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45-432: Selman Abraham Waksman (July 22, 1888 – August 16, 1973) was a Jewish American inventor, Nobel Prize laureate , biochemist and microbiologist whose research into the decomposition of organisms that live in soil enabled the discovery of streptomycin and several other antibiotics . A professor of biochemistry and microbiology at Rutgers University for four decades, he discovered several antibiotics (and introduced

90-507: A considerable mistake by failing to recognize Schatz's contribution." Systematic experiments to test several strains of antibiotics against several different disease organisms were underway in Waksman's laboratory at the time. Their classic approach was to explore a complete matrix with rows consisting of antibiotics and columns consisting of different diseases. The bacteria which produced the antibiotic streptomycin were discovered by Schatz in

135-546: A joint French-American expedition led by Jean-Louis Michel of IFREMER and Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution identified the location of the wreck of RMS  Titanic , which sank off the coast of Newfoundland 15 April 1912. On 3 April 2011, within a week of resuming of the search operation for Air France Flight 447 , a team led by WHOI, operating full ocean depth autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) owned by

180-790: A joint program with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). WHOI is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges . WHOI also offers public outreach programs and informal education through its Exhibit Center and summer tours. The institution has a volunteer program and a membership program, WHOI Associate. WHOI shares a library, the MBLWHOI Library, with the Marine Biological Laboratory . The MBLWHOI Library holds print and electronic collections in

225-468: A liquid solution of sodium hydroxide into the ocean 10 miles south of Martha's Vineyard in an attempt to remove 20 metric tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution develops technology for the United States Navy, including ocean battlespace sensors, unmanned undersea vehicles, and acoustic navigation and communication systems for operations in

270-734: A marine policy center. Its shore-based facilities are located in the village of Woods Hole , Massachusetts , United States and a mile and a half away on the Quissett Campus. The bulk of the institution's funding comes from grants and contracts from the National Science Foundation and other government agencies, augmented by foundations and private donations. WHOI scientists, engineers, and students collaborate to develop theories, test ideas, build seagoing instruments, and collect data in diverse marine environments. Ships operated by WHOI carry research scientists throughout

315-404: A particular focus on the role of bacteria in nutrient cycles. Waksman examined the degradation of alginic acid , cellulose, and zooplankton. Waksman, working with Cornelia Carey, Margaret Hotchkiss , Yvette Hardman , and Donald Johnston, conducted multiple studies on the actions of bacteria in marine systems which included quantifying the abundance and viability of bacteria in seawater., examining

360-571: A permanent independent research laboratory on the East Coast to "prosecute oceanography in all its branches" led to the founding in 1930 of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. A $ 2.5 million grant from the Rockefeller Foundation supported the summer work of a dozen scientists, construction of a laboratory building and commissioning of a research vessel, the 142-foot (43 m) ketch Atlantis , whose profile still forms

405-456: A time, been studying the organism Streptomyces griseus . Streptomycin was isolated from S. griseus and found effective against tuberculosis by one of Waksman's graduate students, Albert Schatz . These results were later confirmed by Elizabeth Bugie Gregory, whose name was also published on "Streptomycin, a Substance Exhibiting Antibiotic Activity Against Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria" with Schatz and Waksman. However, Bugie's name

450-409: Is dispersed. Schools would also provide clearer lines for each individual's role in a lab to minimize future litigations against the school. Neomycin is derived from actinomycetes and was discovered by Waksman and Hubert A. Lechevalier, one of Waksman's graduate students. The discovery was published in the journal Science . Waksman's research also examined the role of bacteria in marine systems, with

495-781: Is returned to the funds delegated to the relevant prize. The Nobel Prize was not awarded between 1940 and 1942 due to the outbreak of World War II . Between 1901 and 2017, the Nobel Prizes and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 585 times to 923 people and organizations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 892 individuals (including 844 men, 48 women) and 24 organizations. Six Nobel laureates were not permitted by their governments to accept

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540-683: The American Geophysical Union , Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography , and several others. Notable scientists include: WHOI operates several research vessels , owned by the United States Navy , the National Science Foundation , or the institution: WHOI formerly operated R/V Knorr , which was replaced by R/V Neil Armstrong in 2015. WHOI operates many small boats used in inland harbors, ponds, rivers, and coastal bays. All are owned by

