The Baiyue , Hundred Yue , or simply Yue , were various ethnic groups who inhabited the regions of southern China and northern Vietnam during the 1st millennium BC and 1st millennium AD. They were known for their short hair, body tattoos, fine swords, and naval prowess.
107-602: The Shanyue (山越) were an ancient conglomeration of upland Yue hill tribes living in what is today the mountainous regions of Southern China and Northern Vietnam during the Han dynasty . Since the Southern part of modern China prior to the Qin conquest was not yet controlled by the Han dynasty. As the Han imperial court only claimed ownership of the territories of the southern portions,
214-608: A Zhou dynasty prince who had self-exiled to the south. During the Spring and Autumn period , the Gouwu founded the state of Wu and the Yuyue the state of Yue . The Wu and Yue peoples hated each other and had an intense rivalry but were indistinguishable from each other to the other Chinese states. It is suggested in some sources that their distinctive appearance made them victims of discrimination abroad. The northern Wu eventually became
321-548: A banquet hosted by the Wu emperor Sun Quan . Among the Wu officials, there was a joke that Zhuge Jin (Zhuge Ke's father) had a very long face like a donkey's. Sun Quan played along by ordering a donkey to be brought to the banquet, bearing a sign which said "Zhuge Ziyu". ("Ziyu" was Zhuge Jin's courtesy name .) He then turned to Zhuge Ke and asked him to add any two characters to the sign. Zhuge Ke added zhi lü (之驢; "the donkey of"), causing those present to roar with laughter. Sun Quan
428-490: A better view of him. In late 252, Zhuge Ke gave orders to rebuild the dam at Dongxing (東興; in present-day Chaohu , Anhui ), which was constructed earlier in 230 but had been destroyed in 241. His plan was to create a reservoir near the Chao Lake and use it as a defensive structure against potential invasions from Wei, as well as to construct two castles nearby to serve as forward attack mechanisms for Wu ships. In response,
535-425: A breach of etiquette to keep the peace. Zhao therefore pleaded illness and never went through with the trip. Zhao did actually fall ill several years later and died in 122. He was succeeded by his son, Zhao Yingqi . After the Han dynasty aided Nanyue in fending off an invasion by Minyue , Zhao Mo sent his son Yingqi to the Han court, where he joined the emperor's guard. Zhao Yingqi married a Han Chinese woman from
642-437: A ceremony to pay respect to an elder." After learning of Zhang Zhao's refusal, Sun Quan told Zhuge Ke, "Get Zhang Zhao to drink for me." Zhuge Ke then returned to Zhang Zhao and said, "Long ago, the great strategist Jiang Ziya , at the age of 90, went to battle holding a signal flag and carrying a battleaxe; he never considered himself old. In days of trial by arms, you are always in the rear; in days of feasting, you are always in
749-406: A chignon while squatting. Lu accused him of going native and forgetting his true ancestry. Zhao excused himself by saying he had forgotten the northern customs after living in the south for so long. In 185, Empress Lü 's officials outlawed trade of iron and horses with Nanyue. Zhao Tuo retaliated by proclaiming himself Emperor Wu of Nanyue and attacking the neighboring kingdom of Changsha , taking
856-562: A deserted land. Lạc Việt , known in Chinese history as Luoyue, was an ancient conglomeration of Yue tribes in what is now modern Guangxi and northern Vietnam . According to Vietnamese folklore and legend, the Lạc Việt founded a state called Văn Lang c. 2879 BC and were ruled by the Hùng kings , who were descended from Lạc Long Quân (Lạc Dragon Lord). Lạc Long Quân came from
963-568: A dying Sun Quan instructed his subjects to let Zhuge Ke review all important policy decisions first. Sun Quan died in 252 and was succeeded by Sun Liang , who became the second emperor of Eastern Wu. After his coronation, Sun Liang appointed Zhuge Ke as Grand Tutor ( 太傅 ). During his short tenure as regent, Zhuge Ke relaxed some of the strict laws enacted in Sun Quan's reign and reduced tax rates. The people of Wu were very pleased with him; wherever he went, there were massive crowds jostling to get
1070-408: A few border towns. In 181 BC, Zhou Zao was dispatched by Empress Lü to attack Nanyue, but the heat and dampness caused many of his officers and men to fall ill, and he failed to make it across the mountains into enemy territory. Zhao began to menace the neighboring kingdoms of Minyue , Xiou (Western Ou), and Luoluo . After securing their submission he began passing out edicts in a similar manner to
