In philosophy , the self is an individual 's own being , knowledge , and values , and the relationship between these attributes.
147-428: The first-person perspective distinguishes selfhood from personal identity . Whereas "identity" is (literally) sameness and may involve categorization and labeling , selfhood implies a first-person perspective and suggests potential uniqueness. Conversely, "person" is used as a third-person reference. Personal identity can be impaired in late-stage Alzheimer's disease and in other neurodegenerative diseases . Finally,
294-410: A substantive self. The reductionist theory, according to Giles, mistakenly resurrects the idea of the self in terms of various accounts about psychological relations . The no-self theory, on the other hand, "lets the self lie where it has fallen". This is because the no-self theory rejects all theories of the self, even the bundle theory. On Giles' reading, Hume is actually a no-self theorist and it
441-514: A certain level of performance relative to controls on working memory tasks. These abnormalities may be linked to the consistent post-mortem finding of reduced neuropil , evidenced by increased pyramidal cell density and reduced dendritic spine density. These cellular and functional abnormalities may also be reflected in structural neuroimaging studies that find reduced grey matter volume in association with deficits in working memory tasks. Positive symptoms have been linked to cortical thinning in
588-506: A correlation between the postulating series of causal links between culture and self-construals, finding instead that correlations between traits varied both across cultures did not correlate with Markus & Kitayama's identifications of "independent" or "interdependent" self. The philosophy of self seeks to describe essential qualities that constitute a person's uniqueness or a person's essential being. There have been various approaches to defining these qualities. The self can be considered as
735-475: A culture is found by individuals in the setting of their own life. There can be different types of spiritual Self because it is determined by one's life and experiences." Human beings have a Self—that is, they are able to look back on themselves as both subjects and objects in the universe. Ultimately, this brings questions about who we are and the nature of our own importance. Traditions such as in Buddhism see
882-539: A first-episode psychosis, and following remission, a preventive maintenance use is continued to avoid relapse. However, it is recognized that some people do recover following a single episode and that long-term use of antipsychotics will not be needed but there is no way of identifying this group. The primary treatment of schizophrenia is the use of antipsychotic medications , often in combination with psychosocial interventions and social supports . Community support services including drop-in centers, visits by members of
1029-481: A fitness advantage in unaffected individuals. While some evidence has not supported this idea, others propose that a large number of alleles each contributing a small amount can persist. A meta-analysis found that oxidative DNA damage was significantly increased in schizophrenia. Environmental factors, each associated with a slight risk of developing schizophrenia in later life include oxygen deprivation , infection, prenatal maternal stress , and malnutrition in
1176-592: A number of drug withdrawal syndromes . Non-bizarre delusions are also present in delusional disorder , and social withdrawal in social anxiety disorder , avoidant personality disorder and schizotypal personality disorder . Schizotypal personality disorder has symptoms that are similar but less severe than those of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia occurs along with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) considerably more often than could be explained by chance, although it can be difficult to distinguish obsessions that occur in OCD from
1323-441: A number of signs and symptoms, a period known as the prodromal stage . Up to 75% of those with schizophrenia go through a prodromal stage. The negative and cognitive symptoms in the prodrome stage can precede FEP (first episode psychosis) by many months and up to five years. The period from FEP and treatment is known as the duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) which is seen to be a factor in functional outcome. The prodromal stage
1470-463: A person undergoes a dramatic change (e.g., traumatic brain injury), people are less likely to think that the person is the "same" after their dramatic change if the person became morally worse (as opposed to morally better). Data like this support the "moral self hypothesis", that "moral traits are essential" to personal identity, with some going as far as saying that, "When someone undergoes dramatic mental change, their numerical identity—whether they're
1617-723: A poor prognosis, and poor quality of life. Sleep onset and maintenance insomnia is a common symptom, regardless of whether treatment has been received or not. Genetic variations have been found associated with these conditions involving the circadian rhythm , dopamine and histamine metabolism , and signal transduction. Schizophrenia is also associated with a number of somatic comorbidities including diabetes mellitus type 2 , autoimmune diseases , and cardiovascular diseases . The association of these with schizophrenia may be partially due to medications (e.g. dyslipidemia from antipsychotics), environmental factors (e.g. complications from an increased rate of cigarette smoking), or associated with
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#17327660437141764-637: A prenatal viral infection . Other infections during pregnancy or around the time of birth that have been linked to an increased risk include infections by Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia . The increased risk is about five to eight percent. Viral infections of the brain during childhood are also linked to a risk of schizophrenia during adulthood. Cat exposure is also associated with an increased risk of broadly defined schizophrenia-related disorders, with an odds ratio of 2.4. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), severe forms of which are classed as childhood trauma , range from being bullied or abused, to
1911-403: A psychotic episode in schizophrenia, including delusions , hallucinations , and disorganized thoughts, speech and behavior or inappropriate affect, typically regarded as manifestations of psychosis. Hallucinations occur at some point in the lifetimes of 80% of those with schizophrenia and most commonly involve the sense of hearing (most often hearing voices ), but can sometimes involve any of
2058-453: A reverse relationship is found where their use improves these symptoms. However, substance use disorders are associated with an increased risk of suicide, and a poor response to treatment. Cannabis use may be a contributory factor in the development of schizophrenia, potentially increasing the risk of the disease in those who are already at risk. The increased risk may require the presence of certain genes within an individual. Its use
2205-428: A significant impact on social or occupational functioning for at least six months. One of the symptoms needs to be either delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech. A second symptom could be one of the negative symptoms, or severely disorganized or catatonic behaviour . A different diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder can be made before the six months needed for the diagnosis of schizophrenia. In Australia,
2352-525: A solution raises questions. Perceptual experiences depend on stimuli which arrive at various sensory organs from the external world and these stimuli cause changes in mental states ; ultimately causing sensation . A desire for food, for example, will tend to cause a person to move their body in a manner and in a direction to obtain food. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of an organ (the human brain ) possessing electrochemical properties. A related problem
2499-460: A stigmatized group. According to Cox, Abramson , Devine , and Hollon (2012), if an individual has prejudice against a certain group, like the elderly and then later becomes part of this group. This prejudice can be turned inward causing depression. The philosophy of a disordered self, such as in schizophrenia , is described in terms of what the psychiatrist understands are actual events in terms of neuron excitation but are delusions nonetheless, and