585-615: The Nobel Foundation . An additional prize in memory of Alfred Nobel was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank (Sweden's central bank ) for outstanding contributions to the field of economics . Each recipient, a Nobelist or laureate , receives a gold medal , a diploma , and a sum of money which is decided annually by the Nobel Foundation. Different organisations are responsible for awarding

630-634: The Nobel Prize in 1952; the Star of the Rising Sun granted to him by the emperor of Japan, and the rank of Commandeur in the French Légion d'honneur . During his Nobel Prize award presentation, Waksman was called "one of the greatest benefactors to mankind," as the result of his discovery of streptomycin. Schatz protested being left out of the award, even sending a letter to Gustaf VI Adolf ,

675-692: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , the Swedish Academy , the Karolinska Institutet , and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals and organizations who make outstanding contributions in the fields of chemistry , physics , literature , peace , and physiology or medicine . They were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel , which dictates that the awards should be administered by

720-870: The United States Department of Agriculture in Washington, DC under Charles Thom , studying soil fungi. He was appointed as a research fellow at the University of California, Berkeley , and in 1918 he was awarded his doctor of philosophy in biochemistry. He joined the faculty at Rutgers University in the Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology. At Rutgers, Waksman's team discovered several antibiotics, including actinomycin , clavacin , streptothricin , streptomycin , grisein, neomycin , fradicin, candicidin , candidin. Waksman co-discovered streptomycin with Albert Schatz . Streptomycin

765-521: The United States Navy . Some of the targets included the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The attacks had been underway since at least April 2017. In August 2024, institution researchers are scheduled, pending approval from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , to conduct a $ 10 million ocean alkalinity enhancement experiment partially funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that will release 6,000 gallons of

810-686: The Arctic. The institution is also working on Project Sundance for the Office of Naval Research. The B. H. Ketchum award, established in 1983, is presented for innovative coastal/nearshore research and is named in honor of oceanographer Bostwick H. "Buck" Ketchum. The award is administered by the WHOI Coastal Ocean Institute and Rinehart Coastal Research Center. Recipients : The Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal in Oceanography

855-726: The King of Sweden, but the State did not have any influence over the Nobel Prize Committee's decision and they ruled that he was a mere lab assistant working under a scientist. The Selman A. Waksman Award in Microbiology of the National Academy of Sciences is given in his honor. Selman Waksman was the author or co-author of over 400 scientific papers, as well as 28 books and 14 scientific pamphlets. Waksman

900-732: The Nobel Prize. Adolf Hitler forbade four Germans, Richard Kuhn (Chemistry, 1938), Adolf Butenandt (Chemistry, 1939), Gerhard Domagk (Physiology or Medicine, 1939) and Carl von Ossietzky (Peace, 1936) from accepting their Nobel Prizes. The Chinese government forbade Liu Xiaobo from accepting his Nobel Prize (Peace, 2010) and the government of the Soviet Union pressured Boris Pasternak (Literature, 1958) to decline his award. Liu Xiaobo , Carl von Ossietzky and Aung San Suu Kyi were all awarded their Nobel Prize while in prison or detention. Two Nobel laureates, Jean-Paul Sartre (Literature, 1964) and Lê Ðức Thọ (Peace, 1973), declined

945-679: The United States and became a naturalized American citizen six years later. Waksman attended Rutgers College (now Rutgers University), where he graduated in 1915 with a Bachelor of Science in agriculture. He continued his studies at Rutgers, receiving a Master of Science the following year, in 1916. During his graduate study, he worked under J. G. Lipman at the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station at Rutgers performing research in soil bacteriology. Waksman spent some months in 1915–1916 at

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990-478: The Waitt Institute discovered, by means of sidescan sonar , a large portion of debris field from flight AF447. In March 2017 the institution effected an open-access policy to make its research publicly accessible online. In 2019, iDefense reported that China's hackers had launched cyberattacks on dozens of academic institutions in an attempt to gain information on technology being developed for

