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97-635: The Senegambia (other names: Senegambia region or Senegambian zone , Senegàmbi in Wolof and Pulaar ) is, in the narrow sense, a historical name for a geographical region in West Africa , named after the Senegal River in the north and the Gambia River in the south. However, there are also text sources which state that Senegambia is understood in a broader sense and equated with the term

194-614: A Senegalese national dish and notably known as Jollof rice , which is an international export, named after the Kingdom of Jolof in present-day Senegal, originated from Saint-Louis . Tigadèguèna , a peanut stew originated in Mali. Maafe called domoda in Gambia originated in Senegal. Youssou N'Dour , Africa's most famous singer (according to Rolling Stone magazine (2014)), and who held

291-592: A century later. Arab interest in the Mali Empire declined after the Songhai conquered the northern regions of the empire which formed the primary contact between Mali and the Arab world. For the later period of the Mali Empire, the major written primary sources are Portuguese accounts of the coastal provinces of Mali and neighboring societies. Mali , Mandé , Manden , and Manding are all various pronunciations of

388-493: A city on what is now the border between Guinea and Mali, was the capital for most of the empire's history, and this notion has taken hold in the popular imagination. Djibril Tamsir Niane , a Guinean historian, has been a forceful advocate of this position in recent decades. The identification of Niani as imperial capital is rooted in an (possibly erroneous) interpretation of the Arab traveler al Umari's work, as well as some oral histories. Extensive archaeological digs have shown that

485-569: A decree, as the effort by the Senegalese ministry of education was to be part of a multi-national standardization effort. This alphabet has been used since pre-colonial times, as the first writing system to be adopted for Wolof, and is still used by many people, mainly Imams and their students in Quranic and Islamic schools. Additionally, another script exists: Garay , an alphabetic script invented by Assane Faye 1961, which has been adopted by

582-652: A faint epenthetic schwa vowel. Of the consonants in the chart above, p d c k do not occur in the intermediate or final position, being replaced by f r s and zero, though geminate pp dd cc kk are common. Phonetic p c k do occur finally, but only as allophones of b j g due to final devoicing . Minimal pairs : Unlike most sub-Saharan African languages, Wolof has no tones . Other non-tonal languages of sub-Saharan Africa include Amharic , Swahili and Fula . In Wolof, verbs are unchangeable stems that cannot be conjugated. To express different tenses or aspects of an action, personal pronouns are conjugated – not

679-446: A lack of archaeological evidence of significant trade activity, clearly described by Arab visitors, particularly during the 14th century, Mali's golden age. In fact, there is a conspicuous absence of archaeological samples of any kind from Niani dated to the late 13th through early 15th centuries, suggesting that Niani may have been uninhabited during the heyday of the Mali Empire. Various sources cite several other cities as capitals of

776-464: A lack of definitive archaeological evidence, and the diversity of oral traditions all contribute to this uncertainty. A particular challenge lies in interpreting early Arabic manuscripts, in which, without vowel markings and diacritics, foreign names can be read in numerous different ways (e.g. Biti, Buti, Yiti, Tati). Ibn Battuta and Leo Africanus both call the capital "Mali." Early European writers such as Maurice Delafosse believed that Niani ,

873-759: A monopoly on trade. In 1677, the French took the island of Gorée , and in 1681 they took control of Albreda on the Gambia River. This started a rivalry with the English, and in 1692 they briefly confiscated Gorée and Saint-Louis . In 1758, during the Seven Years' War , Gorée was captured by the British, who held it until 1763. In 1765, the British formed the Senegambia Province. In 1778, during

970-643: A prosperous, highly organized and lasting society." See the Senegambian stone circles, Serer ancient history and Serer religion articles for more on this. During the medieval period of Europe which corresponds roughly to the Golden Age of West Africa, several great empires and kingdoms sprang out from the Senegambia region, including but not limited to the great Ghana Empire , the Mali Empire ,

1067-673: A series of short reigns, often ending in palace coups. While maintaining a firm grip in the south and west, and even expanding in some areas, imperial control of their northernmost provinces was slipping, as attested by the Mossi raids on Macina. In 1433–1434, the Empire lost control of Timbuktu to the Tuareg, led by Akil Ag-Amalwal. Three years later, Oualata also fell into their hands. The rising Songhai Empire conquered Mema , one of Mali's oldest possessions, in 1465. It then seized Timbuktu from

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1164-506: A small number of Wolof speakers. The first syllable of words is stressed ; long vowels are pronounced with more time but are not automatically stressed, as they are in English. The vowels are as follows: There may be an additional low vowel, or this may be confused with orthographic à . All vowels may be long (written double) or short. /aː/ is written ⟨à⟩ before a long (prenasalized or geminate) consonant (example làmbi "arena"). When é and ó are written double,

