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57-414: More recently, Gyeonggi dialect has seen increased use in online contexts, in turn leading to the majority of young Koreans' use of the dialect, regardless of their regional affiliation. The prolific use of online communication channels is expected to lead to a wider adoption of Gyeonggi dialect, in lieu of distinct, regional dialects. The vowels for e and ae are merged for young speakers and vowel length

114-477: A distinction via voice onset time to that of pitch change, and suggests that the Seoul dialect is currently undergoing tonogenesis . Kim Mi-Ryoung (2013) notes that these sound shifts still show variations among different speakers, suggesting that the transition is still ongoing. Cho Sung-hye (2017) examined 141 Seoul dialect speakers, and concluded that these pitch changes were originally initiated by females born in

171-406: A mid-central vowel of a language is not a reduced vowel , or if it may be stressed, it may be more unambiguous to transcribe it with one of the other mid-central vowel letters: ⟨ ɘ ɜ ⟩ for an unrounded vowel or ⟨ ɵ ɞ ⟩ for a rounded vowel. The mid central unrounded vowel is frequently written with the symbol [ə] . If greater precision is desired, the symbol for

228-587: A narrow channel. It covers an area of 1,309 km , the urban district is surrounded by Songak (Songak-san; 송악산; 松嶽山) (489 m) and Pongmyong mountains. The city center surrounds the much smaller Mt. Janam (103 m), on which is located the city's Kim Il Sung statue. In the northern part of Kaesong, the end of the Ahobiryŏng range creates the northernmost border of Kaesong City. This range consists of Mts. Chŏnma (757 m), Sŏnggŏ, Myoji (764 m), Suryong (716 m), Chesŏk (749 m), Hwajang (558 m), and Ogwan. With

285-547: Is ⟨ ə ⟩, a rotated lowercase letter e , which is called a "schwa". While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association does not define the roundedness of [ə] , it is more often unrounded than rounded. The phonetician Jane Setter describes the pronunciation of the unrounded variant as follows: "a sound which can be produced by basically relaxing the articulators in

342-787: Is 180 days—the longest in North Korea. About 55% of Kaesong is forested (80% of the trees are pines), and 40 species of mammals and 250 birds inhabit the area. Kaesong has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dwa ), with cold, dry winters and hot, humid summers with abundant rainfall. Before 2002, what is now Kaesong Directly Governed City was divided into one city (Kaesŏng itself) and one county and two wards: Changpung County , Kaepung-guyok and Panmun-guyok . In 2003, P'anmun-gun and part of Kaesong-si were separated from Kaesŏng Directly Governed City and merged to form Kaesong Industrial Region . The remaining part of Kaesŏng joined North Hwanghae Province in 2002. Kaesong

399-469: Is North Korea's light industry centre. The urban district is equipped with a jewel processing factory, ginseng processing factory and an embroidery factory. Since the Goryeo period, Kaesong had been a center of handcrafts such as Goryeo ware and commerce while the textile industry has been the primary business along with the production of grocery goods, daily general goods, and ginseng products after

456-451: Is a holiday food of Kaesong, and known for the delicate style with the sweet and nutty taste. The dish is made by kneading a mixture of rice flour and glutinous rice flour with warm water, by shaping the dough into balls with either one pine nut or jujube , by frying and coating them with syrup. With its topography , climate and soil , Kaesong has advantageous natural conditions for agricultural productions. The water supply system

513-596: Is currently divided into 24 administrative districts known as Dong , as well as three villages ("ri"). After Kaesong promoted to Special City, Changpung County, Kaepung-guyok and Panmun-guyok return to Kaesong. Kaesong is home to the World Heritage Site Historic Monuments and Sites in Kaesong . Koryo Songgyungwan University (Light Industry), Communist University and Art College are located in Kaesong. The Koryo Museum , housed in

570-444: Is established with 18 reservoirs, including Songdo Reservoir, built for agricultural advances and about 150 pumping stations as well as hundreds of dammed pools. The cultivated land accounts for 27% of Kaesong's area. Rice, maize , soybeans , wheat, and barley are the main crops. Among them, rice production accounts for 60% of the whole grain production, and Kaepung and Panmun are the two primary regions, producing more than 70% of