1035-677: The award; Sartre declined the award as he declined all official honors, and Thọ declined the award due to the situation Vietnam was in at the time. Seven laureates have received more than one prize; of the seven, the International Committee of the Red Cross has received the Nobel Peace Prize three times, more than any other. UNHCR has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize twice. Also the Nobel Prize in Physics

1080-470: The biological, biomedical, ecological, and oceanographic sciences. The library also conducts digitization and informatics projects. On October 1, 2020, Peter B. de Menocal became the institution's eleventh president and director. In 1927, a National Academy of Sciences committee concluded that it was time to "consider the share of the United States of America in a worldwide program of oceanographic research." The committee's recommendation for establishing

1125-549: The date on which the decision in question was made. Specific General Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Established in 1930 in Woods Hole, Massachusetts , it is the largest independent oceanographic research institution in the U.S., with staff and students numbering about 1,000. The institution is organized into six departments, the Cooperative Institute for Climate and Ocean Research, and

1170-563: The division of Marine Bacteriology at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) in addition to his task at Rutgers. He was appointed a marine bacteriologist there and served until 1942. He was elected a trustee at WHOI and finally a Life Trustee. In 1951, using half of his patent royalties , Waksman created the Waksman Foundation for Microbiology. At a meeting of the board of trustees of

1215-417: The farmland outside his lab and tested by him. Waksman, however, eventually came to claim sole credit for the discovery. The controversy of streptomycin between Waksman and Schatz brought to light the challenges of distributing credit for scientific research, discoveries, and patents. It prompted schools and universities to become more involved in the patenting process and to have more regulations on how credit

1260-763: The foundation, held in July 1951, he urged the building of a facility for work in microbiology, named the Waksman Institute of Microbiology , which is located on the Busch Campus of Rutgers University in Piscataway, New Jersey . The foundation's first president, Waksman, was succeeded in this position by his son, Byron H. Waksman, from 1970 to 2000. Waksman had been studying the Streptomyces family of organisms since his college student days and had, for

1305-529: The impact of copper on bacterial growth, estimating the impact of bacterial activity on the nitrogen cycle, and a separation of bacteria into groups based on habitat use in seawater, on plankton, or in the sediments. Other tributes involve anti-fouling paint for the Navy, the use of enzymes in laundry detergents , and the practice of Concord grape rootstock to safeguard French vineyards from fungal infections. Waksman acquired many awards and honors, including

1350-975: The individual prizes; the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, and Economics; the Swedish Academy awards the Prize in Literature; the Karolinska Institute awards the Prize in Physiology or Medicine; and the Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Prize in Peace. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award that has varied throughout the years. In 1901,

1395-489: The institution's logo. WHOI grew substantially to support significant defense-related research during World War II, and later began a steady growth in staff, research fleet, and scientific stature. From 1950 to 1956, the director was Dr. Edward "Iceberg" Smith , an Arctic explorer, oceanographer and retired Coast Guard rear admiral . In 1977 the institution appointed oceanographer John Steele as director, and he served until his retirement in 1989. On 1 September 1985,

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1440-639: The modern sense of that word to name them), and he introduced procedures that have led to the development of many others. The proceeds earned from the licensing of his patents funded a foundation for microbiological research, which established the Waksman Institute of Microbiology located at the Rutgers University Busch Campus in Piscataway, New Jersey (USA). In 1952, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "ingenious, systematic, and successful studies of

1485-603: The person or people who submitted the nomination. After fifty years, the database of nominations maintained by the Nobel Committee is made available to the public. Statutes of the Nobel Foundation, § 10, states: A prize-awarding body may, however, after due consideration in each individual case, permit access to material which formed the basis for the evaluation and decision concerning a prize, for purposes of research in intellectual history. Such permission may not, however, be granted until at least 50 years have elapsed after

1530-466: The recipients of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK , equivalent to 10.8 million SEK in 2023. In 2017, the laureates were awarded a prize amount of 9 million SEK. The awards are presented in Stockholm in an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death. In years in which the Nobel Prize is not awarded due to external events or a lack of nominations, the prize money

