), and Demetrius II Nicator ,

27600-416: The Seleucid phalanx and cavalry units, with picked men put into the kingdom's guards regiments. The rest of the Seleucid army would consist of a large number of native and mercenary troops, who would serve as light auxiliary troops. The government was leery of training and trusting non-Greek soldiers "too much" though, for fear of revolts against Greek rule. One of the most detailed reports of Seleucid manpower

27830-411: The Seleucid rulers created military settlements. There were two main periods in the establishment of settlements, firstly under Seleucus I Nicator and Antiochus I Soter and then under Antiochus IV Epiphanes . The military settlers were given land, "varying in size according to rank and arm of service'. They were settled in 'colonies of an urban character, which at some point could acquire the status of

28060-539: The Seleucids continued until 134 BCE, with the Maccabees eventually attaining independence. Seleucid King Antiochus IV Epiphanes launched a massive campaign of repression against the Jewish religion in 168 BCE. The reason he did so is not entirely clear, but it seems to have been related to the King mistaking an internal conflict among the Jewish priesthood as a full-scale rebellion. Jewish practices were banned, Jerusalem

28290-496: The Seleucids directly. The Maccabees themselves fight and exile Hellenists as well, most clearly in the final expulsion from the Acra, but also in the earlier countryside struggles against the Tobiad clan of Hellenist-friendly Jews. In general, scholarly opinion is that Hellenistic historians were biased, but also that the bias did not result in excessive distortion or fabrication of facts, and they are mostly reliable sources once

28520-434: The Seleucids reestablished direct control for a time, but remnants of the Maccabees under Judas's brother Jonathan Apphus continued to resist from the countryside. Eventually, internal division among the Seleucids and problems elsewhere in their empire would give the Maccabees their chance for proper independence. In 141 BCE, Simon Thassi succeeded in expelling the Greeks from their citadel in Jerusalem . An alliance with

28750-477: The Seleucids, which would suggest limited numbers. The writings of historians, from Arrian to Appian, detail numerous tribes, nations, and ethnic groups—Dahae, Mysians, Scythians, etc.—from whom Hellenistic rulers recruited such warriors. Originally the cavalry of the army of the Greek city of Tarantas (Tarentum) in Magna Graecia, it was renowned for its peculiar battle tactics. It was the only cavalry of

28980-550: The Temple in Jerusalem was made the site of a syncretic Greek-Jewish religious group, polluting it in the eyes of the devout Jews. A new citadel garrisoned by Greeks and pro-Seleucid Jews, the Acra , was built in Jerusalem. Antiochus IV issued decrees officially suppressing the Jewish religion; subjects were required to eat pork and violate Jewish dietary law , work on the Jewish Sabbath, cease circumcising their sons, and so on. The policy of tolerance of Jewish worship

29210-407: The Temple. 2 Maccabees also represents an attempt to take the cause of the Maccabees outside Judea, as it encourages Egyptian Jews and other diaspora Jews to celebrate the cleansing of the temple (Hanukkah) and revere Judas Maccabeus. In general, 2 Maccabees portrays the prospects of peace and cooperation more positively than 1 Maccabees. In 1 Maccabees, the only way for the Jews to honorably make

29440-408: The altar on 25 Kislev is the source of the festival of Hanukkah . The Seleucids eventually relented and unbanned Judaism, but the more radical Maccabees, not content with merely reestablishing Jewish practices under Seleucid rule, continued to fight, pushing for a more direct break with the Seleucids. Judas Maccabeus died in 160 BCE at the Battle of Elasa against the Greek general Bacchides , and

29670-485: The arms and equipment of the Thracian troops allowed the individual soldier greater mobility and freer action in hand-to-hand combat than a phalangite could adopt. Unlike the more westerly powers, like the Romans and other Greek states, where infantry dominated the battlefield, in the 'vast spaces to the east, the horse cultures were more influential'. Speed and mobility were the key, especially when dealing with foes like

29900-440: The army in this manner would allow it to perform better in the Seleucid empire's eastern satrapies beyond the river Tigris , which were of high importance to Seleucid rulers from Antiochus III through to Demetrius II . Thirdly, changing their equipment and training would add to their fighting capability and efficiency, hence making the army more maneuverable. It has been suggested that the fact that these 5,000 men were marching at

30130-755: The army of Pyrrhus of Epirus on his campaigns in Italy . Under Cleomenes III , the Spartan army was reformed in 228 BCE. Until then, the Spartans had merely kept the traditional hoplite spear. Cleomenes created a 4,000-strong phalanx and then formed another phalanx with 2,000 freed helots to counter the Antigonid Leukaspides. Philopoemen reformed the army of the Achaean League into the Macedonian phalanx in 208–207 BCE and we are told that, by

30360-474: The authority of Enoch , the great-grandfather of Noah . One section, the "Apocalypse of Weeks", is hypothesized to have been written around 167 BCE, just after Antiochus's persecution began. Similar to Daniel, after the Apocalypse of Weeks recounts world history up to the point of the persecution, it predicts that the righteous will eventually triumph, and encourages resistance. Another section of Enoch,

30590-512: The ban retracted, their religious goals were accomplished, and the Hellenized Jews could more easily be potential Seleucid loyalists again. The Maccabees did not consider their goals complete, however, and continued their campaign for a starker break from Greek influence and full political independence. The rebels suffered a loss of support from moderates as a result. With the rebels now in control of most of Jerusalem and its environs,