1177-405: A gift of horses for Sun Quan. Knowing that Zhuge Ke was a good rider, Sun Quan summoned him with the intention of giving him one of the horses. When Zhuge Ke arrived, he immediately knelt down and thanked Sun Quan for the gift. Sun Quan was surprised at how Zhuge Ke already knew why he was summoned there, so he asked him. Zhuge Ke replied, "Shu is only capable of serving as Your Majesty's stable. That
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#17327651407531284-458: A large number of Chinese military agricultural colonists to what are now eastern Guangxi and western Guangdong. When the Qin fell in 206 BC, the hegemon-king Xiang Yu did not make Zou Wuzhu and Zou Yao kings. For this reason they refused to support him and instead joined Liu Bang in attacking Xiang Yu. When Liu Bang won the war in 202 BC, he made Zou Wuzhu king of Minyue ; in 192, Zou Yao
1391-627: A long siege, the Wu forces failed to breach Hefei's walls. When a plague broke out in the Wu army, Zhuge Ke ignored it and continued to press on the siege. He only withdrew after hearing that Wei reinforcements had arrived. Instead of returning to the Wu imperial capital Jianye to apologise for his mistakes, he stayed away from Jianye for some time and refused to take responsibility for the Wu defeat. When Zhuge Ke returned to Jianye later in 253, he attempted to wipe out all dissent against him by punishing those who disagreed with him. He also made plans for another invasion of Wei, despite much resentment from
1498-550: A major attack on Shouchun (壽春; around present-day Shou County , Anhui ), a strategic location in Eastern Wu's rival state, Cao Wei . After he positioned his forces in preparation for the attack, the Wei general Sima Yi showed up with his troops to defend Shouchun and counterattack Zhuge Ke. Instead of allowing Zhuge Ke to engage Sima Yi, Sun Quan ordered him to retreat back to Wu. Despite his withdrawal, Zhuge Ke became famous among
1605-799: A multi-pronged assault. Lu Bode advanced from the Hui River and Yang Pu from the Hengpu River . Three natives of Nanyue also joined the Han. One advanced from the Li River , the second invaded Cangwu , and the third advanced from the Zangke River . In the winter of 111 BC Yang Pu captured Xunxia and broke through the line at Shimen. With 20,000 men he drove back the vanguard of the Nanyue army and waited for Lu Bode. However, Lu failed to meet up on time and when he did arrive, he had no more than
1712-586: A number of Yue states or groups. Most of these names survived into early imperial times: According to Chunming Wu, the prehistoric ancestors of the Baiyue were actively involved in seafaring in southeastern China. They communicated with the proto- Austronesians in Southeast Asia and Pacific archipelagos. During the early Zhou dynasty , the Chinese came into contact with a people known as the Yuyue , but it
1819-408: A regent for his young son and heir apparent, Sun Liang . One of his close aides, Sun Jun , recommended Zhuge Ke. Although Sun Quan had second thoughts about Zhuge Ke, particularly his arrogance, he eventually heeded Sun Jun's advice and recalled Zhuge Ke back from Wuchang to the Wu imperial capital, Jianye . Before Zhuge Ke left Wuchang, the senior Wu general Lü Dai told him, "What you will be doing
1926-407: A revolt against her authority so she urged the king and his ministers to seek closer ties to the Han. Xing agreed to and proposed that relations between Nanyue and the Han should be normalized with a triennial journey to the Han court as well as the removal of custom barriers along the border. The prime minister of Nanyue, Lü Jia , held military power and his family was more well connected than either
2033-406: A thousand men. Yang reached Panyu first and attacked it at night, setting fire to the city. Panyu surrendered at dawn. Jiande and Lü Jia fled the city by boat, heading east to appeal for Minyue's aid, but the Han learned of their escape and sent the general Sima Shuang after them. Both Jiande and Lü Jia were captured and executed. In 135 BC, the Han envoy Tang Meng brought gifts to Duotong,
