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124-587: The war takes its name from Quintus Sertorius , the leader of the opposition. It was notable for Sertorius' successful use of guerrilla warfare . Sertorius was sent by the Marian regime as proconsul to Hispania in 83 BC, but was ejected by a Sullan army in 81 BC. He returned in 80 BC, landing in Hispania Ulterior , and campaigned with success against the Sullan governors, depicting himself as

248-609: A battle near the Roman colony of Italica. Hirtuleius mustered his army soon after dawn and marched on Metellus's encampment. Metellus also mustered his troops, but kept them behind his entrenchments until noon. It was extremely hot and Hirtuleius' troops were soon sweltering while Metellus' legionaries remained relatively fresh. Since his enemy remained drawn up in front of his camp for hours, Metellus had plenty of time to study their dispositions and make his own plans accordingly. He had observed that Hirtuleius had posted his strongest units in

372-699: A triumph , but it is not known whether Sertorius immediately returned with him. As one of Didius' experienced officers, Sertorius may have remained in Hispania in 92 BC to continue subduing the Iberian tribes under Didius' successor, Gaius Valerius Flaccus . Alternatively, Sertorius may have spent the year in Rome gathering support for his quaestorship; as a novus homo the necessary political maneuvering would have required time and effort. In 92 BC, upon his return from his military tribunate in Hispania, Sertorius

496-578: A "foolish action" is not wholly unjustified, but argues against trusting Appian's account (the only one that survives, based on Sulla's memoirs) which states Sertorius' capture of Suessa as being the main cause of negotiations ending and the defection of the Marian army. So Konrad: "the loss of the Consul's [Scipio's] army was not caused by the seizure of Suessa". After Suessa, Sertorius departed to Etruria where he raised yet another army, some 40 cohorts, as

620-662: A Sullan governor again, asked Sertorius to be their war leader. It is likely they were influenced by Sertorius' tenure as governor being far gentler than his predecessors, who often extracted very high taxes and warred against tribes arbitrarily for glory and plunder, neither of which Sertorius had done. The Lusitanians were also implored by Sertorius' "friends in Spain", likely Roman exiles who knew Sertorius, but were unable to flee with him when Annius retook Hispania and had consequently taken refuge in Lusitania. Sertorius did not lead

744-578: A Sullan governor, approached him. They requested Sertorius to become their war leader in the fight against the Sullans. Sertorius accepted the request and late in 80 BC Sertorius landed at the little fishing town of Baelo near the Pillars of Hercules ( Gibraltar ) thus returning to Hispania for the third and final time. Sertorius made a camp on a mountain near Baelo and started gathering his forces. He had brought 2,600 Romans soldiers (mainly veterans from

868-421: A base, and from there move up the coast. Memmius was immediately blockaded in the city, probably by Sertorius's pirate allies, and was unable to play his part in the campaign. Pompey had a veteran army (recruited from among his own and Sulla's veterans) of 30,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry at his back and must have been very confident for he immediately took the offensive; Upon entering Hispania he started clearing

992-466: A commander and fought, along with providing men and materiel to the southern theatres of the war. He served under a series of commanders, probably Marius and Lucius Porcius Cato , most certainly under Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo . A wound sustained during the conflict cost him the use of one of his eyes. Sertorius used his wounds as personal propaganda. Being scarred in the face had its advantages. "Other men, he used to say, could not always carry about them

1116-439: A feast to celebrate a supposed victory. While under most circumstances, any festivities to which Sertorius was invited were conducted with great propriety, this particular feast was vulgar, designed to offend the skillful general. Perperna wanted to goad Sertorius to leave and wander into the crowds, so it would be easier to kill him, as despite his age Sertorius was still a skilled warrior. Disgusted, Sertorius changed his posture on

1240-531: A fleet to wage a naval campaign against Sertorius' naval and coastal forces. Antonius tried to raise the siege of Emporion , but made little progress against the stalwart Sertorian besiegers. Eventually, Antonius was recalled as his fleet was needed elsewhere. At the end of the campaigning season of 74 BC Pompey took his army into the Roman Province in southern Gaul where the local governor, Fronteius, had laid on stores for Pompey and his forces. Pompey used

1364-579: A group of fanatical opponents were resettled to Lugdunum Convenarum in southern Gaul. Quintus Sertorius Quintus Sertorius ( c.  126 BC – 73 or 72 BC ) was a Roman general and statesman who led a large-scale rebellion against the Roman Senate on the Iberian Peninsula . Sertorius became the independent ruler of Hispania for most of a decade until his assassination. Sertorius first became prominent during

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1488-458: A lesson. Pompey, was delighted with the way things had turned out, for he now positioned his army so that Sertorius was, as he believed, caught between the city and the army. So Pompey sent a messenger to the people of Lauron. He invited them to celebrate, and take their seats along the city wall to see how Sertorius enjoyed being besieged. Sertorius was told of this, and found it highly amusing. Sulla's pupil (as he jokingly liked to refer to Pompey)

1612-603: A minor legend in antiquity, still remembered in the time of Ammian . Serving under Gaius Marius , sometime between the autumns of 104 and 102 BC, Sertorius spied on the Germanic tribes that had defeated Caepio, probably disguised as a gaul . Marius may have sought Sertorius (and other survivors of Arausio) out due to their experience fighting against the Germans, as he likely wanted information regarding enemy tactics and movements. Sertorius probably did not know enough of

1736-477: A neutral one, and corrupt the garrison into the bargain". The incident at Castulo earned Sertorius considerable fame in Hispania and abroad, aiding his future political career. During his military tribunate Sertorius probably became familiar with the Iberian methods of war, namely guerrilla warfare , which he would later use to great effect in his revolt. Didius returned to Rome in the June of 93 BC to celebrate

1860-412: A personal quarrel since both men served under Marius earlier in their careers. It is also equally possible Sulla (and by extension the optimates , who he was closely tied to through marriage with Caecilia Metella and opposition to Marius) were uncertain about what manner of tribune Sertorius would be, and not being able to rely on his obedience led to their opposition. Knowing Sertorius was popular with