30820-473: The battle. Instead, they were deployed on the wings, where they could keep the enemy cavalry at bay, protecting the infantry from a cavalry outflank. Against them, the enemy would use his own elephants, a necessity, since cavalry would never be able to conquer them. There, should they be defeated, they would have space to retreat without getting in the way of the infantry. Elephants would sometimes be accompanied by irregular infantry battalions, which would assist in

31050-449: The battles of the rebellion. They may have been supplemented by local Seleucid-allied militias and garrisons, however. The Maccabees started as a guerrilla force that likely used the traditional weapons effective in small unit combat in mountainous terrain: archers , slingers , and light infantry peltasts armed with sword and shield. Later writers would romantically portray the Maccabees as ordinary people fighting as irregulars , but

31280-466: The bias is removed. There exist revisionist scholars who are inclined to discount the reliability of the primary histories more aggressively, however. Daniel R. Schwartz argues that Antiochus IV's initial attacks on Jerusalem from 168–167 BCE were not out of pure malice, as 1 Maccabees depicts, or a misunderstanding as 2 Maccabees depicts (and most scholars accept), but rather suppressing an authentic rebellion whose members were lost to history, as

31510-429: The books of 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees . The rebellion started as a guerrilla movement in the Judean countryside, raiding towns and terrorizing Greek officials far from direct Seleucid control, but it eventually developed a proper army capable of attacking the fortified Seleucid cities. In 164 BCE, the Maccabees captured Jerusalem, a significant early victory. The subsequent cleansing of the temple and rededication of

31740-692: The center, mounted cavalry on the flanks, and mobile skirmishers in the vanguard. The most common infantry weapon used was the sarissa , the Macedonian pike . The sarissa was a powerful weapon; it was held in two hands and had great reach (approximately ~6 meters), making it difficult for opponents to approach a phalanx of sarissa-wielding infantry safely. Hellenistic cavalry also used pikes, albeit slightly shorter ones. The Seleucids also had access to trained war elephants imported from India, who sported natural armor in their thick hides and could terrify opposing soldiers and their horses. Rarely, they also made use of scythed chariots . In terms of army size,

31970-517: The cities, known as Politikoi. This cavalry consisted of those richest citizens who did not hold the legal status of 'Macedonians'. Citizen cavalry of this sort was seen at the Daphne parade and, in this case, was probably just from Antioch and not collected from all of the coastal cities. The Politikoi was probably not organised into regiments; instead, it was likely that it comprised a collection of separate squadrons, with each squadron having its own distinctive dress and equipment. The Seleucids employed

32200-571: The city council Jason had established. This conflict was largely political rather than cultural; all sides, at this point, were "Hellenized", content with Seleucid rule, and primarily divided over Menelaus's alleged corruption and sacrilege. In 170–168 BCE, the Sixth Syrian War between the Seleucids and the Ptolemaic Egyptians arose. Antiochus IV led an army to attack Egypt. On his way back through Jerusalem after

32430-592: The colonists to be given a plot of land and in return they would provide military service when needed. In Ptolemaic Egypt , for example, soldiers and officers were given rewards "In exchange for military service, whenever needed." W.W. Tarn even suggests that the Greek (known to the Indians as "Yavanas") population in India may not have been as small as one would suppose, stating "There may well have been many more Yavanas...than we should suppose; we may have to reckon with

32660-474: The color of their shields. Thus, the phalanx of the Hellenistic armies used terms such as Chrysaspides ( Greeks : Χρυσάσπιδες 'gold-shields'), Chalkaspides ('bronze-shields') and Leukaspides ('white-shields') to denote formations within their phalanxes, the two latter being important in the composition of the Antigonid phalanx . Antigonus Doson armed the citizens of Megalopolis as Bronze Shields for

32890-403: The conscription methods used turned the phalanx from a maneuverable formation into a bulky, slow-moving steam roller, whose charge no enemy was able to withstand. Maneuvers like the fake retreat of Phillip II at Chaeronea or the oblique advance of Alexander at Arbela were never again attempted, but, as long as the phalanx remained on relatively level terrain and its flanks were kept secure, it

33120-402: The countryside, especially in more distant areas where Jewish people were in the minority. Judas launched expeditions to these regions outlying Judea to fight non-Jewish Idumeans, Ammonites, and Galileans. He recruited devout Jews and sent them into Judea to concentrate his allies where they could be protected, although this influx of refugees would soon create food scarcity issues in the land

33350-399: The date of the cleansing in the Hebrew calendar, would later become the date when the festival of Hanukkah begins. Regent Lysias, preoccupied with internal Seleucid affairs, agreed to a political compromise that revoked Antiochus IV's ban on Jewish practices. This proved a wise decision: many Hellenized Jews had cautiously supported the revolt due to the suppression of their religion. With

33580-730: The defeat at Elasa. In several battles, the rebels may have had numerical superiority to compensate for shortfalls in training and equipment. After Jonathan was legitimized as high priest and governor by the Seleucid rulers, the Hasmoneans had easier access to recruitment; 20,000 soldiers are reported as repulsing Cendebeus in 139 BCE. Much of the combat in the revolt took place in hilly and mountainous terrain, which complicated warfare. Seleucid phalanxes trained for mountain combat would fight at somewhat greater distance from each other compared to packed lowland formations, and used slightly shorter but more maneuverable Roman-style pikes . The most detailed contemporaneous writings that survived were