2646-499: A sufficient bond and association. It is likewise evident that as the senses, in changing their objects, are necessitated to change them regularly, and take them as they lie contiguous to each other, the imagination must by long custom acquire the same method of thinking, and run along the parts of space and time in conceiving its objects. Note in particular that, in Hume's view, these perceptions do not belong to anything. Hume, similar to
2793-414: A temporary stimulant psychosis , which presents very similarly to schizophrenia. Rarely, alcohol use can also result in a similar alcohol-related psychosis . Drugs may also be used as coping mechanisms by people who have schizophrenia, to deal with depression, anxiety , boredom, and loneliness . The use of cannabis and tobacco are not associated with the development of cognitive deficits, and sometimes
2940-480: A third of people do not respond to initial antipsychotics, in which case clozapine is offered. In a network comparative meta-analysis of 15 antipsychotic drugs, clozapine was significantly more effective than all other drugs, although clozapine's heavily multimodal action may cause more significant side effects. In situations where doctors judge that there is a risk of harm to self or others, they may impose short involuntary hospitalization . Long-term hospitalization
3087-407: A thought experiment appealing to the intuitions about what it is to be the same person in the future . The thought experiment consists of two approaches to the same experiment. For the first approach Williams suggests that suppose that there is some process by which subjecting two persons to it can result in the two persons have " exchanged " bodies. The process has put into the body of person B
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#17327660437143234-408: A total of 24 million cases globally. Males are more often affected and on average have an earlier onset than females. The causes of schizophrenia may include genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include a variety of common and rare genetic variants . Possible environmental factors include being raised in a city , childhood adversity, cannabis use during adolescence, infections,
3381-547: Is a mistake to attribute to him a reductionist view like the bundle theory. Hume's assertion that personal identity is a fiction supports this reading, according to Giles. The Buddhist view of personal identity is also a no-self theory rather than a reductionist theory, because the Buddha rejects attempts to reconstructions in terms of consciousness, feelings, or the body in notions of an eternal/permanent, unchanging Self , since our thoughts, personalities and bodies are never
3528-462: Is a reflection of dysfunction in other processes related to reward. Overall, a failure of reward prediction is thought to lead to impairment in the generation of cognition and behavior required to obtain rewards, despite normal hedonic responses. Another theory links abnormal brain lateralization to the development of being left-handed which is significantly more common in those with schizophrenia. This abnormal development of hemispheric asymmetry
3675-580: Is a set of psychotherapeutic principles and techniques established by the Austrian-born American psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut upon the foundation of the psychoanalytic method developed by Freud, and is specifically focused on the subjectivity of experience, which, according to self psychology, is mediated by a psychological structure called the self. Examples of psychiatric conditions where such "sameness" may become broken include depersonalization , which sometimes occurs in schizophrenia , where
3822-452: Is affected the risk is about 13% and if both are affected the risk is nearly 50%. However, the DSM-5 indicates that most people with schizophrenia have no family history of psychosis. Results of candidate gene studies of schizophrenia have generally failed to find consistent associations, and the genetic loci identified by genome-wide association studies explain only a small fraction of
3969-406: Is associated with doubling the rate. The causes of schizophrenia are unknown, and a number of models have been put forward to explain the link between altered brain function and schizophrenia. The prevailing model of schizophrenia is that of a neurodevelopmental disorder, and the underlying changes that occur before symptoms become evident are seen as arising from the interaction between genes and
4116-402: Is based on consciousness, and only oneself can be aware of one's consciousness, exterior human judges may never know if they are really judging—and punishing—the same person, or simply the same body. In other words, Locke argues that one may be judged only for the acts of the body, as this is what is apparent to all but God. We are only responsible for the acts of which we are conscious. This forms
4263-492: Is based on the Buddhist concept of anatta , "a continuously evolving flow of awareness." Malcolm David Eckel states that "the self changes at every moment and has no permanent identity" —it is a "constant process of changing or becoming;" a "fluid ever-changing self." David Hume undertook looking at the mind–body problem . Hume also investigated a person's character, the relationship between human and animal nature, and
4410-462: Is concerned with the mental operations needed to interpret, and understand the self and others in the social world. This is also an associated impairment, and facial emotion perception is often found to be difficult. Facial perception is critical for ordinary social interaction. Cognitive impairments do not usually respond to antipsychotics, and there are a number of interventions that are used to try to improve them; cognitive remediation therapy
4557-434: Is designed to bring out intuitions about corporeal continuity. The thought experiment discusses cases in which a person is teleported from Earth to Mars. Ultimately, the inability to specify where on a spectrum the transmitted person stops being identical to the initial person on Earth appears to show that having a numerically identical physical body is not the criterion for personal identity. In another concept of mind ,
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4704-476: Is difficult to distinguish childhood schizophrenia from autism. Prevention of schizophrenia is difficult as there are no reliable markers for the later development of the disorder. Early intervention programs diagnose and treat patients in the prodromal phase of the illness. There is some evidence that these programs reduce symptoms. Patients tend to prefer early treatment programs to ordinary treatment and are less likely to disengage from them. As of 2020, it
4851-401: Is later seen to be balanced by a post-menopausal increase in the development in females. Estrogen produced pre-menopause has a dampening effect on dopamine receptors but its protection can be overridden by a genetic overload. There has been a dramatic increase in the numbers of older adults with schizophrenia. Onset may happen suddenly or may occur after the slow and gradual development of
4998-733: Is no objective diagnostic test; diagnosis is based on observed behavior, a psychiatric history that includes the person's reported experiences, and reports of others familiar with the person. For a diagnosis of schizophrenia, the described symptoms need to have been present for at least six months (according to the DSM-5 ) or one month (according to the ICD-11 ). Many people with schizophrenia have other mental disorders, especially mood disorders , anxiety disorders , and obsessive–compulsive disorder . About 0.3% to 0.7% of people are diagnosed with schizophrenia during their lifetime. In 2017, there were an estimated 1.1 million new cases and in 2022
5145-575: Is noted in Other specified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders as a DSM-5 category. Schizoaffective disorder is diagnosed if symptoms of mood disorder are substantially present alongside psychotic symptoms. Psychosis that results from a general medical condition or substance is termed secondary psychosis. Psychotic symptoms may be present in several other conditions, including bipolar disorder , borderline personality disorder , substance intoxication , substance-induced psychosis , and
5292-473: Is noted in schizophrenia. Studies have concluded that the link is a true and verifiable effect that may reflect a genetic link between lateralization and schizophrenia. Bayesian models of brain functioning have been used to link abnormalities in cellular functioning to symptoms. Both hallucinations and delusions have been suggested to reflect improper encoding of prior expectations , thereby causing expectation to excessively influence sensory perception and