1261-518: A successful hajj , kept up correspondence with Morocco and Egypt. Upon Sulayman's death in 1360, the empire was ruled by a string of short-live, cruel, or incompetent rulers. The kankoro-sigui held increasing influence as a power behind the throne. During this period the Jolof Empire was founded, and soon dominated all of northern Senegambia . In the 1370s a war between Mali imperial forces and Berber Tuareg forces from Takedda devastated

1358-459: A very large group of people; the mansa kept a personal guard of some 500 men, and he gave out so many alms and bought so many things that the value of gold in Egypt and Arabia depreciated for twelve years. When he passed through Cairo , historian al-Maqrizi noted "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and Ethiopian slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of

1455-703: A −ATR root, any further suffixes harmonize with the root. That is, the +ATR suffix/clitic is "transparent" to vowel harmony. An example is the negative -u- in, Door-u-ma-leen-fa /dɔːrumalɛːnfa/ begin- NEG - 1SG - 3PL - LOC Door-u-ma-leen-fa /dɔːrumalɛːnfa/ begin-NEG-1SG-3PL-LOC 'I did not begin them there.' where harmony would predict *door-u-më-léén-fë . That is, I or U behave as if they are their own −ATR analogs. Authors differ in whether they indicate vowel harmony in writing, as well as whether they write clitics as separate words. Consonants in word-initial position are as follows: All simple nasals, oral stops apart from q and glottal, and

1552-480: Is also known through the account of Shihab al-'Umari , written in about 1340 by a geographer-administrator in Mamluk Egypt . His information about the empire came from visiting Malians taking the hajj , or pilgrim's voyage to Mecca . He had first-hand information from several sources, and from a second-hand source he learned of the visit of Mansa Musa . The traveller Ibn Battuta , who visited Mali in 1352 left

1649-557: Is called maasir or kalir in Serer , kal by the Wolof , kallengooraxu in Soninke , sanaawyaa in western Mandinka , and agelor in Joola (Fogny) The griot caste are found extensively in the Senegambia region. They preserve genealogy , history and culture of the people. There is also a mutual exchange of cuisines among the inhabitants of this region. For example Thieboudienne

1746-505: Is fertile and populated; many markets are held every day of the week. It is said there are 7077 villages [heavily disputed] situated very close to each other. The following will give an idea how close they are. If the Sultan, for example, wishes to summon an inhabitant of a village near Lake Debo, the messenger sent goes to one of the gates of the ram-parts and from there shouts the message he is to transmit. From village to village, people repeat

1843-488: Is most often written in this orthography, in which phonemes have a clear one-to-one correspondence to graphemes . Table below is the Wolof Latin alphabet and the corresponding phoneme. Highlighted letters are only used for loanwords and are not included in native Wolof words. The Arabic -based script of Wolof, referred to as Wolofal , was set by the government as well, between 1985 and 1990, although never adopted by

1940-716: Is one of the Senegambian languages , which are characterized by consonant mutation . It is often said to be closely related to the Fula language because of a misreading by Wilson (1989) of the data in Sapir (1971) that have long been used to classify the Atlantic languages. Senegalese/Mauritanian Wolof and Gambian Wolof are distinct national standards: they use different orthographies and use different languages (French vs. English) as their source for technical loanwords. However, both

2037-461: Is spoken by more than 10 million people and about 40 percent (approximately 5 million people) of Senegal's population speak Wolof as their native language. Increased mobility, and especially the growth of the capital Dakar, created the need for a common language: today, an additional 40 percent of the population speak Wolof as a second or acquired language . In the whole region from Dakar to Saint-Louis , and also west and southwest of Kaolack , Wolof

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2134-513: Is spoken by the vast majority of people. Typically when various ethnic groups in Senegal come together in cities and towns, they speak Wolof. It is therefore spoken in almost every regional and departmental capital in Senegal. Nevertheless, the official language of Senegal is French . In The Gambia , although about 20–25 percent of the population speak Wolof as a first language, it has a disproportionate influence because of its prevalence in Banjul ,

2231-505: Is the name of a town or a region. Ibn Battuta who visited the capital city from 1352 to 1353, called it Mali. The 1375 Catalan Atlas portrayed a "city of Melly" ( Catalan : ciutat de Melly ) in West Africa. Leo Africanus said that the capital city was called Melli. However, Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari gives Mali as the name of the capital province and Ibn Khaldun refers to Mali as a people, with each giving different names for

2328-483: Is unclear, but there was evidently a power struggle of some kind involving the gbara or great council and donson ton or hunter guilds. Some oral traditions agree with Ibn Khaldun in indicating that a son of Sunjata, named Yerelinkon in oral tradition and Wali in Arabic, took power as Sunjata's successor. Two more of Sundiata's sons would reign, as well as a grandson, before a former slave Sakura , seized power. He

