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110-502: Jean Senebier (25 May 1742 – 22 July 1809) was a Genevan Calvinist pastor and naturalist . He was chief librarian of the Republic of Geneva. A pioneer in the field of photosynthesis research, he provided extensive evidence that plants consume carbon dioxide and produced oxygen . He also showed a link between the amount of carbon dioxide available and the amount of oxygen produced and determined that photosynthesis took place at

220-629: A " den of contrabandists, aristocrats, and emigrants ". In January 1798, the French army invades the Swiss confederation and begins a trade embargo on Geneva, but the Directory wishes to annex the city on demand by its citizens and not by force. The wish would be granted on 15 April 1798 when the Genevan government is coerced by economic and political pressure to request the annexation by France. The treaty

330-633: A 15-km radius around the city), that would guarantee the city's independence and prosperity. In addition, Geneva also obtained an annual subsidy from France, and a permanent garrison funded by the Kingdom. Since then, both Savoy and France largely respected Geneva's independence, protected by its strong fortresses, and guaranteed by its alliance with the Protestant cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy of Zürich and Bern . Nevertheless,

440-414: A blow to the city's religious purity, particularly because the first representative, Laurent de Chavingy was very provocative. In 1681, as France annexed Strasbourg , Geneva fears for the worst and the councils must skilfully navigate the diplomatic situation to safeguard the Republic's independence. The major advantages that the councillors had for this task were on the one hand the strategic position of

550-406: A brutal conviction in their new faith by destroying images, statues, and other objects of worship. The troops quickly spread Protestant ideas, and in 1532, supported by Bern, Guillaume Farel arrived at the city to preach the new faith. Meanwhile, the authorities had been reforming the governing bodies of the city. In 1526, they set up a Council of Two Hundred , emulating the Swiss model. In 1528,

660-570: A decisive military victory against Charles the Bold who died in the battle. Geneva was on the losing side since its Bishop, Jean-Louis de Savoie, had sided with Burgundy following directions from Yolande of Valois , regent of Savoy. Immediately, the confederate troops invaded Vaud , and Bernese troops threatened to conquer Geneva, which, owing to its status as a protected enclave within Savoy, had no standing army of its own. The treaty of Morges in 1477 put

770-605: A great influence on the canton, which essentially consists of the city and its suburbs. Notable institutions of international importance based in the canton are the United Nations , the International Committee of the Red Cross and CERN . The Canton of Geneva, whose official name is the Republic and Canton of Geneva, is the successor of the Republic of Geneva. This article focuses on the history of

880-516: A large port city in Versoix to deviate the traffic en route to Lake Geneva and from there to the Swiss confederation. The city, intended for around 30,000 inhabitants, would have been bigger than Geneva (by then the largest Swiss city) and included large squares and ports. Voltaire , who had settled in Ferney , was particularly rejoiced about the idea of ruining Geneva. However, opposition from Bern to

990-546: A new fortified town in its border in Pays de Gex, and budgetary problems in France, finally stopped the project of which few items finally were built and survive. A more lasting project was launched by Savoy in 1777, which transformed Carouge into the gateway to the northern provinces and conferred the village the status of city in 1786. The planned city was particularly innovative in the way that streets were symmetrically laid and by

1100-588: A political will to promote a city. In contrast, the origins of the trade fairs in the city, active from at least by the middle of the 13th century, remain unknown. However, these expanded greatly during the 14th century and their apogee took place in the middle of the 15th century, when the city counted seven yearly trade fairs, four of which had large international significance: the Epiphany, Easter, August, and October/November. Geneva benefited from several external factors at this time to explain this economic expansion:

1210-501: A stop to the troops advance in exchange for a ransom of 28,000 écus of Savoy. The Duchy recovered most of its possessions lost to Bern in exchange for payments, but this period marked the beginning of the end of its hegemony over the Genevan region and the start of an unstable time for the city. The right to appoint the Bishop of Geneva granted to Amadeus III was eroded and it became a political and diplomatic negotiation, between Savoy,

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1320-455: A then 26-year old French theologist , spent some time in summer in Geneva and was convinced by William Farel to stay and establish together a new Church. In January 1537 they presented their project to the mayors. They were initially reluctant to adopt Farel and Calvin's ideas of a Church that would take again control over the city, and were also displeased by both men's refusal to adopt some of

1430-460: A time Protestant. In the second half of the century, other industries develop, notably gilding and watchmaking. After the defeat of Charles III by French and Bernese forces, Savoy had temporarily given up on its efforts to take Geneva. However, in the second half of the 16th century the Dukedom allies with Spain and regains some of its power. The son of Charles III, Emmanuel Philibert , defeated

1540-508: A treaty (the Traité de Seyssel ), whereby the Count restored to the Bishop of Geneva some of the churches whose rights and revenues he had acquired. Although this treaty did not fully solve the conflict, which only got fully resolved by the treaty of Saint-Sigismond in 1156 which confirmed all the provisions, it marked an important step for Geneva as the count also gave up his temporal rights over