2140-582: A vast territory from Jiangsu to Yunnan , while Barlow (1997:2) indicates that the Luoyue occupied the southwest Guangxi and northern Vietnam . The Book of Han describes the various Yue tribes and peoples can be found from the regions of Kuaiji to Jiaozhi . The Yue tribes were gradually assimilated into Chinese culture as the Han empire expanded into what is now Southern China and Northern Vietnam. Many modern southern Chinese languages bear traces of substrate languages originally spoken by
2247-575: A war between the Minyue and Dong'ou. In 138, Minyue attacked Dong'ou and besieged their capital. Dong'ou managed to send someone to appeal for help from the Han. Opinions at the Han court were mixed on whether or not to help Dong'ou. Grand commandant Tian Fen was of the opinion that the Yue constantly attacked each other and it was not in the Han's interest to interfere in their affairs. Palace counsellor Zhuang Zhu argued that to not aid Dong'ou would be to signal
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#17327651407532354-422: Is [like] a cruel tiger.’” Zhuangzi said: “Even though it was a cruel tiger, now it is already dead.” Hezi reported this to Xiaozi. Xiaozi said: “It may already be dead but people still think it is alive. Almost nothing is known about the organizational structure of the Wu and Yue states. Wu records only mention its ministers and kings while Yue records only mention its kings, and of these kings only Goujian 's life
2461-530: Is a difficult task. Before you do anything, you should reconsider ten times." Zhuge Ke responded in a disrespectful manner: "When Ji Wenzi (季文子) reconsidered thrice before acting, Confucius told him, 'Only reconsider twice.' You, Sir, are telling me to reconsider ten times. Are you not saying that I am stupid?" Lü Dai did not respond. Historians interpreted this incident as a sign of Zhuge Ke's growing arrogance and recklessness. Indeed, Zhuge Ke became more arrogant after his appointment as regent, and especially after
2568-407: Is recorded in any appreciable detail. Goujian's descendants are listed but aside from their succession of each other until 330 BC, when Yue was conquered by Chu, nothing else about them is known. Therefore, the lower echelons of Wu–Yue society remain shrouded in mystery, appearing only in reference to their strange clothing, tattoos, and short hair by northern Chinese states. After the fall of Yue,
2675-477: Is uncertain if they had any connection with the later Yue. From the 9th century BC, two northern Yue tribes on the southeastern coastline of China, the Gouwu and Yuyue, came under the cultural influence of their northern Chinese neighbours. These two peoples were based in the areas of what is now southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang , respectively. Traditional accounts attribute the cultural exchange to Taibo ,
2782-518: The Erhai region and in the south by the Di and Zuo tribes. However, they learned that further west there was a kingdom called Dianyue where the people rode elephants and traded with the merchants from Shu in secret. In 111 BC, the Han conquered Nanyue and ruled it for the next several hundred years. The former territory of Nanyue was converted into nine commanderies and two outpost commands. Nanyue
2889-424: The Han dynasty , his nominal vassal overlord. The Han responded by sending troops against Minyue, but before they could get there, Zou Ying was killed by his brother Zou Yushan, who surrendered to the Han. The Han army was recalled. Zhao considered visiting the Han court in order to show his gratitude. His high ministers argued against it, reminding him that his father kept his distance from the Han and merely avoided
2996-568: The Xiang River to modern Guangdong and set up commanderies along the main communication routes. Motivated by the region's vast land and valuable exotic products, Emperor Qin Shi Huang is said to have sent half a million troops divided into five armies to conquer the lands of the Yue. The Yue defeated the first attack by Qin troops and killed the Qin commander. A passage from Huainanzi of Liu An quoted by Keith Taylor (1991:18) describing
3103-417: The malarial climate in the south made Han migration and eventual sinicization of the region a slow process. Describing the contrast in immunity towards malaria between the indigenous Yue and the Chinese immigrants, Robert B. Marks (2017:145-146) writes: The Yue population in southern China, especially those who lived in the lower reaches of the river valleys, may have had knowledge of the curative value of