2425-703: The American War of Independence , the French went on the offensive, and razed James Island in the River Gambia. In 1783, the Treaty of Versailles recognised British claims to The Gambia and French claims to Saint-Louis and Gorée, dissolving the Senegambia Province. The French pursued a policy of expansion and saw The Gambia as an obstacle. In the late 19th century, they proposed ceding Dabou , Grand Bassam , and Assinie in return for The Gambia. The negotiations broke down but were repeatedly brought up again. After

2522-512: The Ghana Empire , or Wagadu, declined and trade epicentres shifted southward. The history of the Mali Empire before the 13th century is unclear, as there are conflicting and imprecise accounts by both Arab chroniclers and oral traditionalists . The first ruler for which there is accurate written information is Sundiata Keita, a warrior-prince of the Keita dynasty who was called upon to free

2619-511: The Jolof Empire or to jollof rice , a common West African rice dish. Now-archaic forms include Volof and Olof . English is believed to have adopted some Wolof loanwords , such as banana , via Spanish or Portuguese , and nyam , used also in Spanish: 'ñam' as an onomatopoeia for eating or chewing, in several Caribbean English Creoles meaning "to eat" (compare Seychellois Creole nyanmnyanm , also meaning "to eat"). Wolof

2716-650: The Songhai Empire , the Jolof Empire , the Kaabu Empire , the Kingdoms of Sine , Saloum , Baol , Waalo and Takrur . During this period, several great dynasties rose and fell, and some, such as the Guelowar Dynasty of Sine and Saloum, survived for more than 600 years despite European colonialism, which fell as recently as 1969, nine years after Senegal gained its independence from France. It

2813-622: The Western region . This refers to the coastal areas between Senegal and Sierra Leone , where the inland border in the east was not further defined. Geographically, the region lies within the tropical zone between the Sahel and the forests of Guinea , with Senegal and Gambian Rivers underpinning the region's geographical unity. The region encompasses the modern states of Senegal , The Gambia , and Guinea-Bissau , as well as portions of Mauritania , Mali , and Guinea . It should not be confused with

2910-585: The Wolof Empire allowed Mali to reassert authority over some of its former subjects on the north bank of the Gambia, such as Wuli , by 1576. The swan song of the Mali Empire came in 1599, under the reign of Mansa Mahmud IV . The Songhai Empire had fallen to the Saadi Sultanate of Morocco eight years earlier, and Mahmud sought to take advantage of their defeat by trying to capture Jenne . Mahmud sought support from several other rulers, including

3007-482: The "seat of government" in general rather than being the name of a specific city. Such impermanent capitals are a historically widespread phenomenon, having occurred in other parts of Africa such as Ethiopia , as well as outside Africa, such as in the Holy Roman Empire . The Mansas of Mali used several symbols to demonstrate their power and influence. A red banner struck with a golden disc, referred to as

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3104-510: The 'Mali djondjon' or the 'Sun Banner' of Sundiata, appears in oral histories of his coronation. Written sources have Mansa Musa using a similar banner, 'with yellow symbols ( shi’ār ) on a red background', during his visit to Cairo, as well as a parasol. Ibn Battuta records the Mansa using golden and silver lances as imperial regalia. Other royal items included a ruler's cap, slippers, arrows, and bow. The material of which they were made indicated

3201-595: The Abubakrids, the lineage of Mansa Musa. Al-Umari, who wrote down a description of Mali based on information given to him by Abu Sa’id 'Otman ed Dukkali (who had lived 35 years in the capital), reported the realm as being square and an eight-month journey from its coast at Tura (at the mouth of the Senegal River) to Muli. Umari also describes the empire as being south of Marrakesh and almost entirely inhabited except for few places. Mali's domain also extended into

3298-622: The Gambian capital, where 75 percent of the population use it as a first language. Furthermore, in Serekunda , The Gambia's largest town, although only a tiny minority are ethnic Wolofs, approximately 70 percent of the population speaks or understands Wolof. In Mauritania , about seven percent of the population (approximately 185,000 people) speak Wolof. Most live near or along the Senegal River that Mauritania shares with Senegal. Wolof

3395-408: The Mali Empire, and the identification of the listed provinces is controversial. Several of the names are spelled in a variety of ways in different manuscripts. Al-ʿUmari's list, which is quoted with slight differences by al-Qalqashandi, is as follows: Al-ʿUmari also indicates that four Amazigh tribes were subjects of Mali: Gomez instead suggests that these tribes would have inhabited territory in

3492-540: The Mali Empire, some in competition with the Niani hypothesis and others addressing different time periods. A city called Dieriba or Dioliba is sometimes mentioned as the capital or main urban center of the province of Mande in the years before Sundiata, that was later abandoned. Many oral histories point to a town called Dakajalan as the original home of the Keita clan and Sundiata's childhood home and base of operations during