1984-505: A pitched battle. They fought in the narrow space which separated the river from the city walls, conditions which favoured the battle hardened veterans of their opponent. Herennius himself was among the 10,000 casualties. Valentia was taken and sacked. Sertorius who was campaigning against Metellus had to rush east to recover the situation and left Hirtuleius in command in Hispania Ulterior. Metellus promptly defeated Hirtuleius in

2108-404: A political career and thus moved to Rome in his mid-to-late teens trying to make it big as an orator and jurist . His speaking style made a sufficiently negative impression on the young Cicero to merit a special mention in a later treatise on oratory: Of all the totally illiterate and crude orators, well, actually ranters, I ever knew – and I might as well add 'completely coarse and rustic' –

2232-843: A proconsular command by the Senate specifically to defeat and drive him from Hispania Ulterior. Metellus would be Sertorius' main antagonist between 80–77 BC. Prior to Metellus' arrival, Marcus Domitius Calvinus , proconsul in Hispania Citerior, marched against Sertorius but was defeated by Lucius Hirtuleius , Sertorius' legate. Sertorius, who referred to Metellus as "the old woman", employed guerrilla warfare effectively and outmaneuvered Metellus through rapid and relentless campaigning. Sertorius also defeated and killed Lucius Thorius Balbus , Metellus' legate. Although initially outnumbered, Sertorius' repeated victories, along with his "uncharacteristically humane" administration impressed

2356-475: A prolonged fight in which he presented himself as a Roman proconsul against the Sullan regime at Rome. He gathered support from other Roman exiles and the native Iberian tribes – in part by using his tamed white fawn to paint himself as a divinely inspired leader before them – and employed irregular warfare to defeat commanders repeatedly sent from Rome to subdue him. Sertorius allied with Mithridates VI of Pontus and Cilician pirates in his struggle against

2480-422: A quick victory to gain his people's trust. Unfortunately for Perperna and his men, Pompey had set a trap; he feigned a retreat and ambushed them. Frontinus reports: Pompey put troops here and there, in places where they could attack from ambush. Then, pretending fear, he pulled back drawing the enemy after him. Then, when he had the enemy exposed to the ambuscade, he wheeled his army about. He attacked, slaughtering

2604-639: A relentless campaign of hit-and-run attacks and ambuscades slowly wearing down Metellus who was soon forced to call for help. Lucius Manlius, the governor of Gallia Transalpina , tried to come to Metellus's aid, he marched with three legions and 1,500 cavalry across the Pyrenees. He fought a battle with the forces of Lucius Hirtuleius near Ilerda where he was defeated and driven back into the city. After this setback, Manlius decided to retreat to his province. Hirtuleius tried to put Manlius under siege in Ilerda, but

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2728-419: A route far superior to Hannibal's. ... Outnumbered and with inexperienced troops I held off the first onslaught of the conquering Sertorius. Thereafter I spent the winter not in making myself popular or in the towns but in camp among the most savage of enemies. Do I really have to recount the battles and campaigns, the towns destroyed or captured? The matter speaks for itself; the taking of the enemy camp at Sucro,

2852-542: A sacrifice, he filled the tomb up again, and thereafter was among those promoting its traditions and honours. Sertorius remained in Tangier for some time. News of his success against Ascalis spread, and won Sertorius fame among the people of Hispania , particularly that of the Lusitanians in the west, whom Roman generals and proconsuls of Sulla's party had plundered and oppressed. The Lusitanians, being threatened by

2976-453: A sign of good faith. Disappointed by the behavior of their commander and unwilling to fight Sulla's battle-hardened veterans, Scipio's troops defected en masse. Scipio and his son were captured by Sulla, who released them after extracting a promise that they would never again fight against him or rejoin Cinna's successor Carbo . Sertorius motives for seizing Suessa are debated. It is possible

3100-686: A sign that their commander did not trust them anymore. Now a group of Romans began to actively plot his downfall. Plutarch tells how the Romans meted out harsh treatment to the Natives, blaming their actions on Sertorius' orders thus undermining his popularity, while Sertorius himself remained unaware. They wanted to get rid of Sertorius, who was becoming more and more erratic and paranoid. It is normally assumed that Perperna made his move to assassinate Sertorius in 72 BC. However there are strong arguments in favor of 73 BC. Perperna proceeded to invite Sertorius to

3224-460: A small naval force under Aurelius Cotta , landed in the Iberian Peninsula at Baelo , near the Pillars of Hercules (Gibraltar). Plutarch 's account implies that Sertorius first went to Lusitania, organized the tribes and only then returned to the Baetis valley to defeat a Roman force under Lucius Fufidius (probably the governor of Hispania Ulterior ). Spann suggests that a more probable sequence

3348-409: A solid, ponderous bloc of infantry. This formation was superbly trained to push back and vanquish the enemy in combat at close quarters. For constantly chasing men who floated like the wind over mountains he had to climb, for enduring – as their enemy did – constant hunger without either tent or campfire, his army was useless. The light armour and consequent agility of his Iberian warriors meant Sertorius

3472-633: A stag cult of funerary and oracular nature; this cult was most popular in western Hispania and Lusitania, where Sertorius drew his most fervent followers. As a result of all of these factors, Sertorius' power and army grew exponentially in 80 and 79 BC. Metellus' offensive in 79 BC was unsuccessful, and Sertorius gained control over both Hispanian provinces with the aid of Hirtuleius. From 78 BC onward Metellus campaigned against Sertorian cities, but his invasions into Lusitania and Ulterior were thwarted by Sertorius. When Sertorius learned of Metellus' intention to siege Lacobriga , Sertorius supplied

3596-433: A strong leader. In 77 BC Metellus adopted a more cautious strategy, only holding on to the line of the Baetis river while he awaited the events in Rome where a new revolt loomed. Sertorius left Metellus to his devices and concentrated on subduing those tribes in the interior that had not yet yielded to his authority. The ongoing Sertorian threat forced the government in Rome into taking drastic measures; they agreed that