627-400: Is no separate IPA symbol for the mid vowel, and the symbol [ɵ] for the close-mid central rounded vowel is generally used instead. If precision is desired, the lowering diacritic can be used: [ɵ̞] . This vowel can also be represented by adding the more rounded diacritic to the schwa symbol, or by combining the raising diacritic with the open-mid central rounded vowel symbol, although it

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684-503: Is not distinguished consistently, if at all. Among young speakers or in informal contexts, the postpositions -do (-도, "also"), -ro (-로, "to") and -go (-고, "and then") and their derivatives tend to be pronounced with -du (-두), -ru (-루) and -gu (-구). The sentence-final verb ending -yo tends to be pronounced with a schwa , which is sometimes transcribed as -yeo (-여) on the Internet in informal contexts. Samchon (삼촌, "uncle")

741-422: Is often found in those who have been born or have lived in Seoul before the industrialization in the 1970s (i.e. old natives of Seoul). To some people, this can slightly sound like a North Korean accent. Good examples can be found in speeches of a Seoul-born famous singer, Lee Mun-se . Older broadcast recordings (especially those from the 1980s at least) can also be typical examples of this accent. The accent used in

798-533: Is rare to use such symbols. Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced , to the left are voiceless . Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible. Legend: unrounded  •  rounded Kaeseong Kaesong ( UK : / k eɪ ˈ s ɒ ŋ / , US : / k eɪ ˈ s ɔː ŋ / ; Korean: [kɛsʌ̹ŋ] ) is a special city in the southern part of North Korea (formerly in North Hwanghae Province ), and

855-549: Is the shortening of '거야' ( geoya , a suffix used for emphasis or in a question ), to '거' ( geo ). This feature is prevalent in the South, around Suwon . Schwa Legend: unrounded  •  rounded The mid central vowel (also known as schwa ) is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages . The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound

912-667: Is usually pronounced as samchun (삼춘), as are some other words spelt with 'ㅗ' in standard Korean (사돈-사둔, 정도-정두) Young Seoul dialect speakers tend to end interrogative sentences (questions) with -nya? (-냐?). They also use unique intonations slightly different from those used by broadcast news readers. The informal ending -eo (-어) is also used quite commonly in both Seoul dialect questions and sentences. A 2013 study by Kang Yoon-jung and Han Sung-woo, which compared voice recordings of Seoul speech from 1935 and 2005, found that in recent years, lenis consonants (ㅂㅈㄷㄱ), aspirated consonants (ㅍㅊㅌㅋ) and fortis consonants (ㅃㅉㄸㄲ) were shifting from

969-457: Is variably rounded. In other languages, the change in rounding is accompanied with the change in height and/or backness. For instance, in Dutch , the unrounded allophone of /ə/ is mid central unrounded [ə] , but its word-final rounded allophone is close-mid front rounded [ ø̜ ] , close to the main allophone of /ʏ/ . "Mid central vowel" and "schwa" do not always mean the same thing, and

1026-464: The Daehan News , a government-made film-based news media, may be a humorous version of this accent. The general form can be found in speeches by nearly all broadcast news anchors these days. This variation may lie in between the conservative and the modified forms. This accent may be used for recordings of Korean language listening comprehension tests to high school students and is considered to be

1083-568: The Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945, the city was known by the Japanese pronunciation of its name , "Kaijō". Between 1945 and 1950, Kaesong was part of South Korea and under its control. During the Korean War , North Korea captured the city, and the 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement left the city under North Korean control. Due to the city's proximity to the border with South Korea, Kaesong has hosted cross-border economic exchanges between

1140-819: The Jeolla region into Seoul during the industrialization. Traditionally, there was some variation in the speech of Gyeonggi locals from north and south of the Han River . In Northern regions, especially in Kaeseong and Ganghwa County ), influence from the Hwanghae/Pyongan dialect can be displayed in the pronunciation of 겠(kes) as 갔(kas) or the use of vocabulary like 무유(muyu, radish) and 켠(kyun, corner/side) instead of 무(mu) and 편(pyeon). Meanwhile, southern Gyeonggi locals (such as in Pyeongtaek , which historically

