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78-617: The Seri people are not related culturally or linguistically to other groups that have lived in the area, such as the Opata , Yaqui (sg.: Yequim , pl.: Yectz ), O'odham (sg.: Hapaay ), or Cochimí . The Seri language is distinct from all others in the region and is considered a language isolate . Beside the Apache (sg.: Hapats , pl.: Hapatsoj ) and Yaqui, the Seri are best known as fierce warriors for their resistance against subjugation by

156-768: A fermented maize atole beverage known as tanori , which was normally drunk during certain ceremonies and celebrations. Expert preparers of that beverage often took on the second name of Tanori . The statelet era of Opata history endured from 1350 to 1550. With decreasing population due to European diseases, Opatan societies in the 17th century became smaller and less complex. Opata women were skilled weavers and wove dyed and full-length colorful cotton fiber dresses. Men generally dressed more scantily in skirts made of hide , but also wore serapes (shawls) in cold weather. Footwear consisted of sandals made from hide. Women often wore only hide skirts similar to those of men during warm weather, and both sexes often went about nude during

234-493: A U.S. gold expedition went missing, resulting in what is known as the Tiburón Island Tragedy . Although never confirmed by the sole survivor, it was suspected the Seri people were responsible for the disappearances, as it was not the first time an incident of this nature had occurred. American writer R.E.L. Robinson and explorer George Porter also went missing on the island in the 1890s, with it being theorized at

312-537: A cape, and his loins were covered with a cloth, as was the custom of that nation. On the wrist of his left hand, which holds the bow when the hand pulls the cord to send the arrow, he wore a very becoming marten skin". The Opata fiercely resisted the expedition of Spanish explorer Francisco Ibarra in 1565. For several decades, the Spanish made no further attempts to conquer the Opatería. However, during that period,

390-606: A commonly reported fertility rite was a round dance known as the "Mariachi." At the time of the first contact with the Spanish in the 16th century, there were multiple sub-groups of Opata people. However, by the mid-17th century, the Spanish identified only three Opatan groups. The largest was the Eudeve (eh-oo-deh-veh), whose ancient villages and current towns encompass the western portions of traditional Opata territory. The Eudeve also referred to themselves as Deve. Both names mean "people" in their language. The second largest group

468-538: A concrete or asbestos roof, although it is possible to find some houses made of cardboard. In general, these houses consist of a kitchen, dining room, bathroom, and one or two bedrooms. This type of housing was promoted and supported by the federal and state government between 1974 and 1984. In fishing areas it is still possible to find traditional houses that are made of shelters made of grasses and other materials (traditionally loggerhead shells) on top of an ocotillo frame ( Fouquieria splendens ). These shelters only house

546-484: A dock and an airstrip near the historic Seri encampment at Tecomate. The camp was popular with American visitors to the area. The remains of the structures and airstrip are still in place (although the airstrip was rendered unusable by the Mexican military around 1995 in an attempt to keep it from being used by smugglers active in the area at the time). The Mexican government, through a decree by President Echeverría , gave

624-620: A more dispersed people, living in more rugged terrain, and depended more on hunting and gathering than the other Opata groups. The Opatas traded with other Indian nations (Concho, Zuni ) to purchase turquoise in exchange for corn and cotton blankets. Animal skins and roots were acquired through trade with the Jano, Suma (mixed with Apache), Jumano (probably mixed with Apache and Comanche), Jocome, and Manso . Other items were traded with Yaqui , Mayo , and Seri , with whom they shared some fishing and hunting areas. Sisibotari ("The Great Lord")

702-490: A non- Seri community 34 kilometres (21 miles) to the south. The distance from Punta Chueca to Punta Tormenta, the nearest point on the island, is three kilometres ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 nautical miles). The channel between the mainland and the island is called Canal del Infiernillo ("Tiny Hell's Channel") because of the strong tidal currents and shoal water that occur there which can make navigation challenging. Two permits are required for day hiking and overnight stays on

