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46-488: SAM was derived from the Semantic Differential Scale of Affect , but was modified to be non-verbal and more efficient as it reduces the number of judgements required from 18 to 3. It is also aimed to be used across non-English speaking cultures and in populations which are less linguistically advanced, such as with children. In the valence domain (sometimes referred to as " pleasure "), SAM ranges from

92-702: A great contribution to the development of cross-cultural researches and also international communications. With the rise of the nuclear arms race that was brought up by the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War . Osgood proposed the GRIT strategies (Graduated Reciprocation in Tension reduction) in 1962, which means to provide a psychological approach to resolve the tension brought up from

138-518: A smiling, happy figure to a frowning figure. It ranges from a fully awake figure with a large star-like figure across its chest to a sleeping figure in the arousal domain, and figures of increasing sizes in the dominance domain. Written transcriptions of the image rating scale is as below: Previously, one of the most commonly used scale to evaluate emotional response was the Semantic Differential. However, according to Lang, this method

184-467: A strong correlation between facial expressions and affective valence judgements, and consistent correlation between pleasure and arousal and physiological response. These evaluative judgements are judged to be an accurate measure of emotion and three features -- valence, arousal and dominance -- are ultimately picked to be included in SAM. SAM was originally implemented as an interactive computer program, and

230-554: A summary of his theory of psycholinguistics (to be titled Toward an Abstract Performance Grammar ), and the other on international affairs. Osgood was never able to complete any of these due to the effects of his illness, which, after a few years, forced him into complete retirement, until his death on September 15, 1991. Osgood worked on many studies mainly on cross-cultural studies in different aspects. He devoted most of his time to studies regarding Social Psychology , Cognitive-Behaviour Psychology and also on Psycholinguistics . He

276-468: A world-wide study of 620 key words in 30 cultures using semantic differential. The CIA used this research to create more effective culturally-specific propaganda in the service of destabilizing foreign governments. An example can be found in the Chilean newspaper El Mercurio , CIA-funded 1970-1973. Semantic differential was used to identify words that would most effectively engender a negative attitude in

322-482: A writer for newspapers. During his second year, he enrolled in a class taught by Theodore Karwoski, thus inspiring him to switch his major in order to pursue a degree in psychology. Charles Osgood earned his B.A. in 1939 from Dartmouth, and in the same year, married Cynthia Luella Thornton. Osgood then went on to study at Yale University where he completed his Ph.D. in 1945. During his time at Yale, he worked as an assistant for Robert Sears, and collaborated with

368-467: Is costly in both time and effort used by researchers and participants to complete the experiment, and requires statistical expertise, such as factor analysis , for resolution, which may not be accessible for all researchers. In addition, the nature of the scale being verbal/written makes it questionable as to whether participant groups low in linguistic ability, such as children or people who are developmentally challenged like aphasics , can accurately answer

414-585: Is credited with helping in the early development of psycholinguistics . Charles Osgood was recognized distinguished and highly honored psychologist throughout his career. Charles Egerton Osgood was born in Somerville, Massachusetts , on 20 November 1916. His father was a manager at the Jordan Marsh department store in Boston. Osgood described having an unhappy childhood as his parents were divorced by

460-402: Is that its psychometric properties and level of measurement are disputed. The most general approach is to treat it as an ordinal scale , but it can be argued that the neutral response (i.e. the middle alternative on the scale) serves as an arbitrary zero point , and that the intervals between the scale values can be treated as equal, making it an interval scale . The semantic differential

506-686: Is the person strong or weak? Our reactions to a person markedly differ if perceived as good and strong, good and weak, bad and weak, or bad and strong. Subsequently, we might extend our initial classification to include cases of persons who actively threaten us or represent only a potential danger, and so on. The evaluation, potency and activity factors thus encompass a detailed descriptive system of personality. Osgood's semantic differential measures these three factors. It contains sets of adjective pairs such as warm-cold, bright-dark, beautiful-ugly, sweet-bitter, fair-unfair, brave-cowardly, meaningful-meaningless. The studies of Osgood and his colleagues revealed that