3589-399: The Mansa's ultimate authority and paid tribute. At the local level (village, town and city), kun-tiguis (heads of family) elected a dougou-tigui (village-master) from a bloodline descended from that locality's founder. The county level administrators called kafo-tigui were appointed by the governor of the province. Only at the state or province level was there any real interference from

3686-761: The Senegambian Neolithic age. Located in south of Mbour (in the Thiès Region ), an ancient culture referred to as the Tiemassassien culture , Tiemassassien industry , Tiémassas or just Tiemassassien was discovered during a Senegalese excavation half a century ago. Descamps proposed that this culture pertains to the Neolithic Era about 10,000 years ago. Dagan however proposed the Upper Paleolithic Era. This culture

3783-588: The Songhai Empire, sacked the capital of Mali and purportedly used the royal palace as a latrine. However, the Songhai did not maintain their hold on the Malian capital. Mali's fortunes seem to have improved in the second half of the 16th century. Around 1550, Mali attacked Bighu in an effort to regain access to its gold. Songhai authority over Bendugu and Kala declined by 1571, and Mali may have been able to reassert some authority over them. The breakup of

3880-609: The Sosso army at the Battle of Kirina in approximately 1235. Maghan Sundiata was declared mansa over all the 12 kingdoms in an alliance that became the Mali Empire. During his reign, Sundiata's generals continued to expand the empire's frontiers, reaching from Kaabu in the west, Takrur , Oualata and Audaghost in the north, and the Soninke Wangara goldfields in the south. The transfer of power following Sunjata's death

3977-455: The Tuareg in 1468 under Sunni Ali Ber . In 1477, the Mossi emperor Nasséré made yet another raid into Macina, this time conquering it and the old province of BaGhana (Wagadou). In an attempt to stem the tide, Mansa Mahmud Keita II opened diplomatic relations with Portugal , receiving the envoys Pêro d'Évora and Gonçalo Enes in 1487. In 1493 he sent another envoy proposing an alliance against

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4074-524: The Wolof people (40% of the population) but also by most other Senegalese as a second language. Wolof dialects vary geographically and between rural and urban areas. The principal dialect of Dakar , for instance, is an urban mixture of Wolof, French , and Arabic . Wolof is the standard spelling and may also refer to the Wolof ethnicity or culture. Variants include the older French Ouolof , Jollof , or Jolof , which now typically refers either to

4171-522: The accent mark is often only on the first letter. Vowels fall into two harmonizing sets according to ATR : i u é ó ë are +ATR, e o a are the −ATR analogues of é ó ë . For example, Lekk-oon-ngeen /lɛkːɔːnŋɡɛːn/ eat- PAST - FIN . 2PL Lekk-oon-ngeen /lɛkːɔːnŋɡɛːn/ eat-PAST-FIN.2PL 'You (plural) ate.' Dóor-óon-ngéen /doːroːnŋɡeːn/ hit- PAST - FIN . 2PL Dóor-óon-ngéen /doːroːnŋɡeːn/ hit-PAST-FIN.2PL 'You (plural) hit.' There are no −ATR analogs of

4268-507: The apparent cognate status of Mali and Mandé . The first Mande people entered the Manding region during the period of the Ghana Empire . The Manden city-state of Ka-ba (present-day Kangaba ) served as the capital and name of the province. From at least the beginning of the 11th century, Mandinka kings ruled Manden from Ka-ba in the name of the Ghanas. The ruler was elected from among

4365-471: The area for defence or putting down rebellions. This system tended to promote assimilation into the empire. The mansa's second in command was a general, thought to have been chief of the armed forces. The santigui was the chief of the treasury and managed the royal granaries and valuable goods such as gold and gems. The griot played a very important role in the royal court. He was the tutor of princes and master of ceremonies, and served as an advisor to

4462-471: The area was an important trade and manufacturing center in the 15th century, but no firm evidence of royal residence has come to light. Niani's reputation as an imperial capital may derive from its importance in the late imperial period, when the Songhai Empire to the northeast pushed Mali back to the Manding heartland. Several 21st century historians have firmly rejected Niani as a capital candidate based on

4559-545: The capital city itself. Whether Mali originated as the name of a town or region, the name was subsequently applied to the entire empire ruled from Mali. Another hypothesis suggests that the name Mali is derived from Mandé mali " hippopotamus ", an animal that had special significance to the Keitas, and that Mandé means "little manatee". A legend claims that Sunjata transformed into a hippopotamus. However, these hypotheses have been rejected by locals and are inconsistent with

4656-432: The central authority. Provinces picked their own governors via their own custom (election, inheritance, etc.) and, regardless of their title in the province, were recognised as dyamani-tigui (province-master) by the mansa . Dyamani-tiguis had to be approved by the mansa and were subject to his oversight. If the mansa didn't believe the dyamani-tigui was capable or trustworthy, a farba might be installed to oversee