33810-409: The defeat at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. The absence of auxiliaries from the army of Antiochus IV may have contributed to its strength. Making up for the loss of ethnic contingents, the army was supplemented by mercenaries, who were more experienced and better trained. The Thracian and Galatian mercenaries at Daphne would have been of good use in campaigns in the rough, hilly terrain. For example,

34040-498: The defeated enemy cavalry, he failed to return and charge the enemy phalanx. At the Battle of Cynoscephalae , the Aetolian cavalry played a key role in the battle and at Pydna , the Macedonian lancers suddenly left the battlefield allowing the Romans to surround and massacre Perseus ' phalanx. At Magnesia , the cataphracts routed the Roman legions but it was Eumenes ' cavalry that turned the tide and effectively ensured victory for

34270-403: The elephantomachia (elephant battle), while at the same time protecting their side from enemy infantry. A peculiar use of the elephants is attested during the Battle of Ipsus , where Seleucus Nicator posted his elephants in a long line between the battlefield and the victorious cavalry of Demetrius, effectively keeping him away and gaining victory. This incident might be the best attestation to

34500-679: The end of the 3rd century, the Boeotians did the same, thereby creating the 'Peltophoroi'. In his description of the Battle of Cynoscephalae , Polybius describes a unit called peltasts , a type of shielded, skirmishing, light infantry. It has been suggested that these peltasts were a picked corps, much like Alexander's hypaspists, 'an infantry force...which fought beside the phalanx in battle, but at other times employed for ambushes, forced marches and special expeditions'. The Peltasts were assigned special missions, such as an ambush in Lycestis or

34730-467: The enemy in dense formations. Javelineers were also called Tarentines and attacked the enemy from afar. Afterwards, they would charge the enemy with lances or keep their distance, in which case they were called light cavalry and/or Tarentines proper. A further category of light cavalry was that of the mounted bowmen, which were collectively called Scythians . These are broad categories, as attested by both Aelian and Asclepiodotus . Arrian 's categorization

34960-404: The enemy line, according to another, it should just be heavily armored. According to the Greeks, we have to define it as any cavalry that was not considered "light", that is, which was not purely skirmishing. Another aspect of the cavalry of the ancient era we have to keep in mind is the unwillingness to use even the best trained and heaviest of cavalries against any dense mass of able infantry. This

35190-573: The enemy was not accustomed to battle against them. But, if used for a frontal assault, the danger of them panicking and charging into the lines of their own army was great. As Livy attested, elephants were more dangerous when scared than when controlled. The Hellenistic generals were well aware of this fact and thus did not deploy them before or among their battle line, as was the case in Hydaspes or in Zama , both examples of how routing elephants could cost

35420-399: The enemy, with the remaining ranks angling theirs in a serried fashion, often leaning against their fellows' backs. If front-rankers were killed, those behind would lower their spears and step forward to maintain a solid frontline. In the event of close combat, or in circumstances where the sarissa was impractical, a variety of swords were employed - the classic xiphos , the kopis and

35650-426: The first century CE, but it is at least possible it was written much earlier, in the Maccabean or Hasmonean era, and then appended onto with first century CE updates. Even if it was entirely written in the first century CE, it was still likely influenced by the experience of Antiochus IV's reign. The Book of Enoch's early chapters were written around 300–200 BCE, but new sections were appended over time invoking

35880-450: The first testimony of cavalry gaining victory over the closed ordered ranks of a competent infantry, yet to no avail. The Seleucids also had moderate access to horse archers from their eastern borders, although they never fielded them in large numbers. The Ptolemies also deployed heavy armored lancers, never cataphracts, probably because of the high temperatures prevalent in their empire. In Macedonia, armored lancers were also deployed, after

36110-555: The form of scale or banded segments sewn onto a fabric. Riders' faces were covered in seamless metal helmets. The weight carried by the horse was excessive, and prolonged charges were out of the question. Instead, cataphracts trotted to within a reasonable distance before charging, exerting energy only during the decisive engagement. Once in combat, the cataphract and his steed enjoyed superb protection from attacks thanks to their armour. However, stamina, endurance and heat were always concerns in extended combat. The standard cataphract weapon

36340-493: The future wars that the Seleucids might be fighting would probably be in the eastern satrapies against mobile enemies and other large areas of land. Training troops in this way would add to the overall efficiency and capability of the army and make it more manoeuvrable. 'Romanized' troops were probably active in suppressing the Maccabean Revolt , such as their success at the Battle of Beth Zechariah in 162 BC. Thirdly,

36570-416: The hatred of the Maccabees after reports surfaced that he had blasphemed in the Temple and threatened to burn it. Nicanor took his forces into the field, and fought the Maccabees first at Caphar-salama, and then at the Battle of Adasa in late winter of 161 BCE. Nicanor was killed early in the fight, and the rest of his army fled afterward. Judas had been negotiating with the Roman Republic and extracted

36800-413: The head of the army was meant to show Antiochus IV's intention of reforming the entire Seleucid army along Roman lines, though whether or not this complete reform actually took place is unknown. The true extent of the adoption of Roman techniques is unknown; some have suggested that the infantry are in fact more likely to be Thureophoroi or Thorakitai , troops armed with an oval shield of the Celtic type,

37030-434: The increased phalanx... at Daphne is too obvious to be ignored". The principle guard infantry of the Seleucid army was the 'Silver-Shields', or Argyraspides. They were a permanently embodied guard unit, which was formed from the sons of military settlers. They were armed in the Macedonian manner with a sarissa and fought in the phalanx formation, much like the other Hellenistic armies of the time. The Argyraspides were probably