1197-839: The Joseon : the Hurung Royal Tomb , belonging to the dynasty's second king, Jeongjong of Joseon , and the Cherung Royal Tomb , containing the remains of Queen Sinui, wife of the dynasty's founder, Yi Songgye (Taejo of Joseon). The two final tombs, despite belonging to members of the Joseon royal family, were excluded from the World Heritage Site Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty because of their location in North Korea. Since Kaesong

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1254-483: The Korean War while Gyeonggi Province is in South Korea. Bossam kimchi (wrapped kimchi), pyeonsu (square-shaped summer mandu ), sinseollo (royal casserole), seolleongtang (ox bone soup), chueotang (mudfish soup), joraengi tteokguk (rice cake soup), umegi ( tteok covered with syrup), and gyeongdan (ball-shaped tteok ) are representative Kaesong dishes. Umegi , also called Kaesong juak ,

1311-488: The Kwanum and Taehung Temples. The famous Pakyon Falls are located in the area, as well as a large, recently discovered Goryeo-era Buddha carved into the stone on Mt. Chonma . Most tourists to Kaesong are put in the traditional Kaesong Folk Hotel , housed in 19 traditional hanok courtyard houses. Sungkyunkwan , one kilometer north of Seonjukgyo bridge is a representative traditional educational institution in Kaesong. It

1368-399: The close-mid central unrounded vowel may be used with a lowering diacritic , [ɘ̞] . Another possibility is using the symbol for the open-mid central unrounded vowel with a raising diacritic , [ɜ̝] . Languages may have a mid central rounded vowel (a rounded [ə] ), distinct from both the close-mid and open-mid vowels. However, since no language is known to distinguish all three, there

1425-475: The 14th year of Seonjong of Goryeo 's reign, it was elevated to "Gaesong-bu". The Gaeseong-bu is a combined term of Song'ak-gun, and Gaesong-gun, which is different from the region of the pre-1945 Gaesong-ri, Seo-myeon, Kaepung-gun. In 1010, the first year of Hyeonjong of Goryeo 's reign, the palace and houses were almost burnt down during the second conflict in the Goryeo–Khitan War , so in 1018, Gaesong-bu

1482-460: The 1950s, and has almost reached completion in the speech of those born in the 1990s. On the other hand, Choi Ji-youn et al. (2020) disagree with the suggestion that the consonant distinction shifting away from voice onset time is due to the introduction of tonal features, and instead proposes that it is a prosodically conditioned change . The Seoul accent can be divided into three variations: conservative, general, and modified. The conservative form

1539-651: The Korean capital from Kaesong to Hanyang (modern-day Seoul ) in 1394. Kaesong remained a part of Gyeonggi Province until the Korean War . When Korea was partitioned at the 38th parallel after World War II , Kaesong was on the southern side of the line (within South Korea). However, the battle of Kaesong-Munsan was won by the Korean People's Army (KPA) in the first days of the Korean War. The city

1596-670: The Koryo Museum, and the Sonjuk Bridge and Pyochung Pavilion . Less-known sites include Kwandok Pavilion, the ruined Goryeo-era Manwoldae Palace , Anhwa Temple , Sungyang Hall , Mokchong Hall , and the Kaesong Chomsongdae (개성 첨성대; 開城 瞻星臺) observatory. Located to the west of the city are the tombs of Kings Kongmin and Wanggon ; twenty-four km north of Kaesong is Taehungsan Fortress , a Koguryo satellite fortress built to protect Pyongyang . This castle contains

1653-774: The Songdo School Foundation in 1950 with the accreditation for the establishment of Songdo Middle School and Songdo College of Pharmacy, the latter of which produced 40 graduates. However, when the Korean War occurred, the foundation was moved to Incheon, and reconstructed Songdo Middle and High Schools in 1953 which still exist to the present. By 1950, there were two public high schools: Kaeseong High School (개성중학교; 開城中學校) and Kaeseong Girls' High School (개성고등여학교; 開城高等女學校) and three private high schools: Songdo High School (송도중학교; 松都中學校), Jeonghwa Girls' School (정화여학교;貞和女學校) and Hosudon Girls' School (호수돈여학교; 好壽敦女學校). Like Songdo High School, Jeonghwa and Hosudon Girls' Schools, with