4753-439: The city of Gao . The area around it became independent of Malian control around this time. Still, by the time of Mansa Musa Keita II's death in 1387, Mali was financially solvent and in control of all of its previous conquests except Gao and Dyolof. Forty years after the reign of Mansa Musa Keita I, the Mali Empire still controlled some 1,100,000 square kilometres (420,000 sq mi) of land. The late 14th century again saw

4850-577: The cradle of the great empires of Ghana , Mali and Songhai " and "the centre of gravity for West Africa." According to Professor Abdoulaye Camara  [ fr ] of IFAN and the Senghor University in Alexandria , Egypt , early humans appeared in Senegal around 350,000 years ago. Benga and Thiam posit that, it is in the Falémé valley in the southeast of the country where we find

4947-619: The desert. He describes it as being north of Mali but under its domination implying some sort of vassalage for the Antasar, Yantar'ras, Medussa and Lemtuna Berber tribes, with garrisons kept at Oualata , Timbuktu , Koumbi , and Gao , and responsibility of governing the Sahara given to the military commander ( sura farin ). The empire's total area included nearly all the land between the Sahara Desert and coastal forests. It spanned

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5044-736: The empire. During the 17th century, the Mali Empire faced incursions from the Bamana Empire , who ultimately sacked and burned the capital in 1670. The Mali Empire rapidly disintegrated, being replaced by independent chiefdoms. The Keitas retreated to the town of Kangaba , where they became provincial chiefs. Much of the recorded information about the Mali Empire comes from 14th century Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun , 14th century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta and 16th century Andalusian traveller Leo Africanus . The other major source of information comes from Mandinka oral tradition , as recorded by storytellers known as griots . Imperial Mali

5141-515: The end of the Mali Empire. As founded by Mari Djata, it was composed of the "three freely allied states" of Mali, Mema and Wagadou plus the Twelve Doors of Mali . The Twelve Doors of Mali were a coalition of conquered or allied territories, mostly within Manden, with sworn allegiance to Sundiata and his descendants. Upon stabbing their spears into the ground before Sundiata's throne, each of

5238-487: The failed 1981 coup d'état in The Gambia, a Senegambia Confederation was proposed and accepted. This lasted until 1989. The Senegambia region has a rich culture including joking relationships ( Sanankuya ) between patrilineal clans and ethnic groups. This joking relationship ensures peaceful coexistence where one ethnic group can criticize or even insult another without the recipient taking offence. This bond of cousinage

5335-431: The first account of a West African kingdom made directly by an eyewitness; the others are usually second-hand. The third great account is that of Ibn Khaldun , who wrote in the early 15th century. While the accounts are of limited length, they provide a fairly good picture of the empire at its height. After Ibn Khaldun's death in 1406, there are no further Arab primary sources except for Leo Africanus , who wrote more than

5432-546: The gold dinar fell by six dirhams ." In addition to his famous hajj, Musa built mosques and palaces in Timbuktu and Gao , and took control of the valuable salt mine of Taghazza . Mansa Musa's son Maghan I ruled for only a few years before being succeeded (or overthrown) by his uncle Sulayman . Sulayman's reign continued Mali's golden age, as attested by the writer Ibn Battuta who arrived in Mali in July 1352, and he made

5529-591: The governor of Kala, Bukar. Bukar professed his support, but believing Mahmud's situation to be hopeless, secretly went over to the Moroccans. The Malian and Moroccan armies fought at Jenne on 26 April , the last day of Ramadan, and the Moroccans were victorious thanks to their firearms and Bukar's support, but Mahmud was able to escape. Around 1610, Mahmud Keita IV died. Oral tradition states that he had three sons who fought over Manden's remains. No single Keita ever ruled Manden after Mahmud Keita IV's death, resulting in

5626-567: The heads of the major clans, and at this time had little real power. Wagadou's control over Manden ended in the 12th century. The Kangaba province, free of Soninké influence, splintered into twelve kingdoms with their own faama . In approximately 1140 the Sosso kingdom of Kaniaga , another former vassal of Wagadou, began conquering the lands of its old rulers. In 1203, the Sosso king and sorcerer Soumaoro Kanté came to power and reportedly terrorised much of Manden. Sundiata Keita , born during

5723-426: The high vowels i u . They trigger +ATR harmony in suffixes when they occur in the root, but in a suffix, they may be transparent to vowel harmony. The vowels of some suffixes or enclitics do not harmonize with preceding vowels. In most cases following vowels harmonize with them. That is, they reset the harmony, as if they were a separate word. However, when a suffix/clitic contains a high vowel (+ATR) that occurs after