780-578: A period in which rapid structural, organizational, and cultural changes occurred. The Seri were formerly divided into six bands. They were: Three of the bands were further subdivided. Relations between bands were not always friendly, and internal conflict sometimes occurred. Some bands were also living on the Baja California Peninsula ( Hant Ihiin ), they were called Hant Ihiini comcaac . It has been said that these groups spoke three distinct but mutually intelligible dialects. It

858-530: A ruling class, slavery, irrigation agriculture, and emphasis on trade. They featured a central town, functioning as the seat of government, of at least 200 two and three-story adobe houses and a population of six per house or 1,200 or more. In the countryside for several miles in every direction from the central town were satellite communities: hamlets of 9 to 25 houses and "rancherías" of less than 9 houses. The Opata depended upon agriculture for much of their subsistence. Maize , beans , squash , and cotton were

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936-570: A ship headed for Baja California. Before the ship reached the peninsula, it was stopped by Republican forces. Tanori was captured and executed. The retribution of the Mexicans against the Opata after the defeat of the French occupation resulted in the loss of nearly all of their remaining lands and the end of their resistance to Mexican rule. In 1902, American anthropologist Ales Hrdlicka , estimated

1014-521: A single family and are suitable for a nomadic lifestyle. This type of construction is used for traditional festivals as well. The current territory of the Comcaac has a total area of 211,000  ha (520,000 acres), of which 91,000 ha (220,000 acres) were provided through ejido rights and 120,000 ha (300,000 acres) were provided through communal endowment. Due to the territorial extension with which they were endowed and their small population,

1092-480: A single people to oppose the Spanish and Mexicans. Fierce battles with the Apache took a heavy toll on the Opata. Most of the Opata supported the French during their brief rule of Mexico from 1864 to 1867, as did most Sonoran Indians. An Opata, Refugio Tanori, became a general in the military forces supporting the Imperial rule of Maximilian I . When Tanori's forces were defeated, he fled to Guaymas, and boarded

1170-966: Is a cultural tradition practiced by many Seri of all ages in order to describe the world around them. Some songs even feature knowledge of their ecological environment and the ethnobotanical aspects of their culture which has allowed them to survive under difficult environmental conditions. While there are virtually no written records kept by the Seri, their songs have served as libraries of knowledge about their history, beliefs, and culture. Songs are often repeated, with many songs being sung in quantities of four. There are various types of songs, but not all are well represented in modern day and others are more commonly heard in public performances. The most interesting ones are often sung in private situations. The Seri are reluctant to formally record many songs, including many songs of mourning, because they either believe they should not be performed out of context or they are too personal. The types of songs include: The ethnonym of

1248-496: Is also extinct and was spoken by the Xiica hast ano coii Band; it was described as sounding musical, as if speakers were singing instead of speaking (Moser 1963). Speakers sometimes make remarks regarding certain expressions being characteristic of particular Bands, especially of the Xiica hast ano coii Band. These communication differences were thought to have kept the groups from having much social interaction with each other. After

1326-419: Is bilingual to a certain degree, although they prefer to speak their own language in their local activities. Speakers maintain an enormously rich oral tradition that preserves their history and culture. In the last few decades, a very small part of this tradition has presented itself in a written form. The Seri language has a plethora of terms in order to describe kinship relationships many of which describe both

1404-579: Is called Dohema. The Tehuimas spoke Tehuima, and the Jovas spoke Jova. The Eudeve and Tehuima languages were closely related, as "different as Portuguese and Spanish." Jova was a more distinct language. The Ópata language, with the possible exception of the Jova dialect, were extinct by 1950. During the 1993 census in Mexico, 12 persons claimed to be "Opata" speakers, but this is widely considered to be an error in