3720-761: Is poorly documented. During the winter Metellus, who was wintering in Gaul, received two legions in reinforcements When the campaigning season started he marched across the Pyrenees and joined Pompey. They concentrated their efforts on the lands of the Celtiberians and the Vaccaei . Overall, however, it seems that Sertorius' position was somewhat eroded. According to Frontinus Metellus even got lucky during that particular year. Metellus wanted to keep his troops in order so he had announced he had intelligence of an enemy ambush. He ordered that no-one should break ranks and leave

3844-523: Is that the battle of the Baetis River occurred during Sertorius' initial march to Lusitania. Sertorius‘ victory at the Baetis brought the majority of Hispania Ulterior back under his control. While he consolidated his power in the south-west (Ulterior) he sent his trusted lieutenant, Lucius Hirtuleius , to Hispania Citerior to take care of its governor, one Cotta, and the remaining Sullan forces on

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3968-455: Is up to you. Either you save the situation or my army will come to Italy and bring the war with it. It's not what I want, but you have been warned. Pompey's threat galvanised Rome's aristocrats, and since the State was lacking the funds, they started a fund-raising campaign. The Sertorian threat frightened Rome's elite and many decided to contribute from their private fortunes. During 73 BC there

4092-524: The Cimbrian War fighting under Gaius Marius , and then served Rome in the Social War . Unsuccessful in his attempt for the plebeian tribunate c.  88 BC due to the hostility of Lucius Cornelius Sulla , after Sulla's consulship in 88 BC he joined with Cinna and Marius during the short civil war in 87 BC. He led in the assault on Rome and played a role in restraining

4216-591: The First Mithridatic War against Mithridates VI of Pontus . Sulla did not harm Sertorius, probably because he had not participated in Marius and Rufus' actions. After Sulla left, violence erupted between Sullan loyalists, led by the consul Gnaeus Octavius , and the Marians, led by the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna . Cinna, as "the enemy of his enemy [Sulla]" and "not so much... an old ally of Marius as

4340-453: The Social and Civil Wars) and 700 North African adventurers and mercenaries. The Lusitanians sent him 4,700 of their warriors. Added to this were an unknown number of disaffected local Romans, Turdetani, Celtiberians, and Roman and Italian refugees. All in all, Sertorius had an army of over 8,000 men. It fell to Fufidius, the aforementioned governor of Hispania Ulterior, to do something about

4464-619: The Teutones , Ambrones , and Cimbri were decisively defeated. Some scholars believe that Sertorius' tactics and strategies during his revolt in Hispania were substantially similar to Marius' and conclude that Sertorius' earlier service with Marius was an important learning experience. What Sertorius did for the next three years is unclear, but he probably continued to serve in the military. Sertorius eventually travelled to Hispania Citerior to serve its governor, Titus Didius , as military tribune in 97 BC. During his service, Sertorius

4588-451: The Tiber to prevent supply from reaching the city by river. After Octavius surrendered Rome to the forces of Marius, Cinna, and Sertorius, Sertorius abstained from the proscriptions and killings his fellow commanders engaged in. Sertorius went so far as to rebuke Marius and move Cinna to moderation. After Marius' death he, probably with Cinna's approval, annihilated Marius' slave army which

4712-719: The Baetis River 8,000+ men: The Battle of the Baetis River was fought between an army of the Roman Republic and a rebel army at the Baetis river (modern day Guadalquivir ) in Spain. The battle took place in 80 BC at the start of the Sertorian War . The Romans were led by Lucius Fufidius, while the rebels were led by the Roman rebel Quintus Sertorius . The rebel army was victorious, gaining Sertorius control over Hispania Ulterior . In 82 BC, during Sulla's civil war , Sertorius left Italy for his assigned propraetorian province in Hispania. Unfortunately, his faction,

4836-651: The Balearics. Sertorius engaged this superior fleet in a naval battle to avoid allowing them to disembark, but adverse winds broke most of his lighter ships, and he eventually fled the islands. Sertorius heard of, and had a genuine interest in the Isles of the Blessed , ascribing the isles to the Celto-Hispanian belief of an afterlife in the western ocean and learning more for his own political purposes. While he

4960-649: The East in 83 BC a civil war broke out. Sertorius, as a praetor, was among the men chosen to command the Marian forces against him. When the consul Scipio Asiaticus marched against Sulla, Sertorius was part of his staff. Sulla arrived in Campania and found the other consul, Gaius Norbanus , blocking the road to Capua . At the Battle of Mount Tifata Sulla inflicted a crushing defeat on Norbanus, with Norbanus losing thousands of men. The beaten Norbanus withdrew with

5084-580: The Etruscans, having gained their Roman citizenship through the Marian regime, were fearful of a Sullan victory. In 82 BC, Marius' son, Gaius Marius the Younger , became consul without having held the offices that a candidate for the consulship should have held, and at the unconstitutional age of 27. Sertorius, who probably qualified for the office, objected but his opinion was ignored. Following this appointment, Sertorius returned to Rome and castigated

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5208-499: The German languages to comprehend detailed information, but could report on their numbers and formations: "after seeing or hearing what was of importance", he returned to Marius. Sertorius became well-known and trusted by Marius during his service with him. He almost certainly fought with his commander at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (now Aix-en-Provence , France ) in 102 BC and the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC, in which

5332-509: The Iberian Peninsula. Concerned at the growing threat, the authorities in Rome upgraded Hispania Ulterior from a propraetorian to a proconsular province, and appointed Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius , Sulla's consular partner of 80 BC, as its governor. In 79 BC, with Metellus on his way, Marcus Domitius Calvinus (who had taken over Hispania Citerior from Cotta) crossed over into Hispania Ulterior, he found his passage blocked by

5456-521: The Immortal Gods! What do you think I am – the treasury, or someone capable of running an army with neither food nor pay? I'll admit that I started this war with more zeal than discretion. Forty days after you gave me the empty title of general I had raised an army. The enemy [i.e. Perperna] were already at the throat of Italy, and I drove them from the Alps into Hispania, in the process opening for you

5580-526: The Lusitanians he marched on Lucius Fufidius, propraetor of Hispania Ulterior, and defeated him at the Battle of the Baetis River , consolidating control over the province. News of Sertorius' victory spread throughout Hispania Ulterior, including a rumour that his army included fifty thousand cannibals. The Senate learned that Sertorius had returned to Hispania, and as a result sent Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius , an experienced Sullan general, with