5439-424: Is of particular help. Neurological soft signs of clumsiness and loss of fine motor movement are often found in schizophrenia, which may resolve with effective treatment of FEP. Onset typically occurs between the late teens and early 30s, with the peak incidence occurring in males in the early to mid-twenties, and in females in the late twenties. Onset before the age of 17 is known as early-onset, and before
5586-449: Is often made between those negative symptoms that are inherent to schizophrenia, termed primary; and those that result from positive symptoms, from the side effects of antipsychotics, substance use disorder, and social deprivation – termed secondary negative symptoms. Negative symptoms are less responsive to medication and the most difficult to treat. However, if properly assessed, secondary negative symptoms are amenable to treatment. There
5733-405: Is only one of many problems in the philosophy of self and scientific study of consciousness . The psychology of self is the study of either the cognitive and affective representation of one's identity or the subject of experience. The earliest formulation of the self in modern psychology forms the distinction between two elements I and me. The self as I , is the subjective knower. While,
5880-474: Is possible to correlate cognitive and affective experiences of self with neural processes. A goal of this ongoing research is to provide grounding insight into the elements of which the complex multiple situated selves of human identity are composed. What the Freudian tradition has subjectively called, "sense of self" is for Jungian analytic psychology, where one's identity is lodged in the persona or ego and
6027-445: Is referred to as the diachronic problem of personal identity. The synchronic problem concerns the question of what features and traits characterize a person at a given time. Analytic philosophy and continental philosophy both inquire about the nature of identity. Continental philosophy deals with conceptually maintaining identity when confronted by different philosophic propositions , postulates , and presuppositions about
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6174-476: Is related to the concept of anattā in Buddhist philosophy. In Buddhism, the term anattā ( Pali : 𑀅𑀦𑀢𑁆𑀢𑀸 ) or anātman ( Sanskrit : अनात्मन् ) is the doctrine of "non-self" – that no unchanging, permanent self or essence can be found in any phenomenon. While often interpreted as a doctrine denying the existence of a self, anatman is more accurately described as a strategy to attain non-attachment by recognizing everything as impermanent, while staying silent on
6321-408: Is seen to have a role in the neurobiology of schizophrenia. The most common model put forward was the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia , which attributes psychosis to the mind's faulty interpretation of the misfiring of dopaminergic neurons . This has been directly related to the symptoms of delusions and hallucinations. Abnormal dopamine signaling has been implicated in schizophrenia based on
6468-467: Is self-identity founded on the body substance, argues Locke, as the body may change while the person remains the same. Even the identity of animals is not founded on their body: "animal identity is preserved in identity of life, and not of substance," as the body of the animal grows and changes during its life. On the other hand, identity of humans is based on their consciousness. This border case leads to this problematic thought that since personal identity
6615-492: Is some evidence that the negative symptoms of schizophrenia are amenable to psychostimulant medication, although such drugs have varying degrees of risk for causing positive psychotic symptoms. Scales for specifically assessing the presence of negative symptoms, and for measuring their severity, and their changes have been introduced since the earlier scales such as the PANNS that deals with all types of symptoms. These scales are
6762-647: Is subject to change in maturation. Carl Jung distinguished, "The self is not only the center but also the whole circumference which embraces both conscious and unconscious; it is the center of this totality...". The Self in Jungian psychology is "the archetype of wholeness and the regulating center of the psyche ... a transpersonal power that transcends the ego." As a Jungian archetype , it cannot be seen directly, but by ongoing individuating maturation and analytic observation, can be experienced objectively by its cohesive wholeness-making factor. Meanwhile, self psychology
6909-636: Is supposed to be egoistic, unique, separated from the various contexts, critical in judgment, and prone to self-expression. The interdependent self is supposed to be altruistic, similar with the others, flexible according to contexts, conformist, and unlikely to express opinions that would disturb the harmony of his or her group of belonging. However, this theory has been criticized by other sociologists, including David Matsumoto for being based on popular stereotypes and myths about different cultures rather than on rigorous scientific research. A 2016 study of 10,203 participants from 55 cultural groups also failed to find
7056-411: Is that in all the scenarios one is to be afraid of being tortured, that it is still one's self despite having one's memories erased and receiving new memories. The last scenario is identical to the first. In the first approach, intuition is to show that one's psychological continuity is the criterion for personal identity, but in second approach, intuition is that it is one's bodily continuity that
7203-456: Is the Self's search for "ultimate meaning" through an independent comprehension of the sacred. Another definition of spiritual identity is: "A persistent sense of Self that addresses ultimate questions about the nature, purpose, and meaning of life, resulting in behaviors that are consonant with the individual’s core values. Spiritual identity appears when the symbolic religious and spiritual value of
7350-418: Is the criterion for personal identity. The second approach is to suppose that someone is told that one will have memories erased and then one will be tortured . Does one need to be afraid of being tortured? The intuition is that people will be afraid of being tortured, since it will still be one despite not having one's memories. Next, Williams asked one to consider several similar scenarios . Intuition
7497-454: Is the criterion for personal identity. To resolve this conflict Williams feels one's intuition in the second approach is stronger and if he was given the choice of distributing a punishment and a reward he would want his body-person to receive the reward and the other body-person to receive the punishment, even if that other body-person has his memories. In psychology , personal continuity, also called personal persistence or self-continuity ,
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#17327660437147644-450: Is the ego, also called the learned, superficial Self of mind and body, egoic creation, and the Self which is sometimes called the "True Self", the "Observing Self", or the "Witness". In Hinduism , the Ātman (Self), despite being experienced as an individual, is actually a representation of the unified transcendent reality, Brahman . Our experience of reality doesn't match the nature of Brahman due to māyā . One description of spirituality
7791-435: Is the high-risk stage for the development of psychosis. Since the progression to first episode psychosis is not inevitable, an alternative term is often preferred of at risk mental state . Cognitive dysfunction at an early age impacts a young person's usual cognitive development. Recognition and early intervention at the prodromal stage would minimize the associated disruption to educational and social development and has been
7938-465: Is the name for this self. Wherever a man finds what he calls himself, there, I think, another may say is the same person. It is a forensic term, appropriating actions and their merit; and so belong only to intelligent agents, capable of a law, and happiness, and misery. This personality extends itself beyond present existence to what is past, only by consciousness,—whereby it becomes concerned and accountable; owns and imputes to itself past actions, just upon