1575-435: The soil microbes that led to the discovery of streptomycin." Waksman and his foundation later were sued by Albert Schatz , one of his Ph.D. students and the discoverer of streptomycin, for minimizing Schatz's role in the discovery. In 2005, Selman Waksman was granted an ACS National Historic Chemical Landmark in recognition of the significant work of his lab in isolating more than 15 antibiotics, including streptomycin, which

1620-592: The world's oceans. The WHOI fleet includes two large research vessels ( Atlantis and Neil Armstrong ), the coastal craft Tioga , small research craft such as the dive-operation work boat Echo, the deep-diving human-occupied submersible Alvin , the tethered, remotely operated vehicle Jason/Medea , and autonomous underwater vehicles such as the REMUS and SeaBED . WHOI offers graduate and post-doctoral studies in marine science. There are several fellowship and training programs, and graduate degrees are awarded through

1665-480: Was also the first person (male or female) to be awarded two Nobel Prizes, the second award being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, given in 1911. The Committee neither informs the media nor the candidates themselves of the names of the nominees. Insofar as specific names frequently appear in the early predictions of who will receive the award in any given year, this is either pure speculation or inside information from

1710-435: Was awarded to John Bardeen twice, as was the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Frederick Sanger and Karl Barry Sharpless . Two laureates have been awarded twice but not in the same field: Marie Curie (Physics and Chemistry) and Linus Pauling (Chemistry and Peace). Among the 892 Nobel laureates, 48 have been women; the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize was Marie Curie , who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. She

1755-487: Was away at the military in 1943, adding that he was only in the lab for three months and only played a small role in discovering streptomycin. Waksman and Rutgers settled out of court with Schatz, resulting in financial remuneration and entitlement to "legal and scientific credit as co-discoverer of streptomycin." Schatz was awarded $ 120,000 for patent rights and 3% of royalties. The Lancet claimed that "the Nobel committee made

1800-399: Was established in 1960 in honor of the first WHOI Director, biologist Henry Bryant Bigelow . Recipients : Source: Over the years, WHOI scientists have made seminal discoveries about the ocean that have contributed to improving US commerce, health, national security, and quality of life. They have received awards and recognition from scientific societies such as The Oceanography Society ,

1845-589: Was married to Deborah B. Mitnik. They had one son, Byron H. Waksman, M.D., who was an assistant professor at Harvard University Medical School, and Professor of Microbiology at Yale University Medical School. Selman Waksman died on August 16, 1973, at a Hyannis, Massachusetts, hospital and was interred at the Woods Hole Village Cemetery in Woods Hole, Massachusetts . Nobel Prize laureate The Nobel Prizes ( Swedish : Nobelpriset , Norwegian : Nobelprisen ) are awarded annually by

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1890-400: Was not on the second key paper in 1944, which was regarding the efficacy of streptomycin against tuberculosis in test tubes, as Schatz claimed Bugie was not involved with the experiment. Bugie was also not given credit for her work on streptomycin, nor was she listed on the patent proposal, as she signed an affidavit stating that she did not have any contribution in discovering streptomycin. This

1935-466: Was submitted under an attorney of the Rutgers Research and Endowment Foundation. The details and credit for the discovery of streptomycin and its usefulness as an antibiotic were strongly contested by Albert Schatz , leading to litigation in 1950. However, it was possible that Waksman did not see Schatz's contribution as significantly as Schatz saw his contributions. Waksman noted that Schatz

1980-492: Was the first effective drug against gram-negative bacteria and the first antibiotic used to cure tuberculosis . Waksman is credited with coining the term antibiotics to describe antibacterials derived from other living organisms, for example penicillin , though the term was used by the French dermatologist François Henri Hallopeau , in 1871 to describe a substance opposed to the development of life. In 1931, Waksman organized

2025-580: Was the first effective treatment for tuberculosis . Selman Waksman was born on July 22, 1888 (July 8 according to the old Russian calendar), to Jewish parents, in Nova Pryluka, Kyiv Governorate , Russian Empire, now Vinnytsia Oblast , Ukraine. He was the son of Fradia (London) and Jacob Waksman. In 1910, shortly after receiving his diploma from the Fifth Gymnasium in Odesa , he immigrated to

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