5704-519: The Lusitanians in a 'war of liberation' from the Roman Republic however; instead, the Lusitanians, hoping for his milder administration to return, offered their support for him to revive the defeated Marian cause with Hispania as his base. While considering the offer, Sertorius learned of his mother's death in Italy and "almost died of grief", lying in his tent, unable to speak for a week. With

5828-555: The Marian cause was being ruined and lost; cowardice and weakness by the generals played its part, and treachery did the rest, and there was no reason why Sertorius should stay to watch things going from bad to worse through the inferior judgement of men with superior power. By late 83 or early 82 BC, having fallen out with the new Marian leadership, Sertorius was sent to Hispania as proconsul , "no doubt by mutual agreement". Sertorius may have been intended to go to Hispania even before Sulla's Civil War in order to relieve command of

5952-424: The Marian cause, Sertorius opposed granting him any command either out of fear his position would be diminished, or because he feared Marius' vindictiveness and what he would do when Rome was retaken. Sertorius advised not to trust Marius, and although he greatly disliked Marius by then, he consented to Marius' return upon understanding that Marius came at Cinna's request and not of his own accord. Oh, really? Here I

6076-453: The Marian leadership for their lack of action in combatting Sulla, pointed out Sulla's bravery, and stated his belief that unless met directly soon Sulla would inevitably destroy them. Plutarch sums up the events: Cinna was murdered and against the wishes of Sertorius, and against the law, the younger Marius took the consulship while such [ineffectual] men as Carbo , Norbanus , and Scipio had no success in stopping Sulla's advance on Rome, so

6200-567: The Marians in various battles, his second capture of Rome, and the Sullan proscriptions . Sertorius learned that he was one of the foremost among the proscribed, among the first names listed. By 81 BC all other significant Marian leaders were dead, and Sertorius' Spain had become a priority for the Sullan government. Sulla's forces, probably three or four legions under the command of Gaius Annius Luscus, departed for Hispania early in 81 or very late in 82 BC, but were unable to break through

6324-488: The Marians, lost the war in Italy right after his departure and in 81 BC Sulla sent Gaius Annius Luscus with several legions to take the Iberian provinces from Sertorius. After a brief resistance Sertorius and his men were expelled from Hispania. They ended up in Mauretania , in north-western Africa, where they conquered the city of Tingis . Here the Lusitanians , a fierce Iberian tribe who were about to be invaded by

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6448-481: The Pyrenees until Salinator was assassinated by P. Calpurnius Lanarius, one of his subordinates, who defected to the Sullans. Annius then marched into Hispania. Unable to convince the Spanish tribes to fight for him, Sertorius was seriously outnumbered and he abandoned his provinces. He fled to Nova Carthago and with 3,000 of his most loyal followers set sail to Mauritania , perhaps attempting some sort of attack on

6572-585: The Roman government. Substantial efforts by the Sullan regime to forcibly suppress his anti-Sullan resistance, led by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius and Pompey , were unsuccessful. After defeating Pompey in 76 BC at the Battle of Lauron however, he suffered significant reverses in the following years. By 73 BC his allies had lost confidence in his leadership; his lieutenant Marcus Perperna Veiento assassinated him in late 73 or 72 BC. His cause fell in defeat to Pompey shortly thereafter. The Greek biographer and essayist Plutarch chose Sertorius as

6696-427: The advice of the goddess Diana , who had been syncretized with a native Iberian deity. Spanus, one of the commoners who lived in the country, came across a doe trying to escape from hunters. The doe fled faster than he could pursue, but the animal had newly given birth. He [Spanus] was struck by the unusual colour of the fawn, for it was pure white. He pursued and caught it. The Iberians were greatly impressed by

6820-533: The aid of his companions, Sertorius was eventually able to leave his tent, decided to accept the Lusitanian offer, and prepared his army and fleet to return to Hispania. Sertorius crossed the strait at Gibraltar at Tingis in 80 BC, landing at Baelo near the Pillars of Hercules in the summer or fall of the year. A small fleet under an Aurelius Cotta (specific name not known) from the coastal town of Mellaria failed to stop him. After being reinforced by

6944-411: The army of Hirtuleius who had fortified Consabura . Hirtuleius, a lieutenant of Quintus Sertorius, was taking a handful of cohorts up a narrow road between two steep and impassable mountains. On being told that a substantial enemy force was approaching he dug a ditch between the mountains, and set a wooden rampart behind that. He then set fire to the rampart and made his escape with the enemy cut off [on

7068-430: The assassination of Sertorius by Perperna in 73 or 72 BC. The war ended soon after when Perperna was promptly defeated by Pompey in the Battle of Osca . During Sulla's civil war , Quintus Sertorius fought for the Marian - Cinnan faction against Sulla. In 83 BC, Sertorius, after falling out with his faction's leadership, was sent to the Iberian Peninsula as its governor. Unfortunately for Sertorius, his faction lost

7192-452: The battle, but vanished into obscurity, remembered mainly as the man who had lost Hispania to Sertorius. Sertorius' victory marked the start of Sertorian war which would ravage the Iberian Peninsula for the next eight years. He would outgeneral every Republican commander sent against him and destroyed several of their armies. At the height of his power Sertorius ruled almost all of the Iberian Peninsula. The war would only come to an end when

7316-497: The centre of his battle line. When the battle finally commenced Metellus held back his own centre and concentrated on winning on the flanks. After defeating his opponents flanks he enveloped Hirtuleius centre. Hirtuleius lost 20,000 men at Italica and, chastened, he fled north to join his commander Sertorius who was squaring off against Pompey. Metellus followed wanting to make the most of his victory by trapping Sertorius between Pompey and himself. Upon hearing of Hirtuleius's defeat and

7440-507: The cities and tribes of Hispania [this was the same strategy his father had used in the Jugurthine War when he had to fight king Jugurtha of Numidia who also used guerrilla tactics – Metellus had served on his father's staff back then]. Some of these forts are known today – Metellinum (Medellin), Castra Caecilia ( Cáceres ), Viccus Caecilius and Caecilina. This strategy might have worked on an inferior opponent, but Sertorius kept up