8085-440: Is the uninterrupted connection concerning a particular person of their private life and personality . Personal continuity is the union affecting the facets arising from personality in order to avoid discontinuities from one moment of time to another time. Personal continuity is an important part of identity ; this is the process of ensuring that the qualities of the mind, such as self-awareness , sentience , sapience , and
8232-516: Is to a prior version of themselves) rather than numerical identity (i.e., whether there are two or more people described by cases in which a person undergoes a dramatic change). Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized variously by hallucinations (typically, hearing voices ), delusions , disorganized thinking and behavior, and flat or inappropriate affect . Symptoms develop gradually and typically begin during young adulthood and are never resolved. There
8379-424: Is to explain how propositional attitudes (e.g. beliefs and desires) can cause neurons of the brain to fire and muscles to contract in the correct manner. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted epistemologists and philosophers of mind from at least the time of René Descartes . John Locke considered personal identity (or the self ) to be founded on consciousness (viz. memory ), and not on
8526-444: Is treated as both verbal and non-verbal. Apathy accounts for around 50% of the most often found negative symptoms and affects functional outcome and subsequent quality of life. Apathy is related to disrupted cognitive processing affecting memory and planning including goal-directed behaviour. The two subdomains have suggested a need for separate treatment approaches. A lack of distress is another noted negative symptom. A distinction
8673-564: Is unclear whether the benefits of early treatment persist once the treatment is terminated. Cognitive behavioral therapy may reduce the risk of psychosis in those at high risk after a year and is recommended in this group, by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Another preventive measure is to avoid drugs that have been associated with development of the disorder, including cannabis , cocaine, and amphetamines . Antipsychotics are prescribed following
8820-434: Is used on a small number of people with severe schizophrenia. In some countries where supportive services are limited or unavailable, long-term hospital stays are more common. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by significant alterations in perception , thoughts, mood, and behavior. Symptoms are described in terms of positive , negative, and cognitive symptoms . The positive symptoms of schizophrenia are
8967-417: The same person, persisting through time. In philosophy , the problem of personal identity is concerned with how one is able to identify a single person over a time interval, dealing with such questions as, "What makes it true that a person at one time is the same thing as a person at another time?" or "What kinds of things are we persons?" In contemporary metaphysics , the matter of personal identity
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#17327660437149114-466: The Buddha , compares the soul to a commonwealth , which retains its identity not by virtue of some enduring core substance, but by being composed of many different, related, and yet constantly changing elements . The question of personal identity then becomes a matter of characterizing the loose cohesion of one's personal experience. In short, what matters for Hume is not that 'identity' exists, but
9261-577: The Clinical Assessment Interview for Negative Symptoms (CAINS), and the Brief Negative Symptom Scale (BNSS) also known as second-generation scales. In 2020, ten years after its introduction, a cross-cultural study of the use of BNSS found valid and reliable psychometric evidence for its five-domain structure cross-culturally. The BNSS can assess both the presence and severity of negative symptoms of
9408-539: The Clinical Assessment Interview for Negative Symptoms (CAINS), and the Brief Negative Symptoms Scale (BNSS) have been introduced. The DSM-5 , published in 2013, gives a Scale to Assess the Severity of Symptom Dimensions outlining eight dimensions of symptoms. DSM-5 states that to be diagnosed with schizophrenia, two diagnostic criteria have to be met over the period of one month, with
9555-590: The Lewy body dementias may also be associated with schizophrenia-like psychotic symptoms. It may be necessary to rule out a delirium , which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations, acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness , and indicates an underlying medical illness. Investigations are not generally repeated for relapse unless there is a specific medical indication or possible adverse effects from antipsychotic medication . In children hallucinations must be separated from typical childhood fantasies. It
9702-613: The World Health Organization (WHO). These criteria use the self-reported experiences of the person and reported abnormalities in behavior, followed by a psychiatric assessment . The mental status examination is an important part of the assessment. An established tool for assessing the severity of positive and negative symptoms is the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). This has been seen to have shortcomings relating to negative symptoms, and other scales –
9849-542: The age of a person's mother or father , and poor nutrition during pregnancy . About half of those diagnosed with schizophrenia will have a significant improvement over the long term with no further relapses, and a small proportion of these will recover completely. The other half will have a lifelong impairment. In severe cases, people may be admitted to hospitals. Social problems such as long-term unemployment , poverty, homelessness , exploitation, and victimization are commonly correlated with schizophrenia. Compared to
9996-402: The attachment to Self is an illusion that serves as the main cause of suffering and unhappiness. Personal identity Personal identity is the unique numerical identity of a person over time. Discussions regarding personal identity typically aim to determine the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time and a person at another time can be said to be
10143-407: The ego 's accumulated assurance of its capacity for order and meaning. Ego identity is the accrued confidence that the inner sameness and continuity prepared in the past are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for others, as evidenced in the promise of a career. Body and ego control organ expressions and of the other attributes of the dynamics of a physical system to face
10290-502: The emotions of ego death in circumstances which can summon, sometimes, anti- theonymistic self-abandonment . It has been argued from the nature of sensations and ideas that there is no such thing as a permanent identity. Daniel Shapiro asserts that one of four major views on identity does not recognize a "permanent identity" and instead thinks of "thoughts without a thinker"—"a consciousness shell with drifting emotions and thoughts but no essence". According to him this view
10437-404: The memories , behavioral dispositions , and psychological characteristics of the person who prior to undergoing the process belonged to person A ; and conversely with person B . To show this one is to suppose that before undergoing the process person A and B are asked to which resulting person, A-Body-Person or B-Body-Person, they wish to receive a punishment and which a reward. Upon undergoing
10584-440: The prodromal stage , and may be present in childhood or early adolescence. They are a core feature but not considered to be core symptoms, as are positive and negative symptoms. However, their presence and degree of dysfunction is taken as a better indicator of functionality than the presentation of core symptoms. Cognitive deficits become worse at first episode psychosis but then return to baseline, and remain fairly stable over
10731-585: The substance of either the soul or the body . Chapter 27 of Book II of his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), entitled "On Identity and Diversity", has been said to be one of the first modern conceptualizations of consciousness as the repeated self-identification of oneself . Through this identification, moral responsibility could be attributed to the subject and punishment and guilt could be justified, as critics such as Nietzsche would point out. According to Locke, personal identity (the self) "depends on consciousness, not on substance" nor on