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552-463: Is today one of the most widely used scales used in the measurement of attitudes. One of the reasons is the versatility of the items. The bipolar adjective pairs can be used for a wide variety of subjects, and as such the scale is called by some "the ever ready battery" of the attitude researcher. A specific form of the SD, Projective Semantics method uses only most common and neutral nouns that correspond to

598-458: The 7 groups (factors) of adjective-scales most consistently found in cross-cultural studies (Evaluation, Potency, Activity as found by Osgood, and Reality, Organization, Complexity, Limitation as found in other studies). In this method, seven groups of bipolar adjective scales corresponded to seven types of nouns so the method was thought to have the object-scale symmetry (OSS) between the scales and nouns for evaluation using these scales. For example,

644-522: The Affective Slider and SAM, also showed a decreased in arousal ratings in both measures compared to the beginning of SAM's implementation, which may indicate that SAM is not as effective in recent years due to "general desensitization towards highly arousing content". Semantic differential scale The semantic differential ( SD ) is a measurement scale designed to measure a person's subjective perception of, and affective reactions to,

690-652: The Chilean population toward the socialist Allende administration. Theoretical underpinnings of Charles E. Osgood 's semantic differential have roots in the medieval controversy between the nominalists and realists . Nominalists asserted that only real things are entities and that abstractions from these entities, called universals, are mere words. The realists held that universals have an independent objective existence. Osgood’s theoretical work also bears affinity to linguistics and general semantics and relates to Korzybski 's structural differential . The development of this instrument provides an interesting insight into

736-416: The SD can be assumed to be relatively reliable, valid, and robust. The SD has been used in both a general and a more specific way. Charles E. Osgood 's theory of the semantic differential exemplifies the more general attempt to measure the semantics , or meaning, of words, particularly adjectives, and their referent concepts. In fields such as marketing, psychology, sociology, and information systems,

782-418: The SD is used to measure the subjective perception of, and affective reactions to, more specific concepts such as marketing communication , political candidates, alcoholic beverages , and websites . Verhagen and colleagues introduce a framework to assist researchers in applying the semantic differential. The framework, which consists of six subsequent steps, advocates particular attention for collecting

828-548: The University of Connecticut from 1949 to 1952, and eventually as professor of psychology and communications from 1952 onward. He completed a majority of his work during his time at the University of Illinois, Urbana, which, along with the Institute of Communications, funded many of his works. Osgood would often submit himself to his own experiments get a better grasp of what his subjects may experience. At Illinois, Osgood

874-507: The broader area between linguistics and psychology. People have been describing each other since they developed the ability to speak. Most adjectives can also be used as personality descriptors. The occurrence of thousands of adjectives in English is an attestation of the subtleties in descriptions of persons and their behavior available to speakers of English. Roget's Thesaurus is an early attempt to classify most adjectives into categories and

920-414: The connotative meaning of objects and concepts from the human Ecology aspect. The Semantic differential technique focused on three affective dimensions of Evaluation, Potency, and Activity (E-P-A) to evaluate social and cultural related concepts in a valid and reliable way. The practice of the semantic differential technique is being used broadly in social and behavioural science studies. To further improve

966-416: The cultural context of an individual. It suggested that the language acquisition process involves coding and decoding of the psychological structure within the language. His research in language , cognition , and neurophysiology had provided insight into future studies about multilingual language acquisition with a cross-cultural framework. Osgood introduced a semantic technique for researchers to measure

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1012-504: The development of the Atlas, affective meanings are used as universal functional markers with the E-P-A dimension and they have high validity in measuring indigenous and cross-cultural comparisons. These affective meanings are being widely applied on social-cultural studies on social dynamics , international communication , mental illness stigma and connotation of racial concepts, etc. It has

1058-744: The evaluative factor accounted for most of the variance in scalings, and related this to the idea of attitudes . Studies using the SD found additional universal dimensions. More specifically several researchers reported a factor of "Typicality" (that included scales such as “regular-rare”, “typical-exclusive”) or "Reality" (“imaginary-real”, “evident-fantastic”, “abstract-concrete”), as well as factors of "Complexity" ("complex-simple", "unlimited-limited", "mysterious-usual"), "Improvement" or "Organization" ("regular-spasmodic", "constant-changeable", "organized-disorganized", "precise-indefinite"), Stimulation ("interesting-boring", "trivial-new"). Nobel Prize winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman 's doctoral thesis