5820-439: The king. The mansa often liked to play the role "father of his people", dispensing justice himself in solemn sessions, and he listened personally to a subject's grievances against a farin . The post of farin was very prestigious, and his descendants could inherit it with the mansa' s approval. The mansa could also replace a farin swiftly. Most of the empire consisted of autonomous kingdoms of communities who recognized

5917-404: The latter may have begun as a suburb of the former. According to Jules Vidal and Levtzion, citing oral histories from Kangaba and Keyla, another onetime capital was Manikoro or Mali-Kura, founded after the destruction of Niani. Parallel to this debate, many scholars have argued that the Mali Empire may not have had a permanent "capital" in the sense that the word is used today, and historically

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6014-555: The local people from the rule of the king of the Sosso Empire , Soumaoro Kanté . The conquest of Sosso in c.  1235 marked the emergence of Mali as a major power, with the Kouroukan Fouga as its constitution. Following the death of Sundiata Keita, in c.  1255 , the kings of Mali were referred to by the title mansa . In c.  1285 Sakoura , a former royal court slave, became emperor and

6111-479: The maltreatment of prisoners and slaves, installing documents between clans which clearly stated who could say what about whom. Also, Sundiata divided the lands amongst the people assuring everyone had a place in the empire and fixed exchange rates for common products. The final incarnation of the Gbara, according to the surviving traditions of northern Guinea , held 32 positions occupied by 28 clans. It functioned as

6208-418: The mansa of Mali. Upon Leo Africanus 's visit at the beginning of the 16th century, his descriptions of the territorial domains of Mali showed that it was still a kingdom of considerable size. However, from 1507 onwards neighboring states such as Diarra , Great Fulo , Yatenga , and the Songhai Empire chipped away at Mali's borders. In 1542, the Songhai invaded the capital but were unsuccessful in conquering

6305-407: The media especially radio stations and newspapers are privately owned. On 4 October 1973, Radio Senegal (Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision du Sénégal (ORTS) as it was known at the time), which had been in talks with Radio Gambia about producing a joint radio programme based on Senegambian history and broadcast in the local Senegambian languages came to an agreement, and the first ever recording of

6402-461: The modern-day countries of Senegal, southern Mauritania , Mali, northern Burkina Faso , western Niger , the Gambia , Guinea-Bissau , Guinea, the Ivory Coast and northern Ghana. By 1350, the empire covered approximately 478,819 square miles (1,240,140 km ). Al-ʿUmari reported that Mali had fourteen provinces. His list does not necessarily accurately reflect the actual organization of

6499-442: The monarch were governed by strict protocol. Conquered areas were ruled directly by the state through a farin (also called farin-ba or farba ), essentially a military governor, chosen by the Mansa. Duties of the farin included managing the garrison, collecting taxes and customs duties, and controlling the local administration of justice. He could also take power away from the native administration if required and raise an army in

6596-452: The oldest traces of human life. In Senegambian Neolithic history, the period when humans became hunters, fishermen and producers (farmers and artisans) is well represented and studied. This is when more elaborate objects and ceramics emerged, testifying to various human activities. The Diakité excavation in Thiès shows evidence of human mobility over a distance of about 600 km, during

6693-433: The people's own culture and tells them about the history of their ancestors. The Senegambian zone is home to various Senegambian ethnic groups including Wolof , Peul (or Fula), Tukulor (or Toucouleur), Manding , Sereer (or Serer), Soninke , Susu (or Sousou), Joola , Nalu , Baga , Beafada , Bainuk , and Bassari . Wolof language Wolof is the most widely spoken language in Senegal, spoken natively by

6790-400: The programme Chossani Senegambia (the history of Senegambia) was made. The show was prerecorded and both Senegal and Gambia broadcast at the same time every Tuesday. That was the first show of its kind within the Senegambia region, where two media houses from different states broadcast the same show at the same time every week. The Gambian historian, and statesman Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof who

6887-462: The province or administer it outright. Conquered territories that had proven quiescent could receive this level of autonomy rather than remain under direct rule, but territories that were crucial to trade or subject to revolt could and did lose this privilege as well and have a farin installed to rule over them. Mali was densely populated with the Tarikh al-Sudan stating: "The territory of Jenne

6984-413: The rank of the holder: gold was the highest, and reserved for the Mansa, followed in descending order by silver, brass, iron, and wood. The rulers of Kaabu held a silver lance, for example, while the king of Guinala , one of their subordinates, held a bow and arrows of iron. The majority of the population were farmers, with this being the base of the economy, and food was abundant. Whilst cattle-rearing

7081-572: The recent Senegambia Confederation , which was a loose confederation between The Gambia and Senegal from 1982 to 1989, set up just after The Gambia's 1981 coup d'état where the Senegalese government intervened to reinstate the democratically elected Gambian government. Spanning beyond the borders of the Senegambia Confederation, the Senegambia region was described by the Senegalese historian and scholar Professor Boubacar Barry of UCAD as historically "the main gateway to Sudan ,