10878-406: The superior temporal gyrus . The severity of negative symptoms has been linked to reduced thickness in the left medial orbitofrontal cortex . Anhedonia, traditionally defined as a reduced capacity to experience pleasure, is frequently reported in schizophrenia. However, a large body of evidence suggests that hedonic responses are intact in schizophrenia, and that what is reported to be anhedonia
11025-646: The DSM criteria are used predominantly in the United States and Canada, and are prevailing in research studies. In practice, agreement between the two systems is high. The current proposal for the ICD-11 criteria for schizophrenia recommends adding self-disorder as a symptom. A major unresolved difference between the two diagnostic systems is that of the requirement in DSM of an impaired functional outcome. WHO for ICD argues that not all people with schizophrenia have functional deficits and so these are not specific for
11172-635: The HPA axis possibly disrupting the negative feedback mechanism, homeostasis , and the regulation of emotion leading to altered behaviors. The question of how schizophrenia could be primarily genetically influenced, given that people with schizophrenia have lower fertility rates, is a paradox. It is expected that genetic variants that increase the risk of schizophrenia would be selected against, due to their negative effects on reproductive fitness . A number of potential explanations have been proposed, including that alleles associated with schizophrenia risk confers
11319-444: The ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment, are consistent from one moment to the next. Personal continuity is the property of a continuous and connected period of time and is intimately related to do with a person's body or physical being in a single four-dimensional continuum . Associationism , a theory of how ideas combine in the mind, allows events or views to be associated with each other in
11466-409: The ability to represent goal related information in working memory, and to use this to direct cognition and behavior. These impairments have been linked to a number of neuroimaging and neuropathological abnormalities. For example, functional neuroimaging studies report evidence of reduced neural processing efficiency, whereby the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is activated to a greater degree to achieve
11613-468: The account of any such action, is all one as to be made happy or miserable in its first being, without any demerit at all. For, supposing a MAN punished now for what he had done in another life, whereof he could be made to have no consciousness at all, what difference is there between that punishment and being CREATED miserable? And therefore, conformable to this, the apostle tells us, that, at the great day, when every one shall 'receive according to his doings,
11760-502: The age of 13, as can sometimes occur, is known as childhood schizophrenia or very early-onset. Onset can occur between the ages of 40 and 60, known as late-onset schizophrenia. Onset over the age of 60, which may be difficult to differentiate as schizophrenia, is known as very-late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis. Late onset has shown that a higher rate of females are affected; they have less severe symptoms and need lower doses of antipsychotics. The tendency for earlier onset in males
11907-406: The basis of the insanity defense —one cannot be held accountable for acts of which one was unconscious —and therefore leads to philosophical questions: personal identity consists [not in the identity of substance] but in the identity of consciousness, wherein if Socrates and the present mayor of Queenborough agree, they are the same person: if the same Socrates waking and sleeping do not partake of
12054-404: The body, but in the "same continued consciousness", which is also distinct from the soul since the soul may have no consciousness of itself (as in reincarnation ). He creates a third term between the soul and the body. For Locke, the body may change, while consciousness remains the same. Therefore, personal identity, for Locke, is not in the body but in consciousness. Bernard Williams presents
12201-435: The continuous change in the substance of the body it is associated with. The mind-body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship, if any, that exists between minds, or mental processes , and bodily states or processes. One of the aims of philosophers who work in this area is to explain how a non-material mind can influence a material body and vice versa. This is controversial and problematic, and adopting it as
12348-406: The course of the illness, perhaps linked to the age-related decline in dopamine activity. Negative symptoms are deficits of normal emotional responses, or of other thought processes. The five recognized domains of negative symptoms are: blunted affect – showing flat expressions (monotone) or little emotion; alogia – a poverty of speech; anhedonia – an inability to feel pleasure; asociality –
12495-596: The course of the illness. The deficits in cognition are seen to drive the negative psychosocial outcome in schizophrenia, and are claimed to equate to a possible reduction in IQ from the norm of 100 to 70–85. Cognitive deficits may be of neurocognition (nonsocial) or of social cognition . Neurocognition is the ability to receive and remember information, and includes verbal fluency, memory , reasoning , problem solving , speed of processing , and auditory and visual perception. Verbal memory and attention are seen to be
12642-420: The death of a parent. Many adverse childhood experiences can cause toxic stress and increase the risk of psychosis. Chronic trauma, including ACEs, can promote lasting inflammatory dysregulation throughout the nervous system. It is suggested that early stress may contribute to the development of schizophrenia through these alterations in the immune system. Schizophrenia was the last diagnosis to benefit from
12789-616: The delusions of schizophrenia. There can be considerable overlap with the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder . A more general medical and neurological examination may be needed to rule out medical illnesses which may rarely produce psychotic schizophrenia-like symptoms, such as metabolic disturbance , systemic infection , syphilis , HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder , epilepsy , limbic encephalitis , and brain lesions. Stroke, multiple sclerosis , hyperthyroidism , hypothyroidism , and dementias such as Alzheimer's disease , Huntington's disease , frontotemporal dementia , and
12936-433: The development of schizophrenia. The genetic component means that prenatal brain development is disturbed, and environmental influence affects the postnatal development of the brain. Evidence suggests that genetically susceptible children are more likely to be vulnerable to the effects of environmental risk factors. Estimates of the heritability of schizophrenia are between 70% and 80%, which implies that 70% to 80% of
13083-888: The diagnosis. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has become a tool in understanding brain activity and connectivity differences in individuals with schizophrenia. Through resting-state fMRI, researchers have observed altered connectivity patterns within several key brain networks, such as the default mode network (DMN), salience network (SN), and central executive network (CEN). Alterations may underlie cognitive and emotional symptoms in schizophrenia, such as disorganized thinking, impaired attention, and emotional dysregulation. Many people with schizophrenia may have one or more other mental disorders , such as anxiety disorders , obsessive–compulsive disorder , or substance use disorder. These are separate disorders that require treatment. When comorbid with schizophrenia, substance use disorder and antisocial personality disorder both increase
13230-457: The disorder itself (e.g. diabetes mellitus type 2 and some cardiovascular diseases are thought to be genetically linked). These somatic comorbidities contribute to reduced life expectancy among persons with the disorder. To make a diagnosis of schizophrenia other possible causes of psychosis need to be excluded . Psychotic symptoms lasting less than a month may be diagnosed as brief psychotic disorder , or as schizophreniform disorder. Psychosis
13377-523: The elevated risk of schizophrenia. Other risk factors include social isolation , immigration related to social adversity and racial discrimination, family dysfunction, unemployment, and poor housing conditions. Having a father older than 40 years , or parents younger than 20 years are also associated with schizophrenia. About half of those with schizophrenia use recreational drugs including alcohol , tobacco, and cannabis excessively. Use of stimulants such as amphetamine and cocaine can lead to