7564-423: The city but also caused him to run out of supplies really quickly. Metellus had to detach a legion to go scouting for provisions. Upon their return they were ambushed by Sertorius who routed them and forced them to abandon their supplies. This left Metellus with nothing to feed his army and he gave up the siege and marched back to the coast. Back in Rome, Sulla died (78 BC) of natural causes leaving his faction without

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7688-403: The city defected to Sulla during the armistice (perceiving Scipio's negotiations as a sign of weakness), and thus Sertorius, en route to Norbanus, conquered the town to restore the status quo. It is also possible Sertorius, who distrusted Sulla and doubted the judgement of Scipio, conquered the city intending to force an end to negotiations. Spann believes that calling Sertorius' seizure of Suessa

7812-411: The city in response, and then prepared to meet Metellus there. When he arrived and sent out foragers, Sertorius ambushed them and killed many, forcing Metellus to leave, unsuccessful. In 77 BC, Sertorius focused his attention on subduing Iberian tribes who had not yet accepted his authority in the interior. Metellus did not extensively campaign against Sertorius in the year due to the revolt in Rome of

7936-494: The coastal cities to keep his forces together, but was driven off by the locals. He then fell in with a band of Cilician pirates who were pillaging the Spanish coast. Together they attacked and took Pityussa , the most southerly of the Balearic Islands , which they started using as a base. When this was reported to Annius, he sent a fleet of warships and almost a full legion to drive Sertorius and his pirate allies from

8060-509: The coastal strip from the Pyrenees to New Carthage in order to link up with Metellus who was in Hispania Ulterior. Initially successful he suffered a major setback when he faced Sertorius at the city of Lauron. Sertorius arrived at Lauron first, and began to lay siege to the city. Pompey was very confident of victory and when he arrived he built his camp close to that of Sertorius to force Sertorius into battle. Sertorius decided to teach Pompey

8184-523: The combined armies of Pompey and Metellus at the indecisive Battle of Saguntum . The Sertorian armies were greatly diminished following these battles. The Sullan generals were able to call on reinforcements from Rome, and from 74 BC onward conducted a war of attrition that the Sertorians were unable to stop. After years of fighting, discontent in the Sertorian coalition grew and culminated in

8308-483: The command themselves). Pompey recruited an army of 30,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, its size evidence of the seriousness of the threat presented by Sertorius, and marched to Hispania. In the same year (76 BC) Sertorius was joined by Marcus Perperna , who brought the remnant of the army of rebellious consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus from Sardinia. However, Perperna had only reluctantly agreed to put himself under Sertorius's command; he had sailed his army to Liguria and

8432-484: The commanders, and advocated against letting Sulla's troops fraternize with Scipio's; he did not trust Sulla and advised Scipio to force a decisive action. Instead, he was sent to Norbanus to explain that an armistice was in force and negotiations were underway. Sertorius made a detour along his way and captured the town of Suessa Aurunca which had gone over to Sulla. When Sulla complained to Scipio about this breach of trust by Sertorius, Scipio gave back his hostages as

8556-433: The common people and associated with Marius may have been enough to thwart his ambitions. In any case, Sertorius was a senator by 87 BC, likely adlected due to his earlier quaestorship . In 88 BC, after Publius Sulpicius Rufus and Marius supplanted his eastern command, Sulla marched his legions on Rome and took the capital. He took revenge on his enemies and forced Marius into exile, then left Italy to fight

8680-479: The common people to quell any remnants of revolt and stabilize Italy, thereby consolidating his power and that of the Marian government. He probably also helped train and levy soldiers for Sulla's inevitable return. Marius died in January 86 BC; eventually, Cinna himself was murdered in 84 BC, lynched by his own troops. It is probable that Sertorius became praetor in 85 or 84 BC. On Sulla's return from

8804-619: The consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (father of the triumvir ). At some point during these years, Sertorius challenged Metellus to single combat , and when Metellus declined, his soldiers mocked him. Sertorius' made the Iberians an organized army through Roman formations and signals. He encouraged them to decorate their armaments with precious metals, and thus more likely to retain their equipment between engagements. Many native Iberians pledged themselves to him, serving as bodyguards who would take their own lives if he perished. Battle of

8928-418: The couch, intent on ignoring them all. At this, Perperna gave the signal to his fellow conspirators, and they murdered the unsuspecting Sertorius on the spot. Upon learning of the death of Sertorius, some of his Iberian allies sent ambassadors to Pompey or to Metellus and made peace, most simply went home. Perperna managed to retain control of some of the Roman renegades who had followed Sertorius, but he needed

9052-542: The cruellest of wars. You have, to the best of your ability, condemned both me and a faithful army to that most wretched of deaths, that of starvation. Is this what the Roman people expected when they sent their sons to war? And after being wounded, and so often shedding their blood for their country, is this how they are rewarded? When I got tired of fruitlessly writing letters and sending envoys, I used up my personal resources, and even my credit, while in three years you have barely supplied me with enough to keep going for one. By

9176-399: The enemy to his front and on both flanks. Pompey lured Perperna's army into his ambush using 10 cohorts as bait. He allowed these to be attacked while scattered over a wide area, perhaps foraging, and as they fled they drew Perperna's army into the hidden lines of the main army. As these attacked from ambush, the 10 cohorts turned and attacked their pursuers from the front. The ensuing massacre

9300-536: The evidence of their heroic achievements. Their tokens, wreaths and spears of honour must at some times be set aside. His proof of valour remained with him at all times". Upon his return to Rome he apparently enjoyed the reputation of a war hero. Sertorius then ran for tribune of the Plebs in 89 or 88 BC, but Lucius Cornelius Sulla thwarted his efforts, causing Sertorius to oppose Sulla. Sulla's reasons for doing so are not completely clear. It may have originated in

9424-400: The existing sources do not record it. According to the historian Sallust : Many successes were achieved under his [Sertorius] leadership, but these have not been recorded in history, firstly because of his humble birth and secondly because the historians were ill-disposed towards him. His quaestorship may have been prorogued into 90 BC. Between 90–89 BC he almost certainly led as