3210-499: The " qinghao " plant, and possibly could also have acquired a certain level of immunity to malaria before Han Chinese even appeared on the scene. But for those without acquired immunity—such as Han Chinese migrants from north China—the disease would have been deadly. Over the same period, the Han dynasty incorporated many other border peoples such as the Dian and assimilated them. Under the direct rule and greater efforts at sinification by
3317-624: The 7th and 4th centuries BC "Yue" referred to the state of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people. According to Ye Wenxian, as cited by Wan, the ethnonym of the Yuefang in northwestern China is not associated with that of the Baiyue in southeastern China. The term Baiyue first appears in the Lüshi Chunqiu , compiled around 239 BC. It was later used as a collective term for many non- Huaxia / Han Chinese populations of Southern China and Northern Vietnam . Ancient texts mention
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3424-572: The 7th century BC with the first Hùng king in Mê Linh uniting the various tribes. In 208, the Western Ou (Xi'ou or Nam Cương) king Thục Phán , a descendant of Shu royalty, conquered Văn Lang. The Âu Việt , known in Chinese as Ouyue, resided in modern northeast Vietnam, Guangdong province , and Guangxi province. At some point they split and became the Western Ou and the Eastern Ou. In
3531-652: The Administrators of the four neighbouring commanderies to seal their borders and refrain from using military force against the Shanyue. When the harvesting season arrived, he gave orders to quickly harvest the grain and stockpile them far away from the imperilment of the potential threat posed by the pilfering Shanyue. The Shanyue, deprived of food supplies, were inevitably left without any alternative options but to ultimately surrender to Zhuge Ke, who treated them kindly and earned their respect. By 237, Danyang Commandery
3638-527: The Han Empire as a subordinate vassal . Continuing internal Han Chinese migration during the Han dynasty eventually brought all the Yue coastal peoples under Chinese political control and cultural influence. As the number of Han Chinese migrants intensified following the annexation of Nanyue, the Yue people were gradually absorbed and driven out into poorer land on the hills and into the mountains. Chinese military garrisons showed little patience with
3745-515: The Han army and lost badly, losing more than 10,000 followers. Her followers fled, allowing Ma Yuan to advance. By early 43 AD, both sisters had been captured and executed. After the rebellion of the Trưng Sisters, more direct rule and greater efforts at sinicisation were imposed by the Han dynasty. The territories of the Lạc lords were revoked and ruled directly, along with other former Yue territories to
3852-464: The Han dynasty's desire to retain control of the region. Panyu was already a major center for international maritime trade and was one of the most economically prosperous metropolises during the Han dynasty. Regions in the principal ports of modern Guangdong were used for the production of pearls and a trading terminal for maritime silk with Ancient India and the Roman Empire. Sinicization of
3959-581: The Han emperor. In 180, Emperor Wen of Han made efforts to appease Zhao. Learning that Zhao's parents were buried in Zhending, he set aside a town close by just to take care of their graves. Zhao's cousins were appointed to high offices at the Han court. He also withdrew the army stationed in Changsha on the Han-Nanyue border. In response, Zhao rescinded his claims to imperium while communicating with
4066-484: The Han found out about this the emperor deemed it too troublesome to punish Yushan and let the matter slide. In 112, Nanyue rebelled against the Han. Zou Yushan pretended to send forces to aid the Han against Nanyue, but secretly maintained contact with Nanyue and only took his forces as far as Jieyang . Han general Yang Pu wanted to attack Minyue for their betrayal; however, the emperor felt that their forces were already too exhausted for any further military action, so
4173-420: The Han taxes and was recognized as queen at Mê Linh . Later Vietnamese sources would claim that her husband was killed by the Han, thus stirring her to action, but Chinese sources make it clear Trưng Trắc was always in the leading position, alongside her sister Trưng Nhị. Together