1650-593: Is then made capital of a new département du Léman , which resembled the old catholic diocese of Geneva prior to the Protestant reformation. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences In addition to various advisory and administrative functions it operates a number of research institutes and awards many prizes, including the Lorentz Medal in theoretical physics, the Dr Hendrik Muller Prize for Behavioural and Social Science and

1760-544: Is with France, specifically the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes . As is the case in several other Swiss cantons ( Ticino , Neuchâtel , and Jura ), Geneva is referred to as a republic within the Swiss Confederation. One of the most populated cantons, Geneva is considered one of the most cosmopolitan regions of the country. As a center of the Calvinist Reformation , the city of Geneva has had

1870-516: The 1685 second wave of Huguenot refugees forced into exile after the revocation of the Nantes edict since Geneva was a favored passage for the refugees heading to Switzerland and historians estimate that between 100,000 and 120,000 huguenots transited through the city. Buoyed by the economic prosperity and relative peace between 1654 and 1688, when France went to war against the league of Augsburg and blockaded its enemies, Geneva provided much aid to

1980-645: The Eidguenots named this faction the Mammelus , after the Mamluks , the slave-soldiers of the sultan in Cairo. In 1519, the Eidguenots attempted to conclude a treaty of alliance ( combourgeoisie ) with the Swiss confederation, but this was rejected by all the cantons except for Fribourg. Bern in particular was an ally of Savoy at this time, and central Swiss cantons viewed with suspicion an eventual expansion to

2090-471: The Global Young Academy . The Society of Arts (Akademie van Kunsten) is a society of prominent artists from various disciplines, including architecture, visual arts, dance, film, photography, literature, music and performing arts. Its aim is to be the place "for debate about the value of art in society and about the relationship between art and science".The Society of Arts was established by

2200-773: The Heineken Prizes . The academy advises the Dutch government on scientific matters. While its advice often pertains to genuine scientific concerns, it also counsels the government on such topics as policy on careers for researchers or the Netherlands' contribution to major international projects. The academy offers solicited and unsolicited advice to parliament, ministries, universities and research institutes, funding agencies and international organizations. The members are appointed for life by co-optation . Nominations for candidate membership by persons or organizations outside

2310-688: The Lutheran liturgy. In April 1538, as the government is torn between supporters of a state religion following the Bernese model and supporters of French reformation, the authorities ask both men to leave the city. However, soon after in September 1541, Calvin is asked by Geneva to return. Upon his arrival he begins to leave his mark on Church with the Ecclesiastical Ordinances and, although he had no official role other than Head of

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2420-590: The Mammelus and Bishop Pierre de la Baume. When the Eidguenots took over the control of the city, they executed the leaders of the opposing faction in retaliation for the previous ruthless behaviour of the Duke. In an attempt to regain his influence, Bishop Pierre de la Baume requested to join the alliance with Bern and Fribourg, which refused. Afraid for his safety, he quit the city on 1 August 1527 and he would only go back for two weeks before permanently leaving Geneva in 1533. Despite its newly regained independence from

2530-497: The Phlogiston theory of chemistry, and only in his later works did he reformulate his conclusions in terms of the more modern, oxygen chemistry developed by Antoine Lavoisier and colleagues. This discovery by Senebier regarding gases ranks as one of the last of the important early discoveries in the unraveling of the fundamental chemical processes of photosynthesis. Marcello Malpighi and Nehemiah Grew , working independently in

2640-535: The Reign of Terror . Slowly, stability regains Geneva and in September 1795 with the 'act of forgetfulness' all the trials in the revolutionary courts were annulled. Old symbols of the Republic of Geneva make a comeback, and in October 1796 a new, more conservative constitution, is adopted. Things would quickly evolve when France officially annexes Savoy in the spring 1796 and Geneva is increasingly denounced by Paris as

2750-614: The Swiss Confederation . It is composed of forty-five municipalities , and the seat of the government and parliament is in the city of Geneva . Geneva is the French-speaking westernmost canton of Switzerland . It lies at the western end of Lake Geneva and on both sides of the Rhone , its main river. Within the country, the canton borders Vaud to the east, the only adjacent canton. However, most of Geneva's border

2860-511: The parenchyma , the green fleshy part of the leaf. Senebier was born in Geneva, the son of a wealthy merchant. He wrote extensively on plant physiology and was one of the major early pioneers of photosynthesis research. Senebier also published on the experimental method, first in 1775, and then in an expanded work, in 1802. His precise definition of the experimental method anticipated the work of noted French physiologist Claude Bernard fifty years later. Senebier also served as chief librarian of

2970-565: The " cujus regio, ejus religio " principle for Geneva. However, the Genevan authorities were highly suspicious and worked towards obtaining the support of catholic Solothurn and France, who agree to protect the city against potential attacks from Savoy. In effect, the threats to the city materialise with Emmanuel-Philibert's son, Charles Emmanuel I , who dreams of conquering the city and he begins plotting against Protestants, employing mercenaries to intimidate those converted by Bernese preachers. Intensifying its diplomatic efforts, Geneva obtains