1710-456: The areas drained by Yesŏng, Imjin, and Han rivers consist of mostly alluvial and saline soil . The climate is generally warm and moderate, with an average annual temperature of around 10 °C. The coldest month is January, with an average temperature of −5.9 °C, while the hottest month is August, with an average temperature of 24.7 °C. The average annual rainfall ranges from 1,300 to 1,400 millimeters. The duration of frost-free period

1767-614: The capital of Korea during the Taebong kingdom and subsequent Goryeo dynasty. The city is near the Kaesong Industrial Region close to the border with South Korea and contains the remains of the Manwoldae palace . Called Songdo while it was the ancient capital of Goryeo, the city prospered as a trade centre that produced Korean ginseng . Kaesong now functions as North Korea's light industry centre. During

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1824-621: The city contained the headquarters of the Central Bank of North Korea , with branches also in Kapung and Panmun counties. North Korea and South Korea jointly operate an industrial complex in the Kaesong Industrial Region. The industrial park, built around 2005, employs over 53,400 North Koreans at over 120 South Korean textile and other labor-intensive factories. In early 2013, approximately 887 South Koreans worked in

1881-603: The city's old Confucian academy , contains many priceless Goryeo arts and cultural relics (although many are copies, with the originals held in the vaults of the Korean Central History Museum in Pyongyang ). As the former capital of Goryeo, the tombs of almost all of the Goryeo kings are located in the area, though most are not accessible; the heavily reconstructed Tomb of King Wanggon , belonging to

1938-501: The city, on 25 October 1951. The Korean Armistice Agreement signed on 27 July 1953 recognised North Korean control over Kaesong making it the only city to change control from South Korea to North Korea as a result of the war. Postwar Kaesong and the part of Kyonggi Province that came to be occupied was organized into "Kaesong Region" ( Kaesŏng Chigu; 개성 지구; 開城 地區). In 1957, Kaesong became a "Directly Governed City" ( Kaesŏng Chikhalsi; 개성 직할시; 開城 直轄市). In 2002, Kaesŏng Industrial Region

1995-584: The complex, which produced an estimated $ 470 million of goods in 2012, and the complex employed a sixth of Kaesong's working people. Amid tensions in 2013, the industrial park was temporarily closed. It was closed again in 2016. Kaesong is a major destination for foreign visitors to North Korea. Many Goryeo-era sites are located in Kaesong, including the Kaesong Namdaemun gate, the Songgyungwan Confucian Academy , now

2052-441: The division into the two states. The food processing industry ranks next to the textile business, mainly producing jang (soybean-based condiments), oil , canned foods , alcoholic beverages , soft drinks and others. In addition, resin , timber , handicrafts, pottery, shoes, school supplies , musical instruments, and glass are produced. Kaesong has factories for producing agricultural machines and tractor repair. As of 2002,

2109-531: The division of Korea and the mass migration of people from southern provinces during and after the 1970s, this regional difference is now almost nonexistent among most modern day Gyeonggi locals and is only noticeable in the speech of elderly locals of Gyeonggi, with traces of this being displayed among some middle aged Gyeonggi locals (especially those from rural backgrounds or whose families originally came from Gyeonggi Province ). One linguistic difference between northern and southern Gyeonggi that still exists today

2166-615: The dynasty's founder, Taejo of Goryeo , is located to the west of the city in Kaepung-gun. Other notable tombs include those of kings Hyejong of Goryeo (the Sollung Royal Tomb ), Gyeongjong of Goryeo ( Yongrung Royal Tomb ), Seongjong of Goryeo ( Kangrung Royal Tomb ), Hyeonjong of Goryeo ( Sollung Royal Tomb ), Munjong of Goryeo ( Kyongrung Royal Tomb ), and Gongmin of Goryeo ( Tomb of King Kongmin ). Kaesong also contains North Korea's only two royal tombs dating to

2223-428: The early 1990s. Even a few young broadcast news anchors may speak with some features of this accent nowadays, especially when they present in entertainment programs rather than radio news. The most notable characteristic of this form is that the pitch goes up at the end of a sentence, which many people who speak with Gyeongsang accents find offensive or irritating. The pitch-up feature is due to influence by migrants from