9548-489: The fawn, who was calm in Sertorius' military camp and affectionate with him, and saw Sertorius as a divinely inspired leader. Sertorius would obscure information from military reports, claim Diana had told him of said information through the fawn in his dreams, and then act accordingly to further this belief. White animals were perceived as having oracular qualities among Germanic peoples, and in Hispania itself there existed

9672-501: The fight on the River Turia, Gaius Herennius, the enemy commander, wiped out along with his army; Valentia; you know all this well enough. So, grateful fathers, in return for all this – we get want and hunger. They are in the same condition, the enemy army and mine. Neither has any pay, and both can march into Italy to get it. Take note of this and please give my warning your full attention – you do not want me to take into my own hands

9796-567: The focus of one of his biographies in Parallel Lives , where he was paired with Eumenes of Cardia , one of the post- Alexandrine Diadochi . Sertorius was born in Nursia (a town whose people had received Roman citizenship in 268 BC) in Sabine territory around 126 BC. The Sertorius family were of equestrian status. It appears that he did not have any noteworthy ancestors and

9920-400: The gates for Sertorius and his men, convinced they were their warriors returning with loot from the slain Roman garrison. Sertorius then killed many of the towns' inhabitants and sold the rest into slavery. Later in Hispania during his revolt, Sertorius did not quarter his soldiers in native cities, "noting the stupidity of a policy which would cause rebellion in a hostile city, hostility in

10044-537: The general population by cutting taxes, and then began to construct ships and levy soldiers in preparation for the armies he expected to be sent after him by Sulla. After gaining control of both provinces Sertorius sent an army, under Julius (possibly Livius) Salinator, to fortify the pass through the Pyrenees. During his occupation of Hispania Sertorius collected news of the war in Italy . Likely from refugees and Marian exiles fleeing Sulla's veteran legions, by December of 82 BC he had heard of Sulla's victory over

10168-637: The governor of Gaul was able to escape. When he returned to Gaul where he was attacked by the Aquitani. In 78 BC Metellus tried to take Langobriga (probably Laccobriga near Lisbon), a town allied to Sertorius. Metellus intended it to be an object lesson; he wanted the Celtic towns to know Sertorius could not protect them. Forewarned Sertorius supplied and fortified the city and stripped the countryside around Langobriga of anything useful. Through these countermeasures Sertorius not only forced Metellus into besieging

10292-406: The job of providing myself with what I need. Those parts of Hispania Citerior not held by the enemy are actually a costly burden for us because apart from the coastal towns both we and Sertorius have devastated it into total destitution. Gaul supplied cash and crops to Metellus last year – this year the crops failed and the province can barely support itself. So I'm out of options, money and credit. It

10416-500: The legitimate Roman governor of Hispania while winning over the native tribes. Sertorius consolidated control over both Hispanian provinces (Ulterior and Citerior ) between 80–77 BC through pitched battles and guerrilla warfare, along with the aid of his legate Lucius Hirtuleius . Metellus Pius , sent against Sertorius in 80 BC, failed to dislodge him after several years of campaigning. The Roman Senate sent Pompey to help Metellus in late 77 BC, but in 76 BC Pompey

10540-513: The loss of his army at Italica, Sertorius decided he had to defeat Pompey before Metellus arrived from the west. Pompey, for whatever reason, decided to comply and both men drew up their armies for battle. They fought a pitched battle at the River Sucro; and although Sertorius defeated the left wing of Pompey's army (even forcing Pompey himself to flee the battlefield after his failed attempt to raise morale among his crumbling wing) his other wing

10664-525: The mild policy he had pursued while governor in 82 BC, as compared to harsher earlier governors. The Lusitani had a long history of resistance to Rome. Some historians have concluded that the Lusitani were seeking independence and by taking over the leadership of the movement Sertorius was opposing Rome itself. Philip Spann considers this unlikely, as for Sertorius to accept such a treasonable offer would be to destroy any hope of returning to Rome. More likely

10788-455: The native warriors, many of whom joined his cause. His character, in that he treated the natives as allies rather than subjects, may have also played a role. Sertorius organized the natives into an army and adjoined them to his core Roman forces, commanding them under Roman officers. The natives are said to have called Sertorius the "new Hannibal " whom he resembled physically (having one eye) and, they believed, in military skill. Although he

10912-399: The new governor of Hispania Citerior should get a proconsular command and that he should be sent out with a sizeable army to support Metellus's struggle against Sertorius and his rebels. In 76 BC the Senate accepted a proposal by Lucius Marcius Philippus to send his son-in-law Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey), who had never been a magistrate, on behalf of the consuls (both of whom had refused

11036-640: The newly emerging leader of those who disapproved of Sulla's coup" represented a re-emergence of Sertorius' political fortunes. As a result of this, and remembering Sulla's opposition when he ran for tribune, Sertorius declared for the Marian faction. Cinna was driven from Rome in 87 BC during the Bellum Octavianum . Sertorius, as one of his allies, aided him in recruiting ex-legionaries and drumming up enough support to enable Cinna to march on Rome. When Marius returned from exile in Africa to aid

11160-447: The offer grew out of an acceptance by the Lusitani that they would not be able to defeat Rome and that their best hope was to assist the establishment in Rome of a regime sympathetic to them. Spann suggests that a major reason for Sertorius' acceptance was that it was becoming clearer that there would be no amnesty for him and his followers nor reconciliation with the regime set up by Sulla. In 80 BC Sertorius, after defeating off Mellaria

11284-461: The other should the need arise. Perperna circumvented the Romans operating in the interior and marched to the Iberian west coast where he took the city of Portus Cale . After rebuilding the walls of Palentia Sertorius suddenly marched east into the Ebro valley. He surprised the Romans besieging the fortress town of Calgurris, killing some 3000 of them. The Senate sent an admiral called Antonius with

11408-497: The other side of the flames]. Hirtuleius used guerrilla warfare to wear down Domitius Calvinus's army while he lured him inland. Eventually a battle was fought at the Anas River ; where Domitius was defeated; he either died in battle or was killed by his own troops who defected to the rebels. Metellus, unaware of the disaster, had already sent one of his legates, Lucius Thorius Balbus, to provide assistance to Domitius, but he too