1482-518: Is now extinct. In the 16th century, at the time of Spanish contact, the Opata were the most numerous people in Sonora. Some sources indicate that as an identifiable ethnic group, the Opata are now extinct, or nearly extinct. Today, some people identify as Opatas. The Opata language was a Uto-Aztecan language , related to neighboring languages such as O'odham , Tarahumara , Tepehuan , Yaqui and Mayo , among others. The Eudeve dialect

1560-674: Is part of the Mexican state of Sonora , as well as the Hermosillo Municipality , and is located at approximately the same latitude as the city of Hermosillo . It is located along the eastern shore of the Gulf of California, opposite Isla Ángel de la Guarda . It is part of the chain of islands known as the Midriff Islands or Islas Grandes. The island has a prominent mountain system of volcanic origin. Tiburón Island

1638-626: Is part of the traditional homeland of some bands (or clans) of the Seri people , for many centuries if not millennia. Author Charles Marion Tyler described the island in his 1885 book The Island World of the Pacific Ocean , saying that "little is known [of the island], a hostile tribe of Indians being in possession." Californian writer De Moss Bowers remarked in 1909 that Tiburón was "almost inaccessible" and that it had an "interior of which no white man has ever explored". In 1905, three members of

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1716-416: Is record of two previously known medicinal specialists in Seri history. Cola conáajj was a midwife who used resources from regional flora and fauna to assist with pregnancy and labor. Ziix haaco cama was a noted spiritual specialist who also utilized traditional Seri medicine. Seri knowledge of their physical environment has resulted in the publication of material about Seri ethnobotany which showcases how

1794-523: Is still exercised during Easter week in most towns and villages in Opata Country. The rite includes the wearing of masks and the use of traditional Opatan instruments during the procession which include hand-held gourd rattles, bands of small ankle rattles, and hand-held drums. Masks often include traditional ones carved from Cottonwood , depicting various painted human and animal-like facial figures. Tibur%C3%B3n Island Tiburón Island

1872-407: Is still temporary and has a weak flow. Tiburon Island is provided with five watering holes in total which are currently not enough to sustain the total population. The climate of the region is hot with rainfall of 75 to 200 mm (3.0 to 7.9 in) per year; the primary climate is extremely dry or desert conditions. The temperature of the region can reach minimums of −8.5 °C (16.7 °F) in

1950-527: Is the largest island in the Gulf of California and the largest island in Mexico , with an area of 1,201 square kilometres (464 sq mi). It is uninhabited and it was made a nature reserve in 1963 by President Adolfo López Mateos . Tiburón is Spanish for ' shark '. Although the Seri name, Tahejöc , was first recorded by Alphonse Pinart in 1879, its etymology is unknown. Tiburón Island

2028-425: Is the name some Tehuima villages gave to themselves and means "iron people," since iron ore was abundant in Opata territory, and Opata spear tips were made from iron ore. Thus, those Tehuima people were also known as "the iron spear people." Some anthropological texts state that the "Opata" referred to themselves collectively in their own language as "Joylraua." However, according to Opata oral traditionalists, Joylraua

2106-464: Is thought that the first dialect was spoken by the Xiica hai iic coii , Xiica xnaai iic coii , Tahejöc comcaac and Heeno comcaac Bands and presently this variant is the only dialect spoken and is the ancestor of modern-day Seri. The second dialect was spoken by the Xnaamotat Band, but it is currently extinct and there was very little data collected regarding this dialect. The third dialect

2184-766: The Apostolic Church of the Faith of Jesus Christ , a church that many people in the community belong to. Despite the cultural mix, they maintain their language and cultural practices. The Seri have preserved much of their indigenous music, which distinguished them from almost all other ethnic groups in Mexico. Instrumental music and most traditional instruments are less commonly in use but songs are still an important part of Seri culture. Instruments like foot drums or rattling gourds may be used to accompany quick and repetitive Seri singing. The rhythms and percussion provided by dancers may also be used to accompany songs. Singing