1104-759: The field of psychology throughout his distinguished career. In 1960, the American Psychological Association presented Osgood with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions; three years later, Osgood was elected as president of the American Psychological Association.  In addition to this, the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues presented Charles E. Osgood with

1150-513: The likes of Arnold Gesell , Walter Miles , Charles Morris, and Irvin Child. However, the person with the greatest influence on his career and future work was Clark Hull . Though Osgood was heavily influenced through working alongside Hull; he stated the experience was one of the determining reasons for him pursuing a career as a researcher, rather than a clinician. Osgood was a social psychologist interested in psycholinguistics, and research. He

1196-451: The nouns corresponding to the listed 7 factors would be: Beauty, Power, Motion, Life, Work, Chaos, Law. Beauty was expected to be assessed unequivocally as “very good” on adjectives of Evaluation-related scales, Life as “very real” on Reality-related scales, etc. However, deviations in this symmetric and very basic matrix might show underlying biases of two types: scales-related bias and objects-related bias. This OSS design had meant to increase

1242-442: The nuclear arm race between the two superpowers. The GRIT strategies are based on the concept of reciprocity and used to rebuild a negotiation platform for two parties who are deadlocked. The introduction of GRIT strategies not only reduced the tension between the two superpowers but also has contributed to solving various social, cultural and political conflicts worldwide. Charles Osgood earned many distinctions and honors within

1288-400: The physical stimuli exist in our environment have elicited our internal response and lead to our interpretation of the underlined meaning of those presented stimulus. With our 3-level of thought process, we will have our internal stimuli, which are our thoughts and emotion towards the physical stimulus and the internal stimulus will bring up the outward response(s), which are visible feedbacks to

1334-412: The physical stimulus in the environment. Osgood also suggested that by measuring the visible outward response we can determine the intensity of emotion that has been brought up by the physical stimulus. Osgood also proposed a two-stage Meditation learning theory in the language acquisition process in 1954. The theory suggested that the use of language is an expression of mental process which is related to

1380-399: The potency factor. Adjective pair 'active-passive' defines the activity factor. These three dimensions of affective meaning were found to be cross-cultural universals in a study of dozens of cultures. This factorial structure makes intuitive sense. When our ancestors encountered a person, the initial perception had to be whether that person represents a danger. Is the person good or bad? Next,

1426-473: The properties of concepts, objects, and events by making use of a set of bipolar scales. The SD is used to assess one's opinions , attitudes , and values regarding these concepts, objects, and events in a controlled and valid way. Respondents are asked to choose where their position lies, on a set of scales with polar adjectives (for example: "sweet - bitter", "fair - unfair", "warm - cold"). Compared to other measurement scaling techniques such as Likert scaling,

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1472-503: The sensitivity of the SD method to any semantic biases in responses of people within the same culture and educational background. Five items (five bipolar pairs of adjectives) have been proven to yield reliable findings, which highly correlate with alternative Likert numerical measures of the same attitude. In 1958, as part of the MK Ultra program, the CIA gave Osgood $ 192k to finance

1518-559: The set of relevant bipolar scales, linguistic testing of semantic bipolarity, and establishing semantic differential dimensionality. A detailed presentation on the development of the semantic differential is provided in Cross-Cultural Universals of Affective Meaning. David R. Heise 's Surveying Cultures provides a contemporary update with special attention to measurement issues when using computerized graphic rating scales . One possible problem with this scale

1564-480: The short duration required to administer the test, SAM has been used to measure emotional change before and after physical challenges. SAM has been compared to the Semantic Diffential Scale of Affect and has shown high degrees of correlation in experienced pleasure and felt arousal, and it is suggested that SAM may be a better tracker for personal response to affective stimulus , as it reflects

1610-477: The subject's feelings of control in the situation rather than the pictured object's control of feelings according to the Semantic Differential. A new scale, called the Affective Slider, was developed in 2016 by Alberto Betella and Paul Verschure. This scale uses a self-reporting tool with two sliders for assessment for pleasure and arousal. It is said to be more compatible with mobile devices than SAM and do not require written instructions. The study, which uses both