11532-402: The other surviving soldiers, who still had their weapons. He secured the unguarded exits of the town, and then led his men inside, killing all barbarian men of military age irrespective of participation in the revolt. Once he learned some attackers had come from a neighbouring town, he had his men wear the armour of the slain natives and led them there. Probably arriving at dawn, the town opened

11656-411: The possibility of another civil war. He then executed Perperna and all of the men who had murdered Sertorius. After this final battle , which seems to have taken place near Sertorius's capital of Osca, the war was as good as over. In the view of Scullard, Pompey's treatment of Hispania was humane, relative to the normal Roman treatment for traitors and rebels. Citizenship was given to many supporters and

11780-419: The rebels in his province. So he marched his army, which was already assembled for the invasion of Lusitania, toward Baelo. Sertorius was an active commander and decided not to wait for Fufidius, but marched his little army east. The two forces met at the estuary of the Baetis River. The Baetis estuary was a swampy maze which favoured those with local knowledge. As a number of Sertorius' men were locals, he had

11904-403: The remnants of his army to Capua . Sulla was stopped in his pursuit by Scipio's advance. However, Scipio was unwilling to risk a battle and started negotiations under a flag of truce. Sulla's motives in agreeing to the negotiations were not sincere, in that he likely agreed intending to make Scipio's already disaffected army more likely to defect to him. Sertorius was present at the talks between

12028-572: The reprisals that followed. During the Cinnan domination of the republic he was elected praetor, some time before 83 BC and probably after 85 BC. He criticised Gnaeus Papirius Carbo and other Marians' leadership of the anti-Sullan forces during the civil war with Sulla and was, late in the war, given command of Hispania. In late 82 BC he was proscribed by Sulla and forced from his province. However, he soon returned in early 80 BC, taking in and leading many Marian and Cinnan exiles in

12152-520: The roughest and readiest were Q. Sertorius ... After his undistinguished career in Rome as a jurist and an orator, he entered the military. Sertorius' first recorded campaign was under Quintus Servilius Caepio as a staff officer and ended at the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC, where he showed unusual courage. When the battle was lost, Sertorius escaped while wounded by swimming across the Rhone , apparently still with his weapons and armour. This became

12276-459: The standards. He only did this to keep his troops disciplined, yet he happened to meet with an actual ambush. His soldiers dealt with it calmly, since they were expecting it. Pompey had less luck when he tried to take Palentia . He was besieging the city when Sertorius turned up. Pompey did not stay to fight, but retreated before Sertorius could engage. From that moment on Pompey operated more closely to Metellus, each remaining close enough to support

12400-423: The two Spanish provinces ( Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior ) from their governor, Gaius Valerius Flaccus, due to his doubtful loyalty to the Marian regime. When Sertorius marched through the Pyrenees mountain range he ran into severe weather and a mountain tribe that demanded a tribute for allowing his passage. His companions claimed it was an outrage; but Sertorius paid the tribe and commented that he

12524-401: The upper hand. The only fragmentary description we have is from Sallust : Afterwards, Fufidius arrived with his legions. He discovered that the banks of the river were steep, and if they had to fight, the ford would be hard to get across. Everything favoured his enemies more than his own side Fufidius lost two thousand men, and the greater part of further Hispania along with them. He survived

12648-500: The war in Italy, and Sulla dispatched an army which drove him from Iberia. After some wandering, Sertorius ended up at Tingis in North Africa. There, he helped the locals depose Ascalis, a pro-Sullan tyrant. In Tingis he was met by an embassy of discontented Lusitanians , a fierce Celtic people, who implored him to lead them against the Sullan government which was extorting them back home. The Lusitanians chose Sertorius because of

12772-538: The winter to write urgent letters to his followers and the Senate in Rome. The letter to the Senate has been preserved in the works of Sallust . From my early youth I have endured peril and privation whilst the armies under my command put to flight the most criminal of your enemies and made you safe. Yet, Fathers of the Senate, now that I am absent, you could do no more against me than you are now doing if I had spent my time fighting you, my fatherland and my father's gods. For now, despite my youth, you have left me exposed in

12896-415: Was a growing division between the Roman and Native elements of the Sertorian coalition. Metellus had offered a reward of one hundred silver talents and twenty-thousand acres of land to any Roman who would betray Sertorius. This resulted in Sertorius no longer trusting his Roman bodyguard and he exchanged it for an Iberian one causing resentment among the Romans and Italians in the Sertorian camp who saw this as

13020-431: Was buying himself time, and that if a man had a lot to do, nothing is more precious than time. Flaccus, the governor of the two Spanish provinces, did not recognize his authority, but Sertorius had an army at his back and used it to assume control. He did not meet with significant resistance in his first seizure of Hispania. Sertorius persuaded the local chieftains to accept him as the new governor and endeared himself to

13144-544: Was constantly shifting the focus and changing the situation, until Metellus was at his wits' end. Metellus was no longer young, and after the many heroic contests of his youth he was now inclined to ease and luxury, while Sertorius was full of mature vigour. ... When Sertorius challenged Metellus to single combat, Metellus' men cheered and urged him to fight it out, general on general, and they mocked him when he declined. Lacking strong-points in central Hispania, Metellus set about creating them, he also started to methodically secure

13268-447: Was decisive. Pompey's successful ambush proved Plutarch's disparaging comment "Perperna was as bad at command as he was at following orders". Perperna attempted to plead for his life, offering to give Pompey all of Sertorius' correspondence, which would document contacts with the highest levels of Roman government and society. Pompey indicated he would accept the papers, and when they had all been gathered together, he burned them, averting

13392-521: Was defeated by Pompey's legate Afranius, so the end result was a draw. When word came of Metellus's imminent arrival, Sertorius marched inland with Pompey and Metellus in pursuit. At a town called Saguntum (probably not the city of Saguntum but a town with a similar name – see the discussion about its location in the Battle of Saguntum main article) Sertorius' own forces, fed up with Sertorius' guerrilla tactics, forced Sertorius into battle. The battle ended inconclusive, but Sertorius suffered severe losses and