2280-518: The exception of the mountainous northeastern region, however, most areas of Kaesong consist of low hills with heights less than 100 meters A.S.L. The Imjin River flows along the northeastern border line of the city and the Ryesong River (禮成江) (Ryeseong-gang; 례성강) (transliterated in South Korea as Yeseong-gang; 예성강) runs along the western border to the mouth of the Han River . In addition to

2337-422: The founder of his short-lived state, Taebong , and then became a part of Goryeo in 919 by its founder, Wang Geon, who was enthroned as Taejo of Goryeo . Taejo established the capital in the south of Song'ak, and incorporated Kaesong into Song'ak under the name of "Gaeju". In 919, Kaesong became the national capital. In 960, the 11th year of Gwangjong of Goryeo 's reign, the city was renamed Gaegyeong, and in 995,

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2394-412: The oral cavity and vocalising." To produce the rounded variant, all that needs to be done in addition to that is to round the lips. Afrikaans contrasts unrounded and rounded mid central vowels; the latter is usually transcribed with ⟨ œ ⟩. The contrast is not very stable, and many speakers use an unrounded vowel in both cases. Danish and Luxembourgish have a mid central vowel that

2451-465: The period. According to the Samguk Sagi , when a castle was built in the site in 694, the third year of Hyoso of Silla 's reign, Kaesong was referred to as "Song'ak (송악; 松嶽)". Therefore, it is assumed that the name Song'ak had been used at least before the time. Silla began to decline in the late 9th century, and a period of rival warlords ensued. In 898, Kaesong fell under the hand of Gung Ye ,

2508-418: The rice production. In addition, vegetable and fruit cultivation including peach, apple and persimmon , livestock farming, and sericulture are active. Peach is a local specialty of Kaesong, especially white peach, which accounts for more than 25% of the total fruit production. The counties of Kaepung-gun and Panmun-gun are also known for cultivating the quality Korean ginseng called Goryeo Insam . Kaesong

2565-631: The standard/formal South Korean accent. Hence, news anchors and reporters who have mastered this dialect for their profession are considered to be South Korea's most grammatically/linguistically accurate, precise, and eloquent citizens. The last variation is usually spoken by younger generations (including teenagers) and lower-class middle-aged people in the Seoul Metropolitan Area. Some middle and upper-class people in Seoul may speak with this accent due to lack of 'rigid' lingual education policies. This variation has emerged in public since

2622-407: The symbol ⟨ ə ⟩ is often used for any obscure vowel, regardless of its precise quality. For instance, the unstressed English vowel transcribed ⟨ ə ⟩ and called "schwa" is a central unrounded vowel that can be close-mid [ ɘ ] , mid [ə] or open-mid [ ɜ ] , depending on the environment. The French vowel transcribed that way is closer to [ ø ] . If

2679-840: The teachers and most students, evacuated south during the Korean War and their campuses now are located in Seoul and Daejeon respectively. There were also eight public elementary schools (국민학교) in Kaeseong by 1950, they were the Manwol (만월; 滿月), Donghyun (동현; 銅峴), Seonjuk (선죽; 善竹), Koryo (고려; 高麗), Songdo (송도; 松都), Junggyeong (중경; 中京), Namsan (남산; 南山) and Deokam (덕암; 德岩) elementary schools. As of 2002, Kaesong had 80 each public elementary schools which scattered in each unit of ri (village), 60 middle-high schools, 3 colleges and 3 universities such as Songdo University of Politics, Kaesong University of Education, and Kaesong Communist University. Kaesong

2736-600: The time taught there as professors. In 1592, the 25th year of Seonjo of Joseon 's reign, Kim Yuk reconstructed the institution which was burned down by the Japanese during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) . The first modern school that appeared in Kaesong was Hanyeong Seowon (한영서원; 韓英書院), or Anglo-Korean School established by Yun Chi-ho in 1906, with the help of American missionaries Mr. Wasson, and Mr. Candler. It obtained authorization as Songdo High School from Governor-General of Korea in 1917, and expanded to