13524-528: The environment . Extensive studies support this model. Maternal infections, malnutrition and complications during pregnancy and childbirth are known risk factors for the development of schizophrenia, which usually emerges between the ages of 18 and 25, a period that overlaps with certain stages of neurodevelopment. Gene-environment interactions lead to deficits in the neural circuitry that affect sensory and cognitive functions. The common dopamine and glutamate models proposed are not mutually exclusive; each
13671-465: The fact that the relations of causation, contiguity, and resemblances obtain among the perceptions. Critics of Hume state that in order for the various states and processes of the mind to seem unified, there must be something which perceives their unity, the existence of which would be no less mysterious than a personal identity. Hume solves this by considering substance as engendered by the togetherness of its properties. The "no-self theory" holds that
13818-484: The first place. Using thought experiments such as these, Parfit argues that any criteria we attempt to use to determine sameness of person will be lacking, because there is no further fact . What matters, to Parfit, is simply "Relation R", psychological connectedness, including memory, personality, and so on. Religious views on the Self vary widely. The Self is a complex and core subject in many forms of spirituality . Two types of Self are commonly considered—the Self that
13965-400: The five recognized domains and an additional item of reduced normal distress. It has been used to measure changes in negative symptoms in trials of psychosocial and pharmacological interventions. An estimated 70% of those with schizophrenia have cognitive deficits, and these are most pronounced in early-onset and late-onset illness. These are often evident long before the onset of illness in
14112-475: The focus of many studies. Schizophrenia is described as a neurodevelopmental disorder with no precise boundary, or single cause, and is thought to develop from gene–environment interactions with involved vulnerability factors. The interactions of these risk factors are complex, as numerous and diverse insults from conception to adulthood can be involved. A genetic predisposition on its own, without interacting environmental factors, will not give rise to
14259-624: The formation and maintenance of neural circuits and it is believed that disruption in this role can result in a number of neurodevelopmental disorders including schizophrenia. Evidence suggests that reduced numbers of astrocytes in deeper cortical layers are assocociated with a diminished expression of EAAT2 , a glutamate transporter in astrocytes; supporting the glutamate hypothesis. Deficits in executive functions , such as planning, inhibition, and working memory, are pervasive in schizophrenia. Although these functions are separable, their dysfunction in schizophrenia may reflect an underlying deficit in
14406-738: The formation of beliefs. In approved models of circuits that mediate predictive coding , reduced NMDA receptor activation, could in theory result in the positive symptoms of delusions and hallucinations. Schizophrenia is diagnosed based on criteria in either the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) published by the American Psychiatric Association or the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) published by
14553-450: The general population, people with schizophrenia have a higher suicide rate (about 5% overall) and more physical health problems , leading to an average decrease in life expectancy by 20 to 28 years. In 2015, an estimated 17,000 deaths were linked to schizophrenia. The mainstay of treatment is antipsychotic medication, including olanzapine and risperidone , along with counseling , job training, and social rehabilitation . Up to
14700-516: The guideline for diagnosis is for six months or more with symptoms severe enough to affect ordinary functioning. In the UK diagnosis is based on having the symptoms for most of the time for one month, with symptoms that significantly affect the ability to work, study, or carry on ordinary daily living, and with other similar conditions ruled out. The ICD criteria are typically used in European countries;
14847-400: The identity of substance, but…in the identity of consciousness." For example, one may claim to be a reincarnation of Plato, therefore having the same soul substance. One would be the same person as Plato only if one had the same consciousness of Plato's thoughts and actions that he himself did. Therefore, self-identity is not based on the soul. One soul may have various personalities. Neither
14994-443: The individual differences in risk of schizophrenia are associated with genetics. These estimates vary because of the difficulty in separating genetic and environmental influences, and their accuracy has been queried. The greatest risk factor for developing schizophrenia is having a first-degree relative with the disease (risk is 6.5%); more than 40% of identical twins of those with schizophrenia are also affected. If one parent
15141-399: The intuitive sense of self and the consequences to this concept which rely on the strict concept of self, a tendency to mend the concept occurs, possibly because of cognitive dissonance . Open individualism is a term coined by Daniel Kolak that refers to the view in the philosophy of self that there exists only one numerically identical subject , who is everyone at all times, in
15288-610: The lack of desire to form relationships, and avolition – a lack of motivation and apathy . Avolition and anhedonia are seen as motivational deficits resulting from impaired reward processing. Reward is the main driver of motivation and this is mostly mediated by dopamine. It has been suggested that negative symptoms are multidimensional and they have been categorised into two subdomains of apathy or lack of motivation, and diminished expression. Apathy includes avolition, anhedonia, and social withdrawal; diminished expression includes blunt affect and alogia. Sometimes diminished expression
15435-404: The link made between ACEs and adult mental health outcomes. Living in an urban environment during childhood or as an adult has consistently been found to increase the risk of schizophrenia by a factor of two, even after taking into account drug use , ethnic group , and size of social group . A possible link between the urban environment and pollution has been suggested to be the cause of
15582-544: The matter they once consisted of. It is thus problematic to ground the persistence of personal identity over time in the continuous existence of our bodies. Nevertheless, this approach has its supporters, who define humans as biological organisms. They assert the proposition that a psychological relation is not necessary for personal continuity. This personal identity ontology assumes the relational theory of life-sustaining processes instead of bodily continuity. The teletransportation problem proposed by Derek Parfit
15729-505: The medial posterior parietal cortex. The posterior cingulate cortex , the anterior cingulate cortex , and medial prefrontal cortex are thought to combine to provide humans with the ability to self-reflect. The insular cortex is also thought to be involved in the process of self-reference . Culture consists of explicit and implicit patterns of historically derived and selected ideas and their embodiment in institutions, cognitive and social practices, and artifacts. Cultural systems may, on
15876-494: The methods of psychological science to better understand philosophical intuitions. This empirical approach to philosophy is known as Experimental philosophy or "xPhi" for short. Studies in xPhi have found various psychological factors predict variance even in philosophers views about personal identity. Findings from xPhi suggest that moral intuitions may have a major influence on our intuitions about personal identity. For example, some experimental philosophers have found that when
16023-411: The mind, thus leading to a form of learning. Associations can result from contiguity , similarity, or contrast. Through contiguity, one associates ideas or events that usually happen to occur at the same time. Some of these events form an autobiographical memory in which each is a personal representation of the general or specific events and personal facts. Ego integrity is the psychological concept of