1656-428: The survey. Since the official survey is only published in English, non-English speaking cultures are also required to translate and validate it individually before using it. An improvement on this survey is hence determined to be pictoral. Lang and his colleagues conducted research in 1993 to identify aspects of physical responses in humans that corresponded the best with emotional responses. The 1993 results indicated

1702-446: The time he was six. When he was ten, his aunt, Grace Osgood, gave him a copy of Roget's Thesaurus . This gift was described by Osgood an “object of aesthetic pleasure”, sparking his fascination with words and their meanings. Osgood attended Brookline High School , where he began writing for the school newspaper, and eventually founded a school magazine. Osgood attended Dartmouth College where he intended to graduate and work as

1748-741: The university from 1963 to 1982. In addition to this, Osgood completed a fellowship at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University from 1958 to 1959; and was given an honorary doctorate from the Dartmouth College in 1962. Osgood also acted as a visiting professor at the University of Hawaii from 1964 to 1965. Charles Osgood's career ended somewhat abruptly and prematurely after developing an acute case of Korsakoff's syndrome . He

1794-517: The validity of the semantic differential technique, Osgood took the lead to develop the Atlas of Affective Meanings project from the 1960s to the 1980s. The project is indices of the affective meanings with 20 basic and derived measures of over 600 functionally equivalent concepts by analyzing over 30 language/culture communities from Mexico, Brazil, Japan, Hong Kong , Thailand, India, Iran, Lebanon, Israel, Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, German, Netherlands, Finland, etc. With

1840-596: Was active in aiding in the hiring processes, and even arranged interviews for women at the university during times when women were facing sexism in the field of psychology. From 1957 to 1965, Osgood served as the Director of the Institute of Communications Research, and starting in 1965, he became the Director of the Center for Advanced Study. He was also elected as the director of the Centre of Comparative Psycholinguistics at

1886-431: Was an instructor at Yale from 1942 to 1946, where he earned his doctorate degree. He worked for the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development 1946 to 1947, serving as a research associate that worked on training of B-29 gunners. During this period, Osgood also worked as an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Connecticut from 1946 to 1949. Osgood then went on to become an associate professor at

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1932-537: Was expanded to a pencil and paper version later. Subjects place an "x" over any of the five figures in each domain, or in between any two figures to create a 9-point scale. The current computer version of the scale involves a dynamically changing SAM figure along a 20-point scale for each of the three domains. SAM is used to measure emotional responses in many situations, such as reaction to pictures, images, sounds, advertisements and pain. SAM has also been used to evaluate emotional responses to virtual reality (VR) . Due to

1978-434: Was left with severe anterograde amnesia , but recovered well enough to continue working, though in a much lighter capacity as he was restricted to working from home. Toward the end of his career, Osgood decided to devote his time to three main projects. With the help of other scholars, Osgood intended on completing the interpretation of data obtained from the cross-cultural project; along with publishing 2 books, one of them,

2024-427: Was on the subject of the Semantic Differential. Charles E. Osgood Charles Egerton Osgood (20 November 1916 – 15 September 1991) was an American psychologist and professor at the University of Illinois . He was known for his research on behaviourism versus cognitivism , semantics (he introduced the term " semantic differential "), cross-culturalism , psycholinguistic theory, and peace studies . He

2070-440: Was renowned for four of his major works and these works have pathed the way for future researchers by facilitating them for validating their works with researches tools proposed by Osgood, also promoting international research studies on cross-cultural topics. Osgood's Mediation theory—The psycholinguistics foundations in human behaviour and communication process. Osgood proposed the mediation theory which suggested that

2116-445: Was used within this context to reduce the number of adjectives to manageable subsets, suitable for factor analysis. Osgood and his colleagues performed a factor analysis of large collections of semantic differential scales and found three recurring attitudes that people use to evaluate words and phrases: evaluation, potency, and activity. Evaluation loads highest on the adjective pair 'good-bad'. The 'strong-weak' adjective pair defines

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