3080-682: The Bishop Pierre de la Baume arrived to Geneva to exercise his right of justice on the murder of a canon, he expressed his opposition to the new Councils by leaving the city forever. He then sides with Charles III , and in August 1534, he excommunicates the city. In response, the city authorities declare in October of the same year the vacancy of the Bishopric and attribute for themselves all seigniorial rights (to make laws, to declare war and peace, to mint coin etc.). This act of independence marks

3190-445: The Bishop's control with the Duke, since the Bishop shared his ruling of the city with local civilian authorities. In 1434, however, the Duke abdicated and retreated to a chapel. This added to his prestige as a wise ruler, and he managed to get elected as antipope Felix V in 1439. When Bishop François de Metz died in 1444, Amadeus, now anti-pope, became the administrator of the bishopric and became de facto , but not de jure , ruler of

3300-538: The Catholic Church. With this decision, the commune of Geneva, the civil authority of the city, merged with new institutions, including the territories that depended on the Bishop, the mandements . As a response, the Catholic Canton of Fribourg breaks its alliance with the city. Charles III took advantage of the tumultuous situation in Geneva to attempt to conquer the city in 1535–36, but coming to

3410-641: The City of Geneva to the Bishop, except for the right to execute criminal sentences. The following bishops, Arducius de Faucigny (1135-1185) and Nantelme (1185-1205) kept eroding the counts' power. The touchstone of this erosion of power was the acquisition of the Imperial immediacy by the Prince-Bishopric in 1154, which designated the Bishop of Geneva as a Prince of the Empire and, by right, the only lord of

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3520-514: The Counts of Geneva, largely explains why, unlike other Swiss urban cantons, Geneva was unable to expand geographically, as its borders were dominated by those two powerful states. Unwilling to give up on the city, Savoy launched one last attempt to conquer the city during the events of the Escalade in 1602. This incursion against the “Protestant Rome” would paradoxically lead to the recognition of

3630-486: The Duke, they harassed the city by confiscating food products in its borders, attacking men and ravaging the countryside. After an attempt to assault the city in March 1529 and again in October 1530, Geneva requested the aid of its allies from Bern and Fribourg . Several thousand soldiers, accompanied by negotiators from eight Swiss cantons, entered the city on the 10th of October and stayed for ten days within its walls until

3740-524: The House of Savoy spent long periods of time in the city, adding to the demand for luxury goods. The trade fairs required credit to function through letters of credit , the development of which adds to the economic expansion of the city. The fairs were also the spark that began the approachment of Geneva with the cities of Fribourg and Bern , both of which partly depended upon the fairs for their extensive textiles manufacturing. This economic development and

3850-552: The KNAW: De Jonge Akademie (The Young Academy) is a society of younger science researchers, founded in 2005 as part of the KNAW. Ten members are elected each year for a term of five years; members are scientists between 25 and 45 years old and are selected for a record of excellence in their research. It was modelled after the similar German Junge Akademie and both of these academies in turn were used as models for

3960-574: The Maison de Faucigny, de Gex, as well as the counts of Savoy. After several decades of wars of the gebenno-faucigneran conflict of 1205–1250, the counts of Geneva lost all their main lands and fortresses. In the Treaty of Paris (1355) , Savoy was awarded the Faucigny and Gex, leaving the counts of Geneva as secondary regional actors. After the death of antipope count Robert in 1394, the county passed to

4070-625: The Ministers, administrative matters as well as he outmanoeuvres political opponents to redact part of the Civil Edicts ( Édits Civils ) in 1543, a sort of constitution, which fix the form of government, the election rules and powers of the members of the Councils. These two texts, revised over time, would govern the Republic until the end of the 18th century. If the political Edicts brought only minor changes to prior dispositions adopted over

4180-404: The Pays de Gex, for Chancy , Avully , and Russin . In a similar treaty with Savoy in 1754, Geneva received from Savoy Cartigny , Jussy , Vandoeuvres , Gy , and some other smaller territories, in exchange for its rights on Carouge , Veyrier , Onex , Lancy , Bossey , Presinge , and others. During the baroque and classical periods, Europe saw the emergence of several planned towns. Save for

4290-501: The Republic of Geneva. Senebier was greatly influenced by Swiss naturalist Charles Bonnet . Senebier was also influenced by the Italian animal physiologist and experimental biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani , several of whose works Senebier translated from Italian into French. Spallanzani's chemical research on bodily functions of animals helped lead Senebier towards studying plant chemistry. Although Senebier's first research on plants

4400-657: The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2014. Both are seated in the 17th century Trippenhuis in Amsterdam. At the start the Society of Arts had 19 members. Each year the number of members increases with 6 new members who are offered a membership for life. In 2022 the Society of Arts has 76 members. Members of the Society of Arts are elected by nomination. Anyone can nominate leading artists from all disciplines who have distinguished themselves on

4510-537: The Swiss, the chapel of the cathedral, and the civil authorities of the city. The decline of the Duchy was exacerbated by the internal rebellions and the series of weak and physically ill Dukes. Sensing this weakness, the Duchy's neighbours made it into a prey, incapable as well of defending Geneva's economic interests against French interference as well as incapable of physically protecting the city against foreign invasions. With this loss of reputation, new factions emerge in