2793-534: The two countries as well as the jointly run Kaesong Industrial Region . As of 2009, the city had a population of 192,578. The earliest archaeological signs of habitation in the Kaesong area date from the Neolithic . Artifacts such as Jeulmun pottery , stone ware, and stone axes have been excavated from Osongsan and Kaesong Nasong , the double-walled fortress of Kaesong. As Kaesong has been occupied by various states throughout centuries, its name has changed. It

2850-727: The two rivers, small and large rivers and streams such as the Samich'ŏn, Wŏlamch'ŏn, Chukbaech'ŏn, Kŭmsŏngch'ŏn, and Sach'ŏn rivers drain into the Han. The river basin located in the southwest of Kaesong has spacious alluvial plains such as P'ungdŏkbŏl, Singwangbŏl, and Samsŏngbŏl. The geology consists of the Proterozoic , Cenozoic , and Paleozoic strata and Mesozoic intrusive granite . The underground resources include gold , zinc , copper , fluorspar , limestone , granite, and kaolin . The soil comprises generally brown forest soil while

2907-644: Was formed from part of Kaesong. In 2003, the remaining part of Kaesong (excluding the Industrial Region) became part of North Hwanghae Province . The city is close to the Demilitarized Zone that divides North and South Korea. In October 2019, Kaesong became a "Special City". Located in the center of Korea, Kaesong is the southernmost city of North Korea. It is bordered by Kaepung , Changpung , Panmun , and Kumchon counties. Kanghwa Island of Incheon Municipality lies just south, beyond

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2964-438: Was founded in the neighborhood of Gukja-dong with the name Gukjagam (국자감; 國子監) in 992 during the reign of King Seongjong of Goryeo , which ignited Korean Confucianism . Its name was changed to Gukhak (국학; 國學) in the reign of Chungnyeol of Goryeo and was referred to as Seonggyungwan . In 1367, the 16th year of Gongmin of Goryeo 's reign, the structure was revamped and Yi Saek , and Chŏng Mong-ju , Confucian scholars of

3021-432: Was in the realm of Mahan confederacy , and was referred to as Busogap during the rule of Goguryeo . Before the strength of Baekje was retreated to the southwest of Jungnyeong , Mungyeong Saejae , and Asan Bay in 475, the area had been a part of Baekje for about 100 years. However, it became a territory of Silla in 555, the 16th year of Jinheung of Silla 's reign, and its name was changed to Song'ak-gun during

3078-797: Was once part of Chungcheong Province ) were displayed to have some influence from the Chungcheong/Yeongseo dialects by following the umlaut of the Chungcheong dialect in words like 고기(gogi) and 옮기다(olmgida), which become 괴기(gwaegi) and 욂기다(oelmkida) or the use of vocabulary like 졸(jol) and 바우(bau) for 부추(buchu) and 바위(bawi). Coastal regions (most notably in Incheon , Siheung , Gimpo and southern areas of Ongjin County ) can have influence from both regions, due to contact with people from both regions through fishing and trade. However, due to

3135-651: Was recaptured by UN Forces on 9 October 1950 during the pursuit of the KPA that followed the successful Inchon landings . UN Forces abandoned the city on 16 December 1950 during the withdrawal to the Imjin River following the Chinese People's Volunteer Army intervention in the war. Kaesong would remain under Chinese/North Korean control until the end of the war. Ceasefire negotiations began in Kaesong on 10 July 1951, but were moved to Panmunjom , southeast of

3192-464: Was relegated for the "bu" system, and became to govern the three hyeon unites of Jeongju, Deoksu, and Gangeum. In the late 12th century, there was instability in both the government and the countryside. A slave named Manjŏk (or Manjeok) (만적; 萬積) led a group of slaves who gathered outside Kaesong in 1198. The revolt plot was suppressed by Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn . When Yi Song-gye overthrew Goryeo in 1392 and established Joseon as Taejo of Joseon , he moved

3249-399: Was the capital of Goryeo for 487 years, its culinary culture was highly developed. The luxurious style of Kaesong cuisine is frequently compared with Seoul cuisine and Jeolla cuisine. Kaesong cuisine was traditionally treated as part of Gyeonggi cuisine, since Kaesong belonged to Gyeonggi Province until 1950. However, it has been incorporated into the administration of North Korea after

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