16170-423: The most affected. Verbal memory impairment is associated with a decreased level of semantic processing (relating meaning to words). Another memory impairment is that of episodic memory . An impairment in visual perception that is consistently found in schizophrenia is that of visual backward masking . Visual processing impairments include an inability to perceive complex visual illusions . Social cognition
16317-439: The mother during prenatal development. A risk is associated with maternal obesity, in increasing oxidative stress , and dysregulating the dopamine and serotonin pathways. Both maternal stress and infection have been demonstrated to alter fetal neurodevelopment through an increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines . There is a slighter risk associated with being born in the winter or spring possibly due to vitamin D deficiency or
16464-558: The nature of agency . Hume pointed out that we tend to think that we are the same person we were five years ago. Though we've changed in many respects, the same person appears present now as was present then. We might start thinking about which features can be changed without changing the underlying self. Hume denied a distinction between the various features of a person and the mysterious self that supposedly bears those features. When we begin introspecting : [We] always stumble on some particular perception or other.… I may venture to affirm of
16611-418: The one hand, be considered as products of action, and on the other, as conditioning elements of further action. The way individuals construct themselves may be different due to their culture. Hazel Rose Markus and Shinobu Kitayama 's theory of the interdependent self hypothesizes that representations of the self in human cultures fall on a continuum from independent to interdependent . The independent self
16758-586: The other senses such as taste , sight , smell , and touch . The frequency of hallucinations involving multiple senses is double the rate of those involving only one sense. They are also typically related to the content of the delusional theme. Delusions are bizarre or persecutory in nature. Distortions of self-experience such as feeling that others can hear one's thoughts or that thoughts are being inserted into one's mind , sometimes termed passivity phenomena, are also common. Positive symptoms generally respond well to medication and become reduced over
16905-450: The past, present and future. It is a theoretical solution to the question of personal identity, being contrasted with "Empty individualism", the view that personal identities correspond to a fixed pattern that instantaneously disappears with the passage of time, and "Closed individualism", the common view that personal identities are particular to subjects and yet survive over time. Since the 21st century, philosophers have also been using
17052-407: The past, present and future. It is a theoretical solution to the question of personal identity, being contrasted with "Empty individualism", the view that personal identities correspond to a fixed pattern that instantaneously disappears with the passage of time, and "Closed individualism", the common view that personal identities are particular to subjects and yet survive over time. Open individualism
17199-417: The person before the change is one person and the person after the change is an entirely separate second person: when people were asked how many people are described in cases of dramatic moral change, the vast majority of answers were "one" (rather than two or more). This aligns with more recent evidence that these shifts in intuitions about personal identity are about qualitative identity (i.e., how similar one
17346-417: The person may or may not be responsible for "sharing" in the mind's process, or the events which occur, such as visions and auditory stimuli, may persist and be repeated often over hours, days, months or years—and the afflicted person may believe themselves to be in a state of rapture or possession. Two areas of the brain that are important in retrieving self-knowledge are the medial prefrontal cortex and
17493-426: The problem of personal identity is concerned with how one is able to identify a single person over a time interval, dealing with such questions as, "What makes it true that a person at one time is the same thing as a person at another time?" or "What kinds of things are we persons?" A question related to the problem of personal identity is Benj Hellie's vertiginous question . The vertiginous question asks why, of all
17640-427: The process and receiving either the punishment or reward, it appears to that A-Body-Person expresses the memories of choosing who gets which treatment as if that person was person B; conversely with B-Body-Person. This sort of approach to the thought experiment appears to show that since the person who expresses the psychological characteristics of person A to be person A, then intuition is that psychological continuity
17787-406: The rest of mankind, that they are nothing but a bundle or collection of different perceptions which succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidity and are in perpetual flux and movement. It is plain, that in the course of our thinking, and in the constant revolution of our ideas, our imagination runs easily from one idea to any other that resembles it, and that this quality alone is to the fancy
17934-440: The risk for violence. Comorbid substance use disorder also increases the risk of suicide. Sleep disorders often co-occur with schizophrenia, and may be an early sign of relapse. Sleep disorders are linked with positive symptoms such as disorganized thinking and can adversely affect cortical plasticity and cognition. The consolidation of memories is disrupted in sleep disorders. They are associated with severity of illness,
18081-462: The risk of developing schizophrenia by as much as 20-fold, and are frequently comorbid with autism and intellectual disabilities. The genes CRHR1 and CRHBP are associated with the severity of suicidal behavior. These genes code for stress response proteins needed in the control of the HPA axis , and their interaction can affect this axis. Response to stress can cause lasting changes in the function of
18228-432: The same consciousness, Socrates waking and sleeping is not the same person. And to punish Socrates waking for what sleeping Socrates thought, and waking Socrates was never conscious of, would be no more right, than to punish one twin for what his brother-twin did, whereof he knew nothing, because their outsides were so like, that they could not be distinguished; for such twins have been seen. Or again: PERSON, as I take it,
18375-463: The same for any psychosis and are sometimes referred to as psychotic symptoms. These may be present in any of the different psychoses and are often transient, making early diagnosis of schizophrenia problematic. Psychosis noted for the first time in a person who is later diagnosed with schizophrenia is referred to as a first-episode psychosis (FEP). Positive symptoms are those symptoms that are not normally experienced, but are present in people during
18522-441: The same from moment to moment, as specifically explained in Śūnyatā . According to this line of criticism, the sense of self is an evolutionary artifact , which saves time in the circumstances it evolved for. But sense of self breaks down when considering some events such as memory loss , dissociative identity disorder , brain damage , brainwashing , and various thought experiments . When presented with imperfections in
18669-504: The same ground and for the same reason as it does the present. All which is founded in a concern for happiness, the unavoidable concomitant of consciousness; that which is conscious of pleasure and pain, desiring that that self that is conscious should be happy. And therefore whatever past actions it cannot reconcile or APPROPRIATE to that present self by consciousness, it can be no more concerned in it than if they had never been done: and to receive pleasure or pain, i.e. reward or punishment, on
18816-400: The same person as they were before—can seem to become disrupted". While the direction of change (e.g., moral improvement vs. moral deterioration) has been found to cause substantial shifts in peoples' judgments about personal identity, multiple studies find that none of these shifts constitute thinking that someone is numerically non-identical to the person they were before the change—such that