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4620-480: The academy are accepted. The acceptance criterion is delivered scientific achievements. Academy membership is therefore regarded as a great honor, and prestigious. Besides regular members, there are foreign members and corresponding members. Since a new membership system was introduced in 2011 there will be no new corresponding members. Each year a maximum of sixteen members are appointed to the academy. The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences has long embraced

4730-506: The aid of Geneva, a new army of Bernese in alliance with France defeated Savoy. It occupied the lands of Savoy in the Genevan basin (including all the Pays de Gex ), marking the end of the Duchy as a threat to Geneva and the recognition of Geneva's sovereignty. This was not without risk to Geneva, given how Bernese troops conquered Lausanne despite the cities' alliance. In 1536, John Calvin ,

4840-432: The alliance with Zürich in 1584. Between 1586 and 1587 large outbreaks of the plague affects Geneva and Savoy, which came coupled with bad harvests and famines affecting the continent. In these conditions, it was difficult to supply with food the 15,000 inhabitants of the city, despite diplomatic efforts to seek help from its allies. The Council forbids the production of white bread and pastries and bans some residents from

4950-535: The amount of carbon dioxide available to the plant. Further, he determined that the green fleshy parts of leaves (the parenchyma ) are the sites where carbon dioxide is transformed into oxygen. Senebier also correctly concluded that plants use the carbon in carbon dioxide as a nutriment. Senebier did some of his research jointly with fellow Swiss naturalist François Huber . Senebier arrived at his best known achievement, his demonstration that plants take up atmospheric carbon dioxide and give off oxygen, based entirely on

5060-525: The army of French king Henri II in the battle of Saint-Quentin in 1557 and recovered the lands conquered by the French in 1535. In 1559, in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis , France restores an independent Savoy. However, Bern did not participate in the initial negotiations, and only in the Treaty of Lausanne of 1564 did Savoy recover the lands around Geneva, while losing forever the Pays de Vaud to Bern. Until his death, Emmanuel-Philibert practiced tolerance with his non-Catholic subjects and largely respected

5170-592: The birth of the Republic of Geneva, then still mostly confined to the city and the few medieval territories gifted to the Bishops, the largest of which were Satigny , Peney, and an area around modern-day Jussy . In addition, owing to the increased rate of conversions to Protestantism, on the 21   May 1536, the General Council of Geneva fully adopted the Reformation and confiscated all the assets of

5280-429: The canton, which begins in 1815, and some of the context leading to modern borders and events after that date. For more detail on the history of Geneva prior to that year, refer to the history of the city of Geneva . Compared to other urban cantons of Switzerland (Zürich, Bern, Basel before it split, Fribourg, Lucerne), Geneva's geographical size is relatively small. This article explains the political context that led to

5390-484: The centuries-long peace enjoyed by the city is reflected on its demographic expansion. The city grew from about 2,000 inhabitants by the end of the Black Death , to 11,000 by the middle of the 15th century, making it the largest city in the region as Chambéry and Lausanne counted 5,000 inhabitants at the time and in modern Switzerland only Basel with its 8,000-to- 10,000 came close to Geneva's size. This explains

5500-457: The city after the Emperor, a status employed several times by the Bishops in the defence of their independence from local rulers. As a result, some time around 1219 the Counts of Geneva completely quit the city and moved their capital to Annecy , which marked an important step for the future evolution of the canton of Geneva, as for the first time there was a complete separation of the ruling of

5610-577: The city in exchange for an assurance of the respect of their neutrality by France. On the 19 November 1792 the National Convention declared the Edict of Fraternity which called on European peoples to rise against their rulers, both secular and spiritual, and overthrow them; in response, the Genevan government decided to grant on the day of the Escalade, the 12th of December, full rights to all

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5720-454: The city of Geneva, by the Bishops, from the ruling of its hinterlands, the Counts. At the same time, the county was in a continuous power struggle with the House of Savoy , which by the middle of the 12th century governed a vast principality centred on the control of the main mountain passes of the western Alps. By the beginning of the 13th century, the Counts of Geneva were facing an alliance of

5830-472: The city seeking to distance the city from the Duchy. The degradation of the political relations between Savoy and the civil authorities of Geneva rose to prominence in 1513, when upon the death of Bishop Charles de Seyssel, Charles III maneuvred to get Jean de Savoie appointed by the Pope. Several Genevan citizens who disapproved the influence of the Duke, led by Besançon Hugues and Philibert Berthelier , form

5940-454: The city was finally forced to abandon it when France defeated Savoy and annexed the Pays de Gex for itself in the Treaty of Lyon of 1601 . This marked the point where most of Geneva's hinterland was divided between two different strong states along the Rhone banks: the Kingdom of France on the right, and the Duchy of Savoy on the left. This event and the prior domination of the area by Savoy and

6050-485: The city's independence in a period when the threat of France was not subsiding. A period of political and economic crisis and instability followed, with a new constitution adopted in 1794 and several government changes that adopt increasingly radical and controversial ideas such as vastly higher wealth tax rates for citizens of opposing factions, and death and imprisonment sentences for hundreds of adversaries. Meanwhile, in France, Robespierre fell 27 July 1794 and with him