37260-552: The introduction of the Cataphract, can be sub-divided into several categories. Firstly, there were the heavy cavalry of which there were Kataphraktoi (armoured) and Aphraktoi (unarmoured). The Aphraktoi were divided into two groups, lancer and missile troops. The lancers, who performed the job of heavy cavalry before the Cataphract, were known by numerous names, for example dorataphoroi, sarissaphoroi, kontophoroi, xystophoroi and lonchophoroi. Xystophoroi and lonchophoroi were mentioned specifically by Titus Flamininus whilst in discussion with

37490-519: The king into battle or both the Hetairoi and Agema would escort the king under direct command. Amongst these units were the various grades of 'Kings Friends' or Basilikoi Philoi , who made up other elite cavalry units similar to the Companions. Hellenistic cavalry is much more diverse than the Greek cavalry of earlier eras. Greek tactical manuals categorize them as cataphracts (fully armored,

37720-440: The king's rich food; the prophet Daniel and his companions keep kosher and eat a diet of vegetables and water, yet emerge healthier than all the king's courtiers. The message is clear: defy Antiochus's decree and keep Jewish dietary law. Daniel predicts the king will go insane; Antiochus's title, "Epiphanes" ("Chosen of God"), was mocked by his enemies as "Epimanes" ("Madman"), and he was known to keep odd habits. When Daniel and

37950-433: The largest armies of their day, and could easily outmatch the numerical strength of either Phillip II or Alexander 's Macedonian full strength contingents. However, the size of the armies participating in different campaigns could vary extremely, from a few thousand to over 70,000 soldiers. Of these armies, outside Greece, only a fraction would have been of Greek origin, the rest being allied contingents and conscripts from

38180-413: The late 3rd century, having already reformed the foot soldiers into a Macedonian-style phalanx, also reformed the cavalry. The Achaean cavalry was organised into lochoi , files of eight men, who were then grouped into dilochiai , double files of 16, then grouped into oulamoi of 32, ilai of 64, hipparchiai of 128 and syntagmata of 256. The Antigonid kingdom of Macedon's cavalry only constituted

38410-426: The legitimacy of the Hasmonean rulers. Diaspora Jews celebrated it as well, fostering a sense of Jewish collective identity: it was a liberation day for all Jews, not merely Judean Jews. As a result, Hanukkah outlasted Hasmonean rule, although its importance receded as time passed. Hanukkah would gain new prominence in the 20th century and rekindle interest in its origins in the Maccabees. The Jewish victory at

38640-404: The local population. Lack of manpower was a serious concern for many Hellenistic rulers . The disparity between the manpower reserves available to Rome and to any other Hellenistic monarch had a profound influence on the way in which the opponents made war. Roman generals could more easily risk defeat in battle, while for Hellenistic generals, a defeat might cripple their manpower base for nearly

38870-426: The majority of the citizenry in Jerusalem, and presumably he still kept the basic Jewish laws and tenets. Three years later, a newcomer named Menelaus offered an even larger bribe to Antiochus IV for the position of high priest. Jason, resentful, turned against Antiochus IV; additionally, a rumor spread that Menelaus had sold golden temple artifacts to help pay for the bribe, leading to unhappiness, especially among

39100-529: The mid-third century BCE, the Spartan citizen population had decreased to a tiny fraction of what it had been at the time of the Persian Wars (Cleomenes' army could only field about 5,000 men ). The inchoate reforms of Agis IV around 240 BCE had failed after a reaction by those opposed to the reforms. The problem of the lack of man-at-arms was then taken up by Cleomenes III of Sparta, who attempted to address it by his radical reforms. Cleomenes III launched

39330-475: The moralistic slant of the sources means that their depictions of impious acts by Hellenists cannot be trusted as historical. For example, the claim that Menelaus stole temple vessels to pay for a bribe to Antiochus is merely aimed at delegitimizing them both. John Ma argues that the Temple was restored in 164 BCE upon petition by Menelaus to Antiochus, not liberated and rededicated by the Maccabees. These views have attracted partial support, but have not become

39560-465: The most prominent recusants butchered. In the aftermath of Antiochus IV issuing his decrees forbidding Jewish religious practice, a campaign of land confiscations paired with shrine and altar-building took place in the Judean countryside. A rural Jewish priest from Modein , Mattathias (Hebrew: Matityahu) of the Hasmonean family, sparked the revolt against the Seleucid Empire by refusing to worship

39790-456: The nadir of the phalanx's development). First made famous by Philip of Macedon , it allowed Macedonian infantry to "outrange" the opposition's existing spear formations by several feet. The sarissa would have been largely useless in single combat, but a compact, forward-facing infantry formation employing it would have been almost impossible to challenge. The first five ranks of the phalanx would have their sarissa projecting horizontally to face

40020-406: The next generation. Simon's third son, John Hyrcanus , became High Priest of Israel. King Antiochus VII would personally invade and besiege Jerusalem in 134 BCE, but after Hyrcanus paid a ransom and ceded the cities of Joppa and Gazara, the Seleucids left peacefully. The conflict ceased, and Hyrcanus and Antiochus VII joined themselves in an alliance, with Antiochus making a respectful donation of