2262-518: The Spanish (sg.: Casopin ) and later Mexicans (sg./pl.: Cocsar ). The Seri had been living on the coast of Sonora with little outside interference for centuries, if not millennia. But with colonization, they were displaced from their land and forced to work for others and adopt Christianity. Resendez writes about a slaving raid in 1660s: "A posse of Spaniards had cut a swath through the Seri lands, killing most of the adults of one band and distributing

2340-535: The southwestern United States , particularly in Arizona, where their ancestors migrated to work in agriculture and mining. At the time of first contact with the Spanish, the Opata may have been the most numerous and culturally complex people living in Oasis America , comprising the desert regions of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States. The towns of the Opata were found in the broad valleys of

2418-489: The "Opatería" in Spanish, encompasses the mountainous northeast and central part of the state of Sonora , extending to near the border with the United States . Historically, they included several subtribes, including the Eudeve, Teguima, and Jova peoples. Most Opatan towns were situated in river valleys and had an economy based on irrigated agriculture. They spoke the Opata language , a Uto-Aztecan language , that

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2496-471: The 19th century, they were persecuted and nearly annihilated by both Mexican soldiers and ranchers. Some of the Seri people managed to seek refuge on Tiburón Island . The scarcity of water and of animals for hunting, along with various diseases, were the predominant factors as to why the Seri people abandoned their refuge on Tiburón Island and returned to the mainland. They were first temporarily hired as fish merchants and ranchers and later settled down. Among

2574-462: The Jova lived in Chihuahua. These people were still independent, and not under Spanish rule, as late as 1678. During the 18th century, the Jova intermarried with neighboring Eudeves and they merged into one single group. At that point the Jova no longer could be identified as a distinct indigenous ethnic group. According to the "Noticias Estadisticas del Estado de Sonora" by D. Francisco Velasco

2652-479: The Opata Nation is subdued in: Some people in Sonora and southern Arizona identify as being of Ópata descent today. Very few Ópata traditions are exercised today, and their character is generally mestizaje (mainline Mexican mestizo) as opposed to a traditional indigenous character and lifestyle. However, the ancient Opatan spring procession rite known today as the fariseo (with some Catholicism mixed in)

2730-459: The Opata, forcing the survivors to surrender. The Spanish executed the Opata leaders, including Dorame, a Eudeve, whose surname is still common in the Opatería region of Sonora. Revolts continued after Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. Another Opata leader, Dolores Gutiérrez, was executed in 1833 by the Mexicans for his involvement in a revolt. Although the Opata had formidable reputations as warriors, they were never able to unite as

2808-435: The Seri "recognition and title of communal property" ( reconocimiento y titulación de terrenos comunales ) with respect to Tiburón Island in 1975. The island is currently uninhabited (except for Mexican military encampments on the eastern and southern shores of the island) and is administered as an ecological preserve by the Seri tribal government in conjunction with the federal government. Bighorn sheep were introduced to

2886-415: The Seri have preserved a lot of information about their centuries-long coexistence with the flora and fauna of their region. The severe ecological conditions of their environment and its changeability is a driving force behind their knowledge of flora and fauna of the area as the ability to remain nomadic due to these conditions was a necessity. In Seri villages, houses are mainly made of concrete blocks with

2964-532: The Seri mountain range, the Kunkaak mountain range, and some parts of the coastline. The soil of the land is generally shallow and in some parts up to 80% stoney. In the valleys, the soil is loamy and sandy. Due to the permeable characteristics of the soil there are no rivers, lakes, or important currents except for the San Ignacio river that runs from the nearby mountains and ends near Desemboque, but this river

3042-615: The Seri people, Comcaac , was first recorded by United States Boundary Commissioner John Russell Bartlett , who was in the area for a short visit in early 1852. The word was included in the list of approximately 180 words that Bartlett archived in the Bureau of American Ethnology (now part of the National Anthropological Archive, housed at the Smithsonian ). He recorded the word as "komkak", which reflected