6160-643: The city's independence. The negotiations between Savoy and Geneva from spring 1603 were successfully completed in July the same year with the treaty of Saint-Julien. Thanks to the arbitration provided by several Swiss cantons as well as France, the Republic obtained a very advantageous deal that politically placed the city in equal terms with Savoy. In addition, it obtained economic (free commerce and exemption from taxes on real estate located in Savoy owned by Genevan residents) and military rights (prohibition from building any military facilities and from keeping any garrison on

6270-429: The city, as France was interested in keeping the status quo with Savoy as well as in respecting Geneva's alliance with the Swiss cantons in order to maintain the supply of Swiss mercenaries, and on the other hand economic interests given that the city was centrally located in the trade routes linking north and south, and that it provided a significant amount of capital to finance France's debt. Tensions were highest during

6380-606: The city, which received support from its trade partners, Bern and Fribourg, in view of defending the city's interests in the French court. Trade with the central cities of the Swiss confederation sparked an economy recovery from 1480 to 1520, but it also showed the decline of Savoy as the protector of Geneva. In addition, in the Battle of Nancy during the Burgundian Wars , the Old Swiss Confederacy achieved

6490-640: The city. When he finally renounced his position as Pope, he kept a degree of control over the city, and succeeded in agreeing with Pope Nicholas V that the future Bishops of Geneva must be designated by the house of Savoy, but without gaining full control over the city. Nevertheless, larger events began to catch up with the city. In 1462, Louis XI , king of France, decided to forbid Frenchmen and foreigners in his kingdom from attending Geneva's trade fairs, and promoted its most direct competition in Lyon , whose trade fairs began in 1420. This led to an economic decline of

6600-426: The city. The catastrophe affected Savoy equally, and in response Charles Emmanuel I forbids the export of grains from his lands, which in essence means blockading Geneva from any supplies since the city was surrounded by the Duchy except for what goods could be imported by the lake. In response, Geneva, supported by France and a contingent of 12,000 Swiss soldiers, intermittently occupied the Pays de Gex from 1589, but

6710-472: The counts received the support from the canons of the chapter, a large majority of whom were members of vassal families of the count. The apex of the count's power took place from 1078 to 1129, when Count Aymon I managed to get his brother Guy de Faucigny appointed as bishop of Geneva. Aymon took advantage of this situation by transferring the administration of some of the lands away from the Diocese of Geneva to

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6820-552: The crisis of trade fairs in Chalon-sur-Saône , and the Hundred Years' War , partially removed France from international routes linking Northern Europe to Mediterranean ports such as Montpellier and Marseille , which shifted eastwards, crossing Geneva and the Rhone valley; the city reaped the benefits from the pax sabauda , a long-period of peace during which it was spared from the effects of wars; and in addition,

6930-537: The early chemical research on this subject. In April 1809, Senebier became a Correspondent of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences . The standard botanical author abbreviation Seneb. is applied to species Senebier described. Republic and Canton of Geneva#History The Canton of Geneva , officially the Republic and Canton of Geneva , is one of the 26 cantons of

7040-509: The ecclesiastical rights and possessions of the church. Pope Callixtus II then pressured Aymon to return the Church's estates, going as far as excommunicating him. The Count repented, and greeted the Bishop on the border of his County in Seyssel as the Bishop was on his way back to Geneva from Vienne , whose Bishop had been tasked by the Pope to mediate in the conflict. There, they concluded

7150-417: The end of Geneva's distinctive identity founded on the memory of the fights for independence and conviviality practices that Calvin could not tolerate. Internationally, thanks to Calvin's religious reforms, Geneva becomes a beacon for the reformation, attracting thousands of Protestant refugees from all over Europe, but especially from France and to a lesser extent Italy and Spain. With the influx of refugees,

7260-531: The entire field of learning. The Royal Academy comprises two departments, consisting of around 500 members: Both departments have their own board. The departments, in turn, are divided into sections. The highest organ in the academy is the general meeting of members, the united meeting of both departments. The president was Frits van Oostrom until 1 May 2008, after which he was succeeded by Robbert Dijkgraaf . Both van Oostrom in his leaving address and Dijkgraaf in his inaugural address have voiced their worries about

7370-521: The faction of the Eidguenots (named after the German Eidgenossen , "confederates"), and sought the rapprochement of the city with the Swiss confederation . However, part of the Genevan political elite maintained their preference for the precarious political equilibrium with the House of Savoy, partly to stay in good terms with the rulers of all of Geneva's surroundings. As a sign of contempt,

7480-425: The gas. Then, in 1775, English chemist Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen (which he named "dephlogisticated air"), and, just a few years later, in 1779, Dutch physician and researcher Jan Ingenhousz demonstrated that the bubbles of gas observed by Bonnet on submerged leaves consisted of this same gas. Ingenhousz also published the first convincing evidence that leaves produce this gas only in sunlight. Senebier