7178-615: The region has a rich and old music and dance tradition. Traditional Senegalese wrestling called njom in Serer, laamb in Wolof and siɲɛta in Bambara is a favourite pastime and national sport in some parts of the region especially in Senegal. Senegambian media are varied and include several radio stations, television channels, newspapers and Internet. Some of these radio stations and TV channels such as Radiodiffusion Télévision Sénégalaise , Radio Gambia and GRTS are publicly owned, but most of

7275-557: The rise of Kaniaga, was the son of Niani's faama , Nare Fa (also known as Maghan Kon Fatta, meaning the handsome prince). Upon his father's death, he was forced into exile along with his mother and two sisters. After many years in exile, Sundiata led the combined armies of Mema , Wagadou and the Mandinka city-states in a revolt against the Kaniaga Kingdom around 1234. The combined forces of northern and southern Manden defeated

7372-399: The ruler's cabinet, with different dignitaries given different portfolios (war, justice, economy, foreign relations, religion, etc.), and all major social groups of Mande society were represented. The Mali Empire covered a larger area for a longer period of time than any other West African state before or since. What made this possible was the decentralised nature of administration throughout

7469-463: The same word across different languages and dialects. The version recorded by medieval Arab geographers is Mali ( Arabic : مالي , romanized :  Mālī ). Mali is the Fula form of the word. In the Manding languages , the modern descendants of the language spoken at the core of the Mali Empire, Manden or Manding is the name of the region corresponding to the heartland of the Mali Empire. Medieval sources are divided over whether Mali

7566-414: The sonorants l r y w may be geminated (doubled), though geminate r only occurs in ideophones . (Geminate consonants are written double.) Q is inherently geminate and may occur in an initial position; otherwise, geminate consonants and consonant clusters, including nt, nc, nk, nq ( [ɴq] ), are restricted to word-medial and -final position. In the final place, geminate consonants may be followed by

7663-569: The spoken and written languages are mutually intelligible. Lebu Wolof , on the other hand, is incomprehensible to standard Wolof speakers, a distinction that has been obscured because all Lebu speakers are bilingual in standard Wolof. Note: Phonetic transcriptions are printed between square brackets [] following the rules of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The Latin orthography of Wolof in Senegal

7760-571: The state. According to Burkinabé writer Joseph Ki-Zerbo , the farther a person travelled from the capital, the more decentralised the mansa 's power became. Nevertheless, the mansa managed to keep tax money and nominal control over the area without agitating his subjects into revolt. The Malian state balanced centralization and decentralization by dividing the empire into a series of provinces and vassal states that had been either conquered or annexed, respectively. These were administered in different ways. The Mali Empire reached its largest area under

7857-595: The threat of Tenguella , but this came to nothing. Songhai forces under the command of Askia Muhammad I defeated the Mali general Fati Quali Keita in 1502 and seized the province of Diafunu. In 1514, the Denianke dynasty was established in Tekrour and it was not long before the new kingdom of Great Fulo was warring against Mali's remaining provinces. In 1544 or 1545, a Songhai force led by kanfari Dawud , who later succeeded his brother Askia Ishaq as ruler of

7954-510: The title as Africa's most powerful and biggest music export before Akon (who incidentally is also from this region) for several decades is from this region. The African Renaissance Monument built in 2010 in Dakar , standing at 49 m (161 feet) is the tallest statue in Africa . From the old and sacred music genre of njuup , to the modern mbalax beats (derived from the Serer njuup tradition),

8051-452: The twelve kings relinquished their kingdom to the Keita dynasty. In return for their submission, they became "farbas", a combination of the Mandinka words "farin" and "ba" (great farin). Farin was a general term for northern commander at the time. These farbas would rule their old kingdoms in the name of the mansa with most of the authority they held prior to joining the empire. The Mansa held ultimate, unquestioned authority. Audiences with

8148-447: The verbs. Therefore, the term temporal pronoun has become established for this part of speech. It is also referred to as a focus form. Mali Empire The Mali Empire ( Manding : Mandé or Manden Duguba ; Arabic : مالي , romanized :  Mālī ) was an empire in West Africa from c. 1226 to 1670. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita ( c.  1214  – c.  1255 ) and became renowned for

8245-481: The vicinity of Mema, Ghana, and Diafunu. The identity of the capital city of the Mali Empire is a matter of dispute among historians. Scholars have located the capital in Niani, or somewhere on the Niger, or proposed that it changed several times, that there was no true capital, or even that it lay as far afield as the upper Gambia River in modern-day Senegal . Seemingly contradictory reports written by Arab visitors,