3120-410: The Seri population was greatly reduced by conflicts with the Mexican government and the O'odham , and epidemics of smallpox and measles , the remaining Seris grouped together and the band divisions were lost. The Seri language, cmiique iitom , is a language isolate because there is not sufficient evidence of a relationship between it and any other language. Currently the majority of the population

3198-494: The Seri, along with the Lacandones, can be considered the indigenous people with the greatest land possession in Mexico. However, the difficult environmental conditions of their land makes it very hard for the Seri to utilize their territory for agricultural purposes. Due to this, the Seri have never practiced agriculture throughout their history. In general, the surface of Seri territory is flat, apart from some elevations like

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3276-473: The Seri. They possess knowledge about some plants that can be used to cure mild illnesses but the study of Seri ethnomedicine is still being investigated today. The biodiversity of their arid climate and inability to maintain standard agricultural practices and livestock means that the knowledge of their ethnomedicines is very valuable. Marine resources like molluscs and algae were used for medicinal purposes in addition to terrestrial plants. The nomadic lifestyle of

3354-487: The aridity of the desert, the Seri have knowledge of how to exploit the flora and fauna of the area. Fishing, particularly harvesting crabs and scallops, along with traditional ironwood carvings, elaborate basket making, and necklace work have been the main sources of income for the Seri. In general, Seri are not used to leaving their territory in search of work. The Seri came to establish systems of reciprocity and resource distribution through kinship relationships which ensure

3432-512: The biological and social aspects of the group. Their main traditional rites are linked to the onset of puberty and death. Their songs and stories revolve around the sea, animals, and ancient feats of heroes and warriors. Not having been formally evangelized in colonial times, they do not have the Catholic elements that many other indigenous groups have. In the Seri area there are no Catholic churches or priests. There are two Protestant temples of

3510-541: The census count. Professor Manuel García Madrid, an Opata from Sonora, has published a linguistic text on the Tehuima dialect. American linguistic anthropologist David L. Shaul has done extensive research and published much material on the Eudeve dialect. Field anthropologist Campbell Pennington researched and published much information on the Opatan peoples and their dialects during the latter part of their history. As

3588-450: The children in the Spanish towns of Sonora." The name Seri is an exonym of uncertain origin. (Claims that it is from Opata or from Yaqui were nineteenth-century speculations based on similarity to words in those languages and lack clear evidence.) Their name for themselves is Comcaac (phonemically /kom'kɑːk/ , phonetically [koŋˈkɑːk] ); singular: Cmiique (phonemically /'kmiːkɛ/ ), phonetically [ˈkw̃ĩːkːɛ] ). The Seri territory in

3666-658: The city of Puerto Libertad . Each village has schools for students at preschool, secondary, and primary levels. In the pre-Hispanic period, the territory of the Seri was located between the mountains, the Encinas desert, and the Gulf of California. The territory extended from the Altar desert in the north to the Yaqui river in the South and from Horcasitas in the east to the nearby islands of Tiburón, San Esteban , Patos, and Alcatraz in

3744-484: The consonant /m/ is pronounced as a nasalized velar approximant in this context (after a velar stop) may not have come about until sometime in the mid twentieth century. The Seri are the only people known to have harvested the maritime Zostera marina seagrass species for its seeds, before their nutritional value was discovered in recent times. Opata people The Opata ( Spanish : Ópata , /ˈopata/) are an Indigenous people in Mexico . Opata territory,

3822-434: The early twentieth century or researchers may have encountered slow-speech deliberate pronunciations for which the assimilation was held in abeyance. The singular form, Cmiique , was first recorded by French explorer and philologist Alphonse Pinart in 1879. He recorded the word as "kmike", which must have reflected the pronunciation of the word at that time (although he also missed the vowel length). The phonetic rule by which