7590-495: The hereditary rights away from some of his nobles. However, the King was defeated in this power struggle, and this led to a weakening of the central power. As the King weakened, some of his local officers such as the Counts rejected his authority and even opposed him. Several independent fiefdoms emerge from this time, including the County of Geneva . In 1032, Rudolph III died without an heir. The Kingdom of Burgundy then reverted to HRE Conrad II , who tried to re-assert control of

7700-468: The house of Thoire-Villars, who were related to the house of Geneva. However, some of the local nobility was displeased with the outcome and, profiting from the situation, the County of Geneva finally disappeared when it was sold to Amadeus VIII of Savoy for 45,000 gold francs on 5 August 1401. The economic rise of cities and international commerce from the 11th century onwards also affected Geneva. Medieval fairs appeared in Northern Europe, often driven by

7810-401: The influence of Savoy, Geneva had no real army of its own and remained a city largely dependent on the diplomatic circumstances of the large European powers. However, the supporters of Charles III did not give up in their quest to seize Geneva. They withdrew to the Pays de Vaud from where they plotted against Geneva under the banner of " Gentilshommes de la Cuiller ". Discreetly supported by

7920-452: The inhabitants of the city and its towns. However, this was too late and on the 28th of the same month, a new revolt spreads in the city and the old patrician government falls, replaced by a new regime that on the day after adopts the motto of " Liberté, Égalité, Indépendence " French for "Liberty, Equality, Independence", stressing the fact that despite its revolutionary principles, the citizens of Geneva opposed any measure that would surrender

8030-492: The interest that the Dukes of Savoy took again to gain control of the city over the Bishops of Geneva upon their acquisition of the title of Counts of Geneva. On two occasions, in 1407 and again in 1420, Amadeus VIII , attempted to gain control of the city from the Bishops by pleading to the Pope. However, both times his requests were rejected. Possibly from the lack of interest by the local population who saw no benefit in replacing

8140-413: The kingdom began expanding towards Lyon and Grenoble , Geneva lost its central geographical location of the kingdom and for a time became a secondary capital until the kingdom was divided between Godegisel and Gundobad , sons of Gondioc . Godegisel settled in Geneva from which he controlled the northern bishoprics. The nature of the political relationship between both brothers is not well known, but in

8250-416: The lake are entirely covered with them. These buildings all have a pleasant exterior which announces, if not magnificence, at least the last degree of cleanliness. Each house has its own well-tended gardens, often even vineyards, meadows and ploughed land. The main road was swarming with pedestrians, horses and carriages, and the surroundings were as busy as they are elsewhere on days of great solemnity ". At

8360-563: The lands by rallying the nobles who opposed Rodolph III. In exchange for his loyalty, Gerold, count of Geneva, obtained full powers over his County, becoming a direct vassal of the Emperor and so his lands became part of the Holy Roman Empire . However, it is not clear how the power over the city proper was shared between the Prince-Bishopric of Geneva and the counts. Thus, a power struggle between both ensued in which

8470-518: The lands in Chablais and the Pays de Gex were progressively converted back to Catholicism by the future Bishop St François de Sales from 1594, who even entered the city de incognito in an attempt to convince Theodore de Beze to hold a public debate on religion. The authorities found themselves unable to respond to the Catholic threat, as they could not afford to irritate the French king, and at

8580-403: The late seventeenth century, and Stephen Hales in the early eighteenth century, had provided evidence that the atmosphere was important to plants, but further progress in understanding the role of gases in plant physiology awaited discoveries made between 1750 and 1780. In 1754, Charles Bonnet reported that leaves that were plunged in aerated water produced bubbles of gas, but he did not identify

8690-452: The local economy such as stonemasons, tailors, shoemakers, or carpenters. But from the 1550s, thanks to the skills brought for the refugees the economy developed export industries such as fabrics and printing. Printing in particular grew very fast, with the arrival of famous printers such as Jean Crespin or Robert Estienne , employing over 200 workers during Calvin's time before many of the printers moved to Lyon when that city also became for

8800-548: The low level of funding in science in the Netherlands compared to almost all other western countries. A list of presidents of the academy is as follows: During the Kingdom of Holland , it was founded as the Koninklijk Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letterkunde en Schoone Kunsten (Royal Institute of Sciences, Literature and Fine Arts) by Lodewijk Napoleon on May 4, 1808. In 1816, after the occupation had ended, it

8910-440: The main alpine passes of the region. In this context, Geneva regains its importance as the city was located in the intersection between several important roads connecting Italy to Northern Europe via the western Alps mountain passes of Mont Cenis and Great St Bernard Pass . However, by the end of the 10th century the kingdom was engulfed in several conflicts between the king's power and the aristocracy. Notably for Geneva, some of

9020-479: The majority of the population were then natives and residents, many of whom were educated traders or craftsmen who increasingly rejected being excluded from politics. Increased realisation of their weight, and supported by Voltaire , the natives joined forces with the faction of representatives to overthrow the councils in April 1782 and start a revolution that would facilitate the acquisition of bourgeois rights by