8342-628: The war against the Soso. It may have been located close to modern Kangaba . Mande bards in the region speak of the Dakajalan site, containing Sundiata's grave, as sacrosanct. Kangaba became the last refuge of the Keita royal family after the collapse of the Mali Empire, and so has for centuries been associated with Sundiata in the cultural imagination of Mande peoples. If Dakajalan was, in fact, situated near Kangaba, this may also have contributed to their conflation, beginning with Delafosse's speculation that

8439-471: The wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa (Musa Keita). At its peak, Mali was the largest empire in West Africa, widely influencing the culture of the region through the spread of its language , laws, and customs. The empire began as a small Mandinka kingdom at the upper reaches of the Niger River , centered around the Manding region . It began to develop during the 11th and 12th centuries as

8536-556: The words and the message arrives almost immediately at its destination and the man in question goes to the meeting place" The Gbara or Great Assembly would serve as the Mandinka deliberative body and council of state until the collapse of the empire in 1645. Its first meeting, at the famous Kouroukan Fouga (Division of the World), had 29 clan delegates presided over by a belen-tigui (master of ceremony). The Kouroukan Fouga put in place social and economic reforms including prohibitions on

8633-663: Was able to stabilize the political situation in Mali. Under his leadership, Mali conquered new territories and trade with North Africa increased. After Sakura's death, power returned to the line of Sunjata, with Qu taking the throne. He was succeeded by his son Muhammad , who launched two voyages to explore the Atlantic Ocean . After the loss of the first expedition, Muhammad led the second expedition himself. He left his cousin Kanku Musa in charge during his absence. Eventually, due to Muhammad's failure to return, Musa

8730-421: Was also out of this region that the ancient lamanic class sprang. The ancient lamanes were the landowning class and kings. According to Barry, the "lamanic system is the oldest form of land ownership in precolonial Senegambia." From the 15th century, the region became a focus of Franco-British-Portuguese rivalry. The Portuguese were the first to arrive in the region in the 1450s. Until the 16th century, they held

8827-517: Was deposed by his uncle Suleyman in 1341. It was during Suleyman's 19-year reign that Ibn Battuta visited Mali. Suleyman's death marked the end of Mali's Golden Age and the beginning of a slow decline. The Tarikh al-Sudan records that Mali was still a sizeable state in the 15th century. At that time, the Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto and Portuguese traders confirmed that the peoples who settled within Gambia River were still subject to

8924-401: Was former Director of Programmes and Head of Local Languages at Radio Gambia was one of the pioneers of that joint programme. In his book, Senegambia - The land of our heritage (1995), p 12, Cham Joof writes: The programme Chossanie Senegambia... has a higher audience in the Gambia and Senegal than any other programme broadcast by ORTS and Radio Gambia. It is the only programme that goes into

9021-448: Was named after Thiès, the region it is in. The Senegambian stone circles are also located in this zone. Numerous tumuli, burial mounds, some of which have been excavated, revealed materials that date between the 3rd century BC and the 16th century AD. According to UNESCO  : "Together the stone circles of laterite pillars and their associated burial mounds present a vast sacred landscape created over more than 1,500 years. It reflects

9118-463: Was one of Mali's most powerful rulers, greatly expanding the empire's territory. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca during the reign of Mamluk Sultan An-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1298–1308), but died on his voyage home. Mansa Musa took the throne in c.  1312 . He made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca from 1324 to 1326, where his generous gifts and his expenditure of gold caused significant inflation in Egypt. Maghan I succeeded him as mansa in 1337, but

9215-529: Was recognized as mansa in approximately 1312. The reign of Kankan Musa, better known as Mansa Musa , is considered the golden age of Mali. A devout and well-educated Muslim, he took an interest in the scholarly city of Timbuktu , which he peaceably annexed in 1324, and transformed Sankore from an informal madrasah into an Islamic university. Mansa Musa Keita's crowning achievement was his famous 1324 pilgrimage to Mecca . Accounts of how many people and how much gold he spent vary. All of them agree that he took

9312-434: Was set by government decrees between 1971 and 1985. The language institute " Centre de linguistique appliquée de Dakar " (CLAD) is widely acknowledged as an authority when it comes to spelling rules for Wolof. The complete alphabet is A, À, B, C, D, E, É, Ë, F, G, I, J, K, L, M, N, Ñ, Ŋ, O, Ó, P, Q, R, S, T, U, W, X, Y. The letters H, V, and Z are not included in native Wolof words. They are only used in foreign words. Wolof

9409-493: Was used in the Mediterranean world. Rather, authority would rest with the mansa and his court, wherever he went. Therefore, Arabic visitors may have assigned the "capital" label merely to whatever major city the mansa was based out of at the time of their visit. It has been suggested that the name given in the Arabic sources for the capital of Mali is derived the Manding word "bambi", meaning " dais ", and as such refers to

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