40250-418: The northern frontiers and moved those Thracians south. This, combined with economic and political moves, re-built Macedonia and allowed for Perseus , Philip's successor, to be in a stronger position. Perseus had enough grain to last the army ten years - without drawing on harvests - enough money to hire 10,000 mercenaries for ten years, and field an army of 43,000 soldiers, a significant improvement compared to

40480-436: The observant would prosper, and disobedience would result in disaster. The persecution of Antiochus IV directly contradicted this teaching: for the first time, Jews were suffering precisely because they refused to violate Jewish law, and thus the most devout and observant Jews were the ones suffering the most. This resulted in literature suggesting that those who suffered in their earthly life would be rewarded afterward, such as

40710-438: The people from future killings. Bacchides advanced toward Jerusalem, while Judas encamped on the rough terrain at Elasa to intercept the Seleucid army. Judas opted to attack the right flank of the Seleucid army hoping to kill the commander, similar to the victory over Nicanor at Adasa. The elite horsemen on the right retreated, and the rebels pursued. This may have been a tactic from Bacchides, however, to feign weakness and draw

40940-474: The people; and he destroyed the godless out of Israel." The Maccabees were handed an opportunity as the Seleucids broke into infighting in a series of civil wars, the Seleucid Dynastic Wars . The Seleucid rival claimants to the throne needed all their troops elsewhere, and also wished to deny possible allies to other claimants, thus giving the Maccabees leverage. In 153–152 BCE, a deal

41170-433: The phalangite sarissa'. The cataphract had numerous advantages though. First, their armour provided protection from missiles, arrows, spears and pikes. Second, the kontos allowed them to block an enemy advance and attack from further away. For example, the Seleucid cataphracts were able to beat the Ptolemaic cavalry and attack their phalanx at Panium in 200 BC with relative ease. Nevertheless, they still had their problems. Like

41400-473: The phalanx and cavalry. Large numbers of native contingents fought at the Battle of Raphia in 217 BC. Among them were 10,000 Arab infantry, 5,000 Dahai, Carmanians and Cilicians. Certain ethnic contingents, be they vassal or mercenary, were of considerable use. For example, Thracian mercenaries along with Mysian, Cilician, Lycian, and Vassal troops from the mountainous areas of the empire were used by Antiochus III in conjunction with Thorakitai in his storming of

41630-490: The phalanx to lose its cohesion due to prolonged movement forward or advancement through unfavorable terrain, as at Pydna . Yet, regardless of the many Roman victories against the Hellenistic Kingdoms, the legion never won against a phalanx by frontal assault. Even at Pydna , it took the strange withdrawal of the Macedonian cavalry for the Romans to finally outflank the phalanx and claim a costly victory. As

41860-673: The phalanx'. Philopoemen too used this tactic at Mantinea in 207 BCE, making his phalanx more flexible. Much is made of Polybius' description of 5,000 Seleucid infantryman in 166 BCE armed in the 'Roman' fashion at a parade at Daphne. 'Romanized' troops are also mentioned in battle against the Maccabees . These reforms were probably undertaken by Antiochus IV because of several factors. Firstly, Antiochus IV 'had spent part of his early life in Rome and had acquired rather an excessive admiration for Rome's power and methods'. Secondly, to re-train

42090-452: The phalanx's irresistible pressure. It also had a tendency to fracture, when led across broken terrain for extended periods in close-ordered battle formation. The Romans would later be able to use this weakness against the phalanx as their more mobile maniples could withstand the pressure of the phalanx longer than more traditional formations, thus earning valuable time for their wings to outflank it, as at Cynoscephalae and Magnesia , or for

42320-430: The phalanx, an attack on their flank could prove fatal for the rider and these difficulties were exploited by infantry 'which assaulted the cataphracts from the flanks, attacking body parts of the riders and horses that were unprotected by armour'. The cataphracts could also have their kontos grabbed from them or be knocked off their horse. In order to remedy this, semi-heavy cavalry were needed to watch their flanks. While

42550-431: The phalanx, the Seleucid armies used a great deal of native and mercenary troops to supplement their Greek forces, which were limited due to the distance from the Seleucid rulers' Macedonian homeland. The distance from Greece put a strain on the Seleucid military system, as it was primarily based around the recruitment of Greeks as the key segment of the army. In order to increase the population of Greeks in their kingdom,

42780-439: The prime of their life, perhaps denoting their elite nature. It is possible that the missing 5,000 men of the Argyraspides were the 5,000 'Romanized' infantry marching alongside them. The training of a segment of the royal guard in "Roman' methods was probably down to several factors. Firstly, Antiochus IV had 'spent part of his early life in Rome and had acquired rather an excessive admiration for Rome's power and methods". Secondly,

43010-595: The probability that they were used throughout the Hellenistic era. Other formations attested and probably used were the Tarantenic circle, employed by the Tarentines proper and the Scythian formation, attested in use by the Scythian horse archers. Both were skirmishing formations and facilitated continuous harassment while at the same time providing the required mobility to avoid enemy charges. Although, throughout

43240-492: The rebels and confirm the repeal of the anti-Jewish decrees; the rebels, in return, abandoned their siege of the Seleucid Acra. Lysias and his army then returned to Antioch, with the province officially at peace, but neither the Hellenized Jews nor the Maccabees laid down their arms. At some point from 163–162 BCE, Lysias ordered the execution of despised High Priest Menelaus as another gesture of reconciliation to