18963-428: The same relative position. Parfit poses the question of whether or not the teletransporter is actually a method of travel, or if it simply kills and makes an exact replica of the user. Then the teleporter is upgraded. The teletransporter on Earth is modified to not destroy the person who enters it, but instead it can simply make infinite replicas, all of whom would claim to remember entering the teletransporter on Earth in
19110-407: The schizo-affective or a schizophrenic person also believes are actual events in terms of essential being. PET scans have shown that auditory stimulation is processed in certain areas of the brain, and imagined similar events are processed in adjacent areas, but hallucinations are processed in the same areas as actual stimulation. In such cases, external influences may be the source of consciousness and
19257-456: The secrets of all hearts shall be laid open.' The sentence shall be justified by the consciousness all person shall have, that THEY THEMSELVES, in what bodies soever they appear, or what substances soever that consciousness adheres to, are the SAME that committed those actions, and deserve that punishment for them. Henceforth, Locke's conception of personal identity founds it not on the substance or
19404-413: The self cannot be reduced to a bundle because the concept of a self is incompatible with the idea of a bundle . Propositionally , the idea of a bundle implies the notion of bodily or psychological relations that do not in fact exist. James Giles , a principal exponent of this view, argues that the no-self or eliminativist theory and the bundle or reductionist theory agree about the non-existence of
19551-415: The self appears different from the subject. The 'Disorders of the Self' have also been extensively studied by psychiatrists. For example, facial and pattern recognition take large amounts of brain processing capacity but pareidolia cannot explain many constructs of self for cases of disorder, such as schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. One's sense of self can also be changed upon becoming part of
19698-443: The self as Me , is the subject that is known. Current views of the self in psychology positions the self as playing an integral part in human motivation, cognition, affect, and social identity . Self, following the ideas of John Locke , has been seen as a product of episodic memory but research on people with amnesia reveals that they have a coherent sense of self based on preserved conceptual autobiographical knowledge. Hence, it
19845-399: The self is distinguishable from "others". Including the distinction between sameness and otherness , the self versus other is a research topic in contemporary philosophy and contemporary phenomenology (see also psychological phenomenology ), psychology , psychiatry , neurology , and neuroscience . Although subjective experience is central to selfhood, the privacy of this experience
19992-462: The self, and by Thomas Nagel in The View from Nowhere . Tim S. Roberts refers to the question of why a particular organism out of all the organisms that happen to exist happens to be you as the "Even Harder Problem of Consciousness". Open individualism is a view in the philosophy of self, according to which there exists only one numerically identical subject , who is everyone at all times, in
20139-408: The set of cognitive faculties are considered to consist of an immaterial substance , separate from and independent of the body. If a person is then identified with their mind, rather than their body—if a person is considered to be their mind—and their mind is such a non-physical substance, then personal identity over time may be grounded in the persistence of this non-physical substance, despite
20286-421: The soul. We are the same person to the extent that we are conscious of the past and future thoughts and actions in the same way as we are conscious of present thoughts and actions. If consciousness is this "thought" which "goes along with the substance…which makes the same person," then personal identity is only founded on the repeated act of consciousness: "This may show us wherein personal identity consists: not in
20433-558: The source of consciousness, the agent responsible for an individual's thoughts and actions, or the substantial nature of a person which endures and unifies consciousness over time. The self has a particular prominence in the thought of René Descartes (1596-1650). In addition to the writings of Emmanuel Levinas (1906-1995) on "otherness", the distinction between "you" and "me" has been further elaborated in Martin Buber 's 1923 philosophical work Ich und Du . In philosophy,
20580-502: The subjects of experience out there, this one—the one corresponding to the human being referred to as Benj Hellie—is the one whose experiences are live ? (The reader is supposed to substitute their own case for Hellie's.) Hellie's argument is closely related to Caspar Hare's theories of egocentric presentism and perspectival realism , of which several other philosophers have written reviews. Similar questions are also asked repeatedly by J. J. Valberg in justifying his horizonal view of
20727-471: The synchronizing of neural ensembles needed during working memory tasks. These give the neural oscillations produced as gamma waves that have a frequency of between 30 and 80 hertz . Both working memory tasks and gamma waves are impaired in schizophrenia, which may reflect abnormal interneuron functionality. An important process that may be disrupted in neurodevelopment is astrogenesis – the formation of astrocytes . Astrocytes are crucial in contributing to
20874-508: The thalamus and the cortex . Studies have shown that a reduced expression of a glutamate receptor – NMDA receptor , and glutamate blocking drugs such as phencyclidine and ketamine can mimic the symptoms and cognitive problems associated with schizophrenia. Post-mortem studies consistently find that a subset of these neurons fail to express GAD67 ( GAD1 ), in addition to abnormalities in brain morphometry . The subsets of interneurons that are abnormal in schizophrenia are responsible for
21021-421: The ultimate existence of an unchanging essence. In contrast, dominant schools of Hinduism assert the existence of Ātman as pure awareness or witness-consciousness , "reify[ing] consciousness as an eternal self." One thought experiment in the philosophy of personal identity is the teletransportation paradox . It deals with whether the concept of one's future self is a coherent concept. The thought experiment
21168-446: The usefulness of medications that affect the dopamine receptor and the observation that dopamine levels are increased during acute psychosis. A decrease in D 1 receptors in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex may also be responsible for deficits in working memory . The glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia links alterations between glutamatergic neurotransmission and the neural oscillations that affect connections between
21315-745: The variation in the disease. Many genes are known to be involved in schizophrenia, each with small effects and unknown transmission and expression . The summation of these effect sizes into a polygenic risk score can explain at least 7% of the variability in liability for schizophrenia. Around 5% of cases of schizophrenia are understood to be at least partially attributable to rare copy number variations (CNVs); these structural variations are associated with known genomic disorders involving deletions at 22q11.2 ( DiGeorge syndrome ) and 17q12 ( 17q12 microdeletion syndrome ), duplications at 16p11.2 (most frequently found) and deletions at 15q11.2 ( Burnside–Butler syndrome ). Some of these CNVs increase
21462-585: The world and its nature. One way to explain how persons persist over time is to say that identity consists in physical or bodily continuity. However, there are problems with this view. As the Ship of Theseus thought experiment illustrates, even for inanimate objects there are difficulties in determining whether one physical body at one time is the same thing as a physical body at another time. With humans, over time our bodies age and grow, losing and gaining matter, and over sufficient years will not consist of most of
21609-413: Was formulated by Derek Parfit in his 1984 book Reasons and Persons . Derek Parfit and others consider a hypothetical "teletransporter", a machine that puts you to sleep, records your molecular composition, breaking you down into atoms, and relaying its recording to Mars at the speed of light. On Mars, another machine re-creates you (from local stores of carbon, hydrogen, and so on), each atom in exactly
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