13516-419: Was defeated by Sertorius at the Battle of Lauron , and the Sullan generals made no progress in the year. 75 BC featured four large battles that deteriorated the Sertorian cause. Marcus Perperna Veiento and Gaius Herennius were defeated by Pompey at the Battle of Valentia , while Metellus defeated Hirtuleius at the Battle of Italica . Sertorius engaged Pompey at the indecisive Battle of Sucro , and then

13640-400: Was defeated, this time by Sertorius himself. Domitius Calvinus's replacement as governor was Quintus Calidius. Metellus entered Spain in late 80 or early 79 BC, basing himself at Metellinum (modern Medellin), made several thrusts into the interior, but was thwarted by Sertorius who used guerrilla tactics. He [Metellus] was accustomed to regular warfare with heavy infantry. He liked to command

13764-465: Was due another lesson – this time from Sertorius himself. Sertorius responded by sending out his light troops and cavalry to harass Pompey's foragers. He ordered his men to concentrate on the forage parties in the nearby areas but to leave the Pompeians in the more distant tracts alone. Eventually, tired of the continual raids, the Pompeians moved their foraging operations to the more remote areas. This

13888-518: Was elected quaestor and assigned Cisalpine Gaul in the year 91. His quaestorship was unusual in that he largely governed the province while the actual governor, perhaps Gaius Coelius Caldus , spent time across the Alps subduing remnants of the Cimbric invasion. The same year, the Social War broke out, and Sertorius contributed by levying soldiers and obtaining weapons. He may have done more, though

14012-459: Was forced to withdraw further inland. Sertorius marched to the fortress town of Clunia in Celtiberia drawing Metellus and Pompey with him. At Clunia Sertorius resisted a siege tying up Pompey and Metellus while elsewhere his agents were rebuilding his army. When they were ready, Sertorius extricated his force from Clunia and joined up with the rest of his army. The war during the year 74 BC

14136-415: Was idle Sertorius' pirate allies defected and went to Africa to help install the tyrant Ascalis on the throne of Tingis . Sertorius followed them to Africa in the fall of 81 or the spring of 80 BC, rallied the locals in the vicinity of Tingis, and defeated Ascalis' men and the pirates in battle. After gaining control over Tingis, Sertorius defeated and killed the general Vibius Paciaecus and his army, who

14260-516: Was posted to the Roman-controlled Oretani ( Iberian ) town of Castulo . The local garrison had become hated by the natives for their lack of discipline and constant drinking, and Sertorius either arrived too late to stop their impropriety or was unable to. The natives invited a neighbouring tribe to free the town of the garrison, and they successfully slaughtered many of the Roman soldiers. Sertorius managed to escape and gathered

14384-505: Was probably sent by Annius against him. Paciaecus' defeated army then joined Sertorius. Local legend had it that Antaeus , the son of Poseidon and Gaia , and the husband of Tinge who gave name to Tingis, was buried in Mauritania. Sertorius had the tomb excavated for he wanted to see the body of Antaeus which was reported to be sixty cubits in size. According to Plutarch, Sertorius was dumbfounded by what he saw and after performing

14508-491: Was raising troops from among the Ligurians and Gauls there, when his men heard that Pompey was marching north to deal with them, they demanded that Perperna take them to Hispania and join up with Sertorius. Perperna brought a substantial force of fifty-three cohorts (almost five-and-a-half legions) with him to Spain. Thus reinforced Sertorius decided to take on the eastern cities who supported the Sullan faction. His first target

14632-489: Was still terrorizing Rome. The years 87–84 BC are often described as spent "waiting for Sulla" and what exactly Sertorius did while Cinna controlled Rome is unclear. He was not sent with Gaius Flavius Fimbria and Lucius Valerius Flaccus east for the First Mithridatic War. Sertorius certainly served in the government during this time; Cinna may have utilized his skill as a soldier and popularity with

14756-431: Was strict and severe with his soldiers, Sertorius was considerate to the natives, and made their burdens light despite financial strain in his war effort. This was likely partially pragmatic, as Sertorius had to retain the goodwill of the native Iberians if he had any chance of winning the war. Sertorius' most famous strategy to this end was his white fawn, a present from one of the natives that he claimed communicated to him

14880-478: Was the city of Lauron between Valentia and Saguntum. Meanwhile, Pompey had crossed the Pyrenees and was marching his army toward Sertorius, he intended to finish the rebellion in one stroke by trying to force Sertorius into a pitched battle and defeating him. Pompey also sent a fleet under his brother-in-law, Gaius Memmius , accompanied by the Spaniard Balbus , to try and take New Carthage , secure it as

15004-585: Was thinking that Marius had decided for himself to come to Italy, and so I was trying to decide what good it would do. But it turns out there's nothing to discuss. Since after all, you invited him, then you have to receive and employ him. There's no question about it. In October of 87 BC, Cinna marched on Rome. During the siege, Sertorius commanded one of Cinna's divisions stationed at the Colline Gate and fought an inconclusive battle with troops commanded by Pompeius Strabo. Sertorius and Marius also bridged

15128-492: Was thus a novus homo (a "new man"), ie the first of his family to join the Senate. Sertorius' father died before he came of age and his mother, Rhea, focused all her energies on raising her only son. She made sure he received the best education possible for a young man of his status. In return, according to Plutarch, he became excessively fond of his mother. Having inherited his father's clients, like many other young rural aristocrats ( domi nobiles ), Sertorius sought to begin

15252-415: Was trying to keep him from interfering and came to Pompey's rescue. Unwilling to be caught between two enemies, Sertorius withdrew. At the start of the campaigning season of 75 BC Pompey defeated Sertorius's legates, Perperna and Gaius Herennius, in a battle near Valentia. Perperna and Herennius made the mistake of giving battle, apparently they were under the impression they could defeat the young general in

15376-483: Was what Sertorius had been waiting for; During the night he ordered ten cohorts of heavily armed troops and ten cohorts of light troops under the command of Octavius Gracinus , along with Tarquitius Priscus and two thousand cavalry to move out of his camp and lay an ambush against the foragers. The Battle of Lauron was a brilliant tactical victory for the Sertorians and proved the war was far from over. Unfortunately for Sertorius, Metellus fought his way past Perperna who

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