43470-537: The region at first, and the Jews were largely content under his rule. One element that would come to later prominence was Antiochus IV replacing the high priest Onias III with his brother Jason after Jason offered a large sum of money to Antiochus. Jason also sought and received permission to make Jerusalem a self-governing polis , albeit with Jason able to control the citizenship lists of who would be able to vote and hold political office. These changes did not immediately appear to rouse any particular complaint from

43700-408: The reign of the Diadochi persisted from the late 4th century to the mid-first century BCE, they grew to rely more and more on an increasingly heavier and longer-speared phalanx to ensure victory. Complementary arms of the later Hellenistic armies were neglected, fell into disuse, or became the province of unreliable mercenaries and subject peoples. Sound and creative tactics became increasingly rare as

43930-467: The respected historian Polybius reports that in 165 BCE, a military parade near the Seleucid capital Antioch held by Antiochus IV consisted of 41,000 foot soldiers and 4,500 cavalrymen. These soldiers were preparing to fight in an expedition to the east, not in Judea, but give a rough estimate to the total size of the Seleucid forces in the Western part of their empire capable of being deployed wherever

44160-421: The rest (the other 5,000) agryaspides . The existence of a separate corps of Golden-Shields is supported by a reading of 1 Maccabees that poetically refers to "shields of gold and brass" and some other scattered references in Greek literature, although is contested by some such as Nicholas Sekunda who argues that no such division existed, and the Seleucid phalanx in general were called 'silver-shields'. There

44390-475: The result of convergent evolution , with both cultures influencing each other. By the time of Mithridates VI , we are told that the Pontic army had troops armed in the Roman fashion and by 86 BCE Mithridates had created an army of 120,000 such troops. This was after an alliance between Mithridates and Sertorius , an enemy of Sulla , in which Sertorius sent a military mission to reorganize Mithridates' army along Roman lines. These 'Roman' troops fought alongside

44620-413: The revisionist view, the heroes and villains were both Jews: a majority of the Jews cautiously supported Hellenizing High Priest Menelaus; Antiochus IV's edicts only came about due to pressure from Hellenist Jews; and the revolt was best understood as a civil war between traditionalist Jews in the countryside and Hellenized Jews in the cities, with only occasional Seleucid intervention. Elias Bickerman

44850-533: The rival claimants to the Seleucid throne. The Romans, increasingly after the death of Antiochus IV, supported those claimants who they felt would be weak and no threat to them. The Roman senate supported the young and weak Antiochus V over the stronger and more capable Demetrius, who was a hostage in Rome at the time. When Demetrius took the throne as Demetrius I , Rome further undermined him by supporting Alexander Balas and numerous rebel groups, such as those of John Hyrcanus in Judea. The ever weakening empire led to

45080-415: The ruler needed them, not including local auxiliaries and garrisons. Antiochus IV appears to have augmented the size of his army by hiring additional mercenaries , at cost to the Seleucid treasury. Most of the forces at that parade would be deployed on matters more important to the Seleucid leadership than suppressing the Judean rebellion, however, and as such only a portion of them likely participated in

45310-401: The setting of the book is 400 years earlier in Babylon, the book is a literary response to the situation in Judea during the revolt ( Sitz im Leben ); the writer chose to move the setting either for esoteric reasons or to evade scrutiny from would-be censors. It urges its readers to remain steadfast in the face of persecution. For example, Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar orders his court to eat

45540-553: The situation of Philip V at Cynoscephalae in 197 BCE, who fielded an army of 25,500 men. The eastern kingdoms of the Ptolemaic , Seleucid , Graeco-Bactrian and Indo Greek kingdoms , had an even more problematic situation. The basis of their militaries relied on Greeks, which were not common to the areas that they ruled over. In order to overcome this, these kingdoms set up military colonies, known as Klerouchoi, to settle mercenaries and others from Greece. The system would allow for

45770-445: The standing guard cavalry unit of the army, serving in peace and in war. However, it seems that writers referred to them by several names other than just the 'companions'; the basilike ile ('royal squadron' or 'regia ala' according to Livy), and the hippos hetairike ('horse companions'). Bar-Kochva presumes that from this their full title may well have been the 'royal ala of the companions'. The Agema 'consisted of Medes, selected men, with

46000-455: The state's cavalry, although there are cross-overs and similarities between different kingdoms. The Boeotian League 's cavalry was commanded by a Hipparchos and each cavalry squadron ( ile , pl. ilai ) was led by an ilarchos . They also had a tarantinarchos who commanded the League's Tarantine skirmishing cavalry. The Aetolian League became well known for its cavalry and, by the end of

46230-610: The storming of Cephallenia, as shock troops. The elite of the Peltast corps were known as the 'Agema'. The term peltast was also used by Diodorus Siculus to describe the Iphicratean hoplite, introduced by the Athenian general Iphicrates . These peltasts were equipped with a lighter armor, a longer spear, and a smaller shield. It could be that the peltasts described by Polybius were similarly equipped. New troop types, such as

46460-421: The story's heroine, also bears the feminine form of the name "Judas". The Testament of Moses, similar to the Book of Daniel, provides a witness to Jewish attitudes leading up to the revolt: it describes persecution, denounces impious leaders and priests as collaborators, praises the virtues of martyrdom, and predicts God's retribution upon the oppressors. The Testament is usually considered to have been written in