9130-546: The most important nobles began to offer some lands to the Church, such as in 912 when Eldegarde (probably a Countess in an area near Nyon) gave up her lands in the area of Satigny which eventually became the Mandement, or in 962 when Queen Berthe offered lands in Saint-Genis. The income of the Kingdom suffered from these transfers of lands and, in an attempt to stop the process, in 995 King Rudolph III tried to withdraw

9240-524: The natives. However, only three months later, Bernese, French, and Savoy troops entered the city to re-appoint the ancient government and undo the reforms. In 1785, economic crisis hits Geneva, driven first by the protectionist policies and financial crisis of France and Germany, which reduce the demand for the luxurious Genevan timepieces. After a difficult winter in 1788–89, riots over the increasing price of bread break in Saint-Gervais and spread to

9350-490: The peripheral location of Geneva within this region, it lost its status of capital, although it kept a certain religious prestige. In 864, Conrad II acquired the title of Duke of Transjurane and in 888 his son Rudolph I becomes king of the second kingdom of Burgundy after seizing the opportunity of death of Charles the Fat . At its maximum extent around the year 1000, the new kingdom extends from Provence to Basel and controls

9460-447: The population grew from 10,000 residents in 1550 to 25,000 in 1560. However, many of the new arrivals did not want or could not relocate permanently, and the population stabilised around 14,000 by 1572. Like in other cities in the Swiss landscape, the rights to live in the city was highly organised as follows: In an effort to attract talent, from 1537 the Republic granted the status of bourgeois cheaply to teachers, doctors, musicians, to

9570-608: The present-day borders. Geneva was controlled by the Allobroges , a rich and powerful Celtic tribe until 121 BC, when they were defeated by the Roman Empire . The city was then annexed to the Roman Empire in 121 BC and attached to Gallia Narbonensis province. Its political importance in the region was low, but it soon developed an important economy owing to the city's port that facilitated trade over Lake Geneva from

9680-658: The previous decades, the Ecclesiastical Ordinances would revolutionise the organisation of religious institutions. Thus, the creation of the Consistory launches the period that some historians call the "regime of moral terror" with numerous prohibitions that were severely applied, such as in the sentencing to the pyre of theologian and doctor Michael Servetus in 1553 for heresy, or the marginalisation of ancient, pro-Bernese and anti-French bourgeois families in 1555. The removal of this last opposition, marked

9790-510: The priory of Saint-Victor of which he became protector at the request of the Bishop, and siphoned the resources of the priory to himself. The successor of Guy de Faucigny, Bishop Humbert de Grammont, was outraged by this situation, and requested the restitution of the churches transferred to the administration of the Count. The outcome of the Gregorian Reform materialised in the council of Vienne of 1124 which legislated on securing

9900-440: The reconstruction of towns destroyed by fires (such as Schwyz in 1642, Sion in 1788, or La Chaux-de-Fonds in 1794), Switzerland did not jump on this trend mostly circumscribed to the large monarchies and princely states. However, the desire to possess or weaken Geneva by France and Savoy provides two good examples of this urban planning, both of which are now Genevan towns. In the 18th century under Louis XV , France intended to build

10010-581: The refugees, some of whom permanently moved to the city and helped to develop new industries such as indiennes and contributed to the watchmaking industry, displeasing France in the process. No major changes occurred in Geneva's borders until 1749. In an effort to rationalise the borders marked by the medieval territories gifted to the Bishops in the Middle Ages, the Republic and France exchanged territories in that year: Geneva swapped its rights over Challex , Thoiry , Fenières, and some enclaves it possed in

10120-522: The rest of the city. Concerned by an escalation of the revolts, the government implemented several reforms to appease the population, including the grant of citizenship to natives and residents of the countryside villages. However, in 1792 the French Revolution reached Geneva when the revolutionaries take over Savoy in September of that year. The Genevan government received military support from its Swiss allies, but they quickly withdrew from

10230-528: The right to appoint the 4 mayors (" syndics ") was granted to the Council of Two Hundred, which also received, from 1530, the task to appoint the members of the Little Council (between 12 and 20 magistrates led by the 4 mayors), which itself appoints the members of the Council of Two Hundred. This circular election system characterised the government system of Geneva until 1792. So it is that when in 1533

10340-579: The routes joining from Seyssel and Annecy towards the Roman colonies of Nyon and Avenches . The city remained part of the Empire until 443 when, welcomed by the Romans, the Burgundians settled in an ill-defined region named Sapaudia and Geneva was chosen as the capital of the newly formed kingdom for its first 20 years due to the city's economic importance as well as the prestige of its Bishop . As

10450-462: The same time the local economy increasingly depended on the use of Catholics as domestic labour and in the textile industry. Playing now on the defensive, the Republic multiplied the number of population surveys to track poor Catholics and beggars, while it was forced to accept in 1679 by king Louis XIV the presence of a permanent representative who demanded to be allowed to celebrate the Catholic mass in his home for his workers and neighbours, dealing

10560-477: The same time, political troubles were brewing. In 1526 as the Republic institutions were created, most of the power was given to the Council of Two Hundred . However, the Little Council had little by little nibbled its power, the Republic having effectively surrendered the power to the small number of bourgeois who controlled the Little Council. In 1707 the lawyer and member of the Council of Two Hundred Pierre Fatio