3900-527: The effort to convert Ópatas to Roman Catholicism. The Opata slowly became Spanish allies of convenience. Opata soldiers joined the Spanish in campaigns against their common enemy the Apache . By 1688, the Spanish established 22 missions among the Ópata. The Ópata assimilated into Spanish society, far more than the Tarahumara , Mayo , or Yaqui did. By 1800, the Opata were mostly followers of Christianity, commonly spoke Spanish , and were largely under

3978-474: The external causes that allowed their successful return to the mainland was the crisis of 1929 , which caused a large migration of poor people to cities and agricultural centers in northern and northeastern Mexico. This increased the consumption of fish and other marine products, which were cheaper than beef. From that moment, the Seri people began to occupy an essential role in the economy of commercial exchange and to use money in their market operations. This began

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4056-667: The five north–south trending rivers of northern and eastern Sonora. The rivers, west to east, are the San Miguel, Sonora, Moctezuma, and the two upper tributaries of the Yaqui, the Bavispe and the Arcos. The Opata were not members of a single political entity, but rather organized into a number of "statelets" – several of which may have also been populated by their neighbors to the south, the Pima Bajo . The statelets were characterized by

4134-479: The formal integration of the Comcaac into national life, they have been forced to name a series of authorities such as a supreme council, a communal commission, the comunal property council, and a fishing cooperative society. The Seri did not develop a complex system of religious governance. Their interpretation of the world, its rites, its festivals, and other cultural manifestations are closely related to nature and

4212-490: The group caused changes in their diet and patterns of consumption which has generated varying health problems like diabetes. There is presently a lack of medicinal specialists amongst the Seri. For traditional medical treatment, potential Seri patients travel to nearby communities or the state capital in order to receive treatment. Women still maintain some knowledge of traditional medicines and prepare traditional medicinal items like soaps and creams to sell to outsiders. There

4290-522: The higher figure. The Opatas were the most numerous of the several indigenous groups in the state of Sonora, and the river valleys of their territory were densely populated with their permanent villages. Disease, war, and famine reduced the aboriginal population of Opatería to 6,000 by 1764. Today, there are no known full-blooded Opatas left, but mestizo descendants still make up the majority population of traditional Opata territory. Many Opata descendants reside in other parts of Sonora , greater Mexico , and

4368-898: The hot season. Necklaces and other adornments made from hide, stone, bone, shell, and feathers were worn. Dwellings consisted of thatched huts and small houses made of adobe and zacate with thatched roofs. During warm, dry seasons, semi- subterranean dwellings known as a hu'uki were also used. (In addition, hu'ukis were used as sweat lodges , and small ones were constructed for the purpose of storing legumes to keep them cool and fresh longer). Homosexuality and transgenderism were not taboo in traditional Opatan society. Same-sex couples existed in some villages, including effeminate males who dressed and lived as women. There were plural marriages of village leaders where they took their sisters-in-law as spouses or concubines. Fertility rites also took place. Described as "obscene" in Spanish priests' written accounts (see, for example Cañas, 1730),

4446-428: The island in the 1980s; hunting is managed by the tribal government in coordination with Mexican federal authorities. It is also home to a unique subspecies of coyote ( Canis latrans jamesi ) and mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus sheldoni ) that are endemic to the island. The island can be reached from Punta Chueca , which is the nearest community inhabited by members of the Seri tribe, and from Bahía de Kino ,

4524-644: The island: one from the Seri Governor's office in Punta Chueca and another from the ISLAS office in Bahía de Kino. In 2012, two television episodes of Survivorman were filmed on Tiburón Island. It featured Canadian survivalist Les Stroud spending ten days living on the island. Mermaids of Tiburon is a 1962 film about a diver looking for buried treasure who comes across mermaids. Despite being set on

4602-412: The most capable person was appointed to fulfil this position as leader. The persecution of the Seri people by the Spanish and Mexican military began in the mid-18th century. Expeditions by the Mexican military were led against the Seri and continued to decimate their population and territory until the early 1900s. The Seri people were the antithesis of what the Spanish conquistadors sought. Their territory