46690-432: The successful campaign, High Priest Menelaus allegedly invited Antiochus inside the Second Temple (in violation of Jewish law), and he raided the temple treasury for 1800 talents . Tensions with the Ptolemaic dynasty continued, and Antiochus rode out on campaign again in 168 BCE. Jason heard a rumor that Antiochus had perished, and launched an attempted coup against Menelaus in Jerusalem. Hearing of this, Antiochus, who

46920-402: The third century BCE who wrote about Judaism did so mostly positively. Cultural change did happen, but was largely driven by Jews themselves inspired by ideas from abroad; Greek rulers did not undertake explicit programs of forced Hellenization . Antiochus IV Epiphanes came to the throne of the Seleucids in 175 BCE, and did not change this policy. He appears to have done little to antagonize

47150-547: The third century BCE. Many Jews adopted dual names with both a Greek name and a Hebrew name, such as Jason and Joshua. Still, many Jews continued to speak the Aramaic language , the language that descended from what was spoken during the Babylonian exile. In general, the ruling Greek policy during this time period was to let Jews manage their own affairs and not interfere overtly with religious matters. Greek authors in

47380-455: The time period and analyzed them, which have informed historians on the plausibility of various elements in the books. For recent examples, a stele (the " Helidorus stele ") was discovered and deciphered in 2007 that dated from around 178 BCE, and gives insight to Seleucid government appointments and policy in the era immediately preceding the revolt. The Givati Parking Lot dig in Jerusalem from 2007–2015 has found possible evidence of

47610-539: The tradition of Alexander's Hetairoi, yet their capability could not compare to that of their predecessors. In the rest of the Greek world, cavalry maintained its traditional equipment of javelin and short lance. Apart from the cavalry types used by the Greeks, the Hellenistic kingdoms also used cavalry from subordinate and allied barbarian states, which varied in quality, armor and equipment. Mercenary cavalry troops were also employed, including Thracians , Armenians , and even Berbers from North Africa. No cavalry formation

47840-477: The true numbers were larger and possibly as many as 22,000 soldiers, and the author downplayed their strength in an attempt to explain the defeat. The Seleucid army marched through Judea after carrying out a massacre in the Galilee . This tactic would force Judas to respond in open battle, lest his reputation be damaged by inaction and Alcimus's faction gain strength by claiming he was better positioned to protect

48070-425: The unwillingness of horses to approach an elephant. Maccabean Revolt The Maccabean Revolt ( Hebrew : מרד החשמונאים ) was a Jewish rebellion led by the Maccabees against the Seleucid Empire and against Hellenistic influence on Jewish life. The main phase of the revolt lasted from 167 to 160 BCE and ended with the Seleucids in control of Judea , but conflict between the Maccabees, Hellenized Jews, and

48300-668: The usual auxiliary, citizen and militia cavalry units, the main elite cavalry units of the Seleucids were the Agema and the Hetairoi ("Companions"). The Hetairoi were the standing elite cavalry unit of the Seleucid army, serving both in peace and war. The Agema was recruited from the Medes and their neighbours, although after the Parthian conquest of Media they were probably recruited from Macedonian settlers. The Hetairoi would escort

48530-467: The way for Roman supremacy in the region. The major Hellenistic states were the Seleucid Empire , Ptolemaic Egypt , and Macedonia under the Antigonid dynasty . Smaller states included the Kingdom of Pergamum , Pontus , Epirus , the Achaean League , the Aetolian League , and the city states of Syracuse , Athens , Sparta , and others. The Diadochi were capable of deploying some of

48760-407: The western part of the empire. Bacchides led an army of 20,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry into Judea on a second expedition intending to reconquer the restive province before it grew too used to autonomy. The size of the rebel army facing them is disputed; 1 Maccabees implausibly claims that Judas's army at Elasa was tiny, with 3,000 men of which only 800–1,000 would fight. Historians suspect

48990-427: The years, and was also dependent on the geographical region, the preference/wealth of the ruler, and the assets of the individual soldier. Helmets ranged from simple, open-faced affairs to stylized Thracian models (complete with mask-like cheek protectors that often imitated a human face). Historians argue about how common body armor would have been among phalangites, especially those in the middle ranks, but when it

49220-501: Was de jure part of the Seleucid Empire, but continuing civil wars gave the Maccabees considerable autonomy. Jonathan was given official authority to build and maintain an army in exchange for his aid. During this period, the legitimized armies of Jonathan fought in these civil wars and border struggles to maintain the favor of allied Seleucid leaders. The Seleucids did send an army back into Judea during this period, but Jonathan evaded it and refused battle until it eventually returned to

49450-567: Was a xyston -like spear. For close-quarter combat, a mace or sword was made available as a secondary weapon. The mace and cataphract ideas were combined into the Sassanid -introduced and Roman-named Clibanarii , who were armoured, both man and beast, in chainmail, and armed with a mace. Besides the Seleucids it is possible that also the Kingdom of Pergamon adopted some cataphracts. Pergamese reliefs show cavalry similarly armed and equipped as Seleucid cataphracts, indicating an adoption. Yet these were probably equipped from trophies taken from

49680-406: Was a militia, at least in Syria. They were from the Greek cities who had no specific role within the regular army. We do not find the militias involved in the great campaigns before the general decline of the kingdom, which occurred in the latter half of the second century BC. By then, many important military settlements had fallen to Pergamon and Parthia . In 148 BC, at the Battle of Azotos against