10670-509: The signature of a treaty with Savoy, whereby the Duke abandoned his attacks on the city and re-established the right to trade. Apart from the financial consequences on Geneva, which had to pay for the Swiss soldiers, this intervention left deep marks in the city with consequences for its future. At the time of the alliance with the confederates in 1525, few Protestants were in Geneva. Bern , however, had converted to Protestantism two years before its intervention in 1530. Bernese troops displayed

10780-496: The stonemasons who contributed to the construction of the new fortifications, and even for free to jurists, priests, professors, and schoolmasters. The main impacts on the city from the refugees that were therefore attracted would be cultural with the influence of the French language that would gradually replace the local Franco-Provençal language, and economic. Initially this opening to foreigners would attract professions that served

10890-498: The threats to the Republic's existence did not disappear, particularly as France switched its European alliances and the Kings became less tolerant of Protestants. Threatened by these changing winds and traumatised by the events of the Escalade, Geneva enlarged and professionalised its permanent garrison (from 300 soldiers in 1603 to over 700 a century later) and fortified itself behind mighty walls that become increasingly claustrophobic as

11000-566: The total absence of fortifications. After the aura of a highly fortified "Protestant Rome", came an image during the 18th century of a very wealthy, elegant city behind its walls. Except for the periods of crises from the Great Plague of Marseille and the crash of the John Law monetary system in France, the century was prosperous until 1785, driven by the production and exports of luxury goods, most notably watches. Between 1760 and 1790,

11110-515: The watchmaking industry employs around 4,000 workers, a third of the men residents. During the century, the government also invests in public parks, most notably the Bastions park in 1720, one of the earliest examples of a public park in Europe created from the start for the public and by the public authorities; in beautifying the city, improving the public lighting amongst others. In a latter in 1775

11220-536: The west. Upon their return to Geneva, Charles II, supported by the Bishop, attempts to destroy this faction and executed several Eidguenots , including Philibert Berthelier in 1519 and Amé Lévrier in 1524, accused of plotting against the Bishop. The Eidguenots took refuge in Fribourg after the death of Amé Lévrier and, in 1525, successfully negotiated an alliance with the confederates that this time included Bern in addition to Fribourg. The changing attitude of Bern

11330-405: The writer and philosopher Georges Sulzer wrote " Mr Bonnet was kind enough to accompany me to Geneva. It is well known that this city is, in proportion to its size, one of the richest in Europe. Its avenues already announce its opulence; everything indicates a people who live in the midst of abundance. Nowhere have I seen so many country houses as in the territory of this little Republic: the banks of

11440-522: The year 500 the kingdoms went to war, during which Godegisel was defeated and Geneva pillaged and destroyed. In 532, the Burgundians were conquered by the Francs , who administratively divide the area in three parts: one centred on the city of Besançon , one around Dijon , and the last one, the Pagus Ultraioranus ("Transjurane") includes the cities of Geneva, Nyon, Sion, and Avenches. Given

11550-499: Was a close friend of noted Genevan geologist and meteorologist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure and was instrumental in the education of Horace-Bénédict's son Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure . Senebier trained the young man in Lavoisier's system of chemistry, which Nicolas-Théodore later applied in important plant-nutrition studies of his own. The younger Saussure would eventually discover the role of water in photosynthesis, thus completing

11660-420: Was a large study on effects of light, he is remembered mainly for the extensive evidence he provided that carbon dioxide ("fixed air" or "carbonic acid," in the terminology of his day) is consumed by plants in the production of oxygen ("dephlogisticated air"), in the physiological process that later became known as photosynthesis. Senebier also found that the amount of oxygen produced is roughly proportional to

11770-406: Was executed for his attempt to cut back on the powers of the Little Council, by leading a new faction called the representatives that called for a greater share of powers between the two councils . In addition, owing to increased demographic growth and an increase in the price of bourgeoisie , the proportion of eligible men eligible to the governing councils fell from 28% in 1730 to 18% in 1772, as

11880-466: Was explained by the decision of the successor of Charles II, Charles III , to side with HRE Charles V in his conflict with Francis I of France , with whom the Swiss had allied themselves and signed the Perpetual Peace after the Battle of Marignano . Upon the return to Geneva of the Eidguenots , the government ratified the treaty of alliance on 25 February 1526, despite the protestations of

11990-490: Was relatively favourable to Geneva, whose citizens preserved the assets of the Republic, are left alone in regards to education and the economy, and granted a 5-year exemption from conscription. The city's fortifications are also kept intact and preserved, and the Protestant religion is largely tolerated, although with strict conditions such as the demotion of its status to a simple association. After long debates in Paris, Geneva

12100-618: Was renamed to Koninklijk-Nederlandsch Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schoone Kunsten . In 1851, it was disbanded and re-established as the Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen and in 1938 obtained its present name. Since 1812, the academy has resided in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam. The institute was awarded the Gouden Ganzenveer in 1955. The following Research institutes are associated with

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