4680-403: The most sustained contact the Seri had with outsiders. Their letters provide the earliest and most comprehensive descriptions of the people. None of their efforts, however, were successful, and the Seri always returned to their desert lifestyles which is why they were always considered an unlawful group. The Spanish, then later the Mexicans, tried to effectively kill off all of the Seri which led to

4758-416: The municipality of Hermosillo located on the coast of Sonora . Following the fishing cycles, the location of some individuals and their relatives can vary between all fishing territories which are located along 100 km (62 mi) of coastline. Through a road to the south, the residents of Punta Chueca communicate with the village of Bahía de Kino . Towards the north, a road connects Desemboque with

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4836-417: The nearly total annihilation of the group. However, the Seri people were never formally conquered or evangelized during that time. Little by little they were confined to a part of their territory and decimated in number. By the time of Mexican independence, the previous organization system had been dismantled, and the Seri were almost entirely settled on the mainland. However, throughout the first two-thirds of

4914-520: The number of full-blood Opatas at 500 to 600. Another anthropologist, Carl Lumholtz , commented that the Opatas had "lost their language, religion, and traditions, dress like the Mexicans, and in appearance are in no way distinguishable from the laboring class of Mexico with which they are thoroughly merged through frequent intermarriage." Population estimates for Opatería at the time of Spanish contact range from 20,000 to 70,000, with most estimates nearer

4992-436: The principal crops. Due to the scarcity and irregularity of rainfall, the Opata practiced canal irrigation as well as dry-land farming techniques. Early Spanish explorers described large and productive fields among the Opata. The Opata also hunted game, especially deer, with bows and arrows , fished in the rivers with spears and nets, and gathered wild foods such as Chenopodium and cactus leaves and fruits. They also produced

5070-422: The pronunciation of the word at that time (although he missed the vowel length and did not indicate stress). Other word lists, obtained by other people during the last half of the nineteenth century, confirm that pronunciation. The phonetic rule by which the consonant /m/ is pronounced as a velar nasal in this context (after an unstressed vowel and preceding a velar consonant) may not have come about until sometime in

5148-496: The rule of the Spanish government. Many Opatans became cowboys on Spanish ranches, or migrated to mining towns to work in the mines. Tension between the Spanish, the Mexicans, and the Opata manifested itself in numerous revolts in the 19th century. In 1820, 300 Opata warriors defeated a Spanish force of 1,000 soldiers and destroyed a mining town near Tonichi . Later, they won another battle at Arivechi , killing more than 30 soldiers. A Spanish force of 2,000 soldiers finally defeated

5226-605: The sex of the subject and the sex of the speaker. For example, there are four terms to describe grandparents, each term specifies to which parent the grandmother or grandfather belongs to. Additionally there are many terms to describe siblings which account for the age and sex of the referent and speaker. The Seri maintain their language with great vitality. In place of adopting Spanish terms to designate new cultural elements that have been added to their lives, they continue creating new terms in Seri. The preservation of knowledge on traditional therapies and techniques may be lacking among

5304-437: The state of Sonora spans an area of approximately 211,000 hectares (520,000 acres) of land and is located on both continental land as well as land from Tiburon island , which is located in the Gulf of California off the central coast of the state. The Seri primarily inhabit the towns of El Desemboque (Haxöl Iihom, 29°30'13"N, 112°23'43"W), the municipality of Pitiquito , Punta Chueca (Socaaix, 29°0'54"N, 112°9'42"W), and

5382-448: The statelets declined and were replaced by a "ranchería" culture of small settlements and dispersed dwellings. The drastic decline of the Ópata population is likely due to epidemics of introduced European diseases and local diseases. In 1628, Jesuit missionaries established a mission in Opatería and encountered little opposition to their efforts to evangelize, and later, to reorganize Opata society along Spanish lines. Pedro Mendéz led