49910-422: Was accepted into Jerusalem, and proved more effective at rallying moderate Hellenists to the pro-Seleucid faction than Menelaus had been. Still, violent tensions between the Maccabees and the Hellenized Jews continued. Bacchides returned to Syria, and a new general, Nicanor , was appointed military governor of Judea. A truce was briefly made between Nicanor and the Maccabees, but was soon broken. Nicanor gained

50140-405: Was an infantry formation, characterized by dense ranks and pikes ( sarissas ). Their soldiers (known as phalangites ) ranged from professional warriors, drilled in tactics, weapon use and formation, typically of Greek origin; to trained, non-Greek villagers, as was the case in the army of Ptolemy Philopator , the victor of Raphia . Certain reforms in the weight of the phalangite equipment and

50370-444: Was at an end. For Antiochus the unexpected conquest of the city ( Jerusalem ), the looting, and the wholesale slaughter were not enough. His psychopathic tendency was exacerbated by resentment at what the siege had cost him, and he tried to force the Jews to violate their traditional codes of practice by leaving their infant sons uncircumcised and sacrificing pigs on the altar. These orders were universally ignored, and Antiochus had

50600-400: Was granted the title of both High Priest and strategos by Alexander, essentially acknowledging that the Maccabee faction was a more relevant ally to would-be Seleucid leaders than the Hellenist faction. Jonathan's forces fought against Demetrius I, who would die in battle in 150 BCE. From 152–141 BCE, the rebels achieved a state of informal autonomy akin to a suzerain . The land

50830-428: Was known as the 'Cretan Tyranny'. Not long after, the majority of the citizen militia was wiped out in Antiochus VII 's disastrous Parthian War of 129 BC. The militia were most likely armed and fought in the style of the Thureophoroi . Due to the lack of Greeks in the lands of the Seleucid kingdom, the use of allied, vassal and mercenary troops was great. They were often used as light and auxiliary troops, supplementing

51060-437: Was not conquered by any other formation. Although it has been argued that the role of the phalanx on the battlefield was to act as an anchor for the entire army, holding the enemy in place, pushing him back, exerting a heavy toll on enemy morale, while the cavalry struck the enemy flanks and delivered the fatal blow to cripple their opponents, in most battles it was used as the main weapon to achieve victory. Equipment varied over

51290-454: Was not dead, apparently interpreted this factional infighting as a revolt against his personal authority, and sent an army to crush Jason's plotters. From 168–167 BCE, the conflict spiraled out of control, and government policy radically shifted. Thousands in Jerusalem were killed and thousands more were enslaved; the city was attacked twice; new Greek governors were sent; the government seized land and property from Jason's supporters; and

51520-453: Was placed under direct Seleucid control, and the Second Temple in Jerusalem was made the site of a syncretic Pagan-Jewish cult. This repression triggered exactly the revolt that Antiochus IV had feared, with a group of Jewish fighters led by Judas Maccabeus (Judah Maccabee) and his family rebelling in 167 BCE and seeking independence. The rebels as a whole would come to be known as the Maccabees, and their actions would be chronicled later in

51750-482: Was reserved for units comprising men of aristocratic blood. These doratophoroi were primarily used against enemy cavalry; their use against densely deployed infantry was very limited. Their extreme version were the cataphracts of the Seleucid cavalry. The various Agemata (pl. of Agema), usually the elite bodyguards of the Hellenistic Kings, were similarly armed. Cataphracts were heavily armed and armoured cavalrymen. The Cataphract (Kataphraktoi) were first introduced into

51980-437: Was struck between Jonathan and Demetrius I. King Demetrius was fending off a challenge from Alexander Balas , and agreed to withdraw Seleucid forces from the fortified towns and garrisons in Judea, barring Beth-Zur and Jerusalem. The hostages were also released. Seleucid control over Judea was weakened, and then weakened further; Jonathan promptly betrayed Demetrius I after Alexander Balas offered an even better deal. Jonathan

52210-424: Was too riven with internal unrest to stop this, and Ptolemaic Egypt maintained largely friendly relations. The Hasmonean court at Jerusalem would not make a sharp break from Hellenic culture and language, and continued with a blend of Jewish traditions and Greek ones. They continued to be known by Greek names, would use both Hebrew and Greek on their coinage, and hired Greek mercenaries, but also restored Judaism to

52440-513: Was usually employed to cover a retreat or pursue a retreating enemy. A cavalry engagement usually involved a lengthy exchange of javelins; close combat was avoided. The Macedonian Hetairoi (Companions; Companion Cavalry) may have been the first true, able shock cavalry, armed with long lances and heavy armor. Their tradition was carried on in the Hellenistic times and troops similarly armed were called doratophoroi or xystophoroi (both terms translated as lance bearers or plainly lancers). The term Hetairoi

52670-443: Was whoever held the High Priest position after Alcimus's death in 159 BCE, perhaps a Zadokite. If this person even existed, they lost their position after Jonathan Apphus, backed by his Maccabee army and his new alliance with Seleucid royal claimant Alexander Balas, took over the High Priest position in 152 BCE. Thus, the Wicked Priest would be Jonathan, and the Qumran community of the era would have consisted of religious opposition to

52900-412: Was worn it ranged from a cuirass of hardened linen (the linothorax ), that may or may not have been reinforced/decorated with metal scales to metallic (typically bronze) breastplates. The phalangite's shield - long misconstrued thanks to its description as a "buckler" by several writers - was a 2-foot (0.61 m)-diameter affair and less concave than the hoplite's aspis . It was secured by both

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