5460-463: The three Opatan groups lived adjacent to one another, Franciscan missionaries had by about 1800 lumped them together into one group they called "Opata." Several Franciscan missionary records and subsequent anthropological accounts state that "Opata" was borrowed from a Pima Indian word meaning "enemy," the name allegedly given by the northern and southern Piman peoples to their Opatan neighbors. However, according to Opatan oral traditionalists, "Opata"

5538-454: The time that they were cannibalized by the natives. On 25 December 1906, one of the missing gold expeditioners corpses was found, and it was confirmed that they had died from dehydration. The remains of the other missing gold expeditioner were never found. During the 1960s and early 1970s, a small hunting and fishing camp on the northern end of the island was operated by Jesus Olivas, a resident of Hermosillo. He constructed several buildings,

5616-409: The total survival of the group. One of these systems is named quiimosim, which gives every member of the tribe the right to request part of the food that is consumed in the community without prior invitation. Another is canoaa an hant cooit, the right to ask for fish to eat from any panga that comes from the sea. Through an additionally complex system, assets are also shared between families. With

5694-460: The west. As a nomadic people, the Seri travelled across an area that corresponds to fourteen current municipalities of Sonora. It was believed in this period that the Seri people were organized into six bands, divided into their own clans based on their paternal lineage. On a daily basis, there was no leader figure within the clan. Leaders were named only under extraordinary circumstances, such as during war or difficult hunting, and fishing seasons. Only

5772-446: The winter months of December to February and highs of 49.5 °C (121.1 °F) between the months of June and August. With such dramatic regional characteristics, the development of agriculture has been impossible up to now and maintaining livestock has been difficult due to water scarcity . Therefore, the main resource that is relied on is the 100 km (62 mi) of coastline that the Seri have for their own exclusive use. Despite

5850-404: Was a respected Jova chieftain known throughout Opata country who lived from the late 16th century to the mid-17th century. He served as a major intermediary between the Opatan peoples and the Spanish, which helped maintain peace between the two peoples during his time. Father Andrés Pérez de Ribas described Sisibotari, "He was handsome and still young, wore a long coat attached at his shoulder like

5928-658: Was first known as the Ore, but were later called the Tegüima or Tehuima (teh-wee-mah). Their ancient villages and current towns encompass the northeastern and central portion of Opata territory. Tehuima means "river people." The smallest Opatan group was the Ova or Jova (ho-vah). Jova means "water people." They originally inhabited eight villages in the southeastern portion of Opata territory. Some of their villages were Negarachi, Sahuaripa, Teopari, Tutuaca, Xiripa, and Yepomera. A number of

6006-513: Was not very useful, they did not have accumulated wealth, they did not produce enough to make the conquest profitable, and they were not suited as laborers to cultivate and serve as they were not familiar with that lifestyle. Because of this, the Seri people preserved their autonomy and culture for much longer than other indigenous peoples. During the colonial period, the Jesuits , who tried to evangelize them and teach them agricultural practices, were

6084-993: Was the name of an ancient Eudeve village named after an honored chieftain of that village. In the 16th century, Ópata may have entered Pima territory what is now Sonora from the northeast. At the time of first contact with the Spanish in the mid-16th century, the Opatería was a land of "statelets," a number of independent, agricultural towns scattered up and down the inland valleys of the Sonora River (statelets: Corazones, Señora, and Guaraspi), Moctezuma River (statelets: Cumupa, Batuco, and Pinebaroca), Bavispe River (statelet: Sahuaripa), and Aros River (statelets: Paibatubo, and Oera). There were at least five Opata statelets, and four others which were either Opata, Pima , or mixed. The statelets had populations of several thousand people, and consisted of towns surrounded by dispersed dwellings and irrigated cropland. The Opata grew corn , squash , beans , and cotton . The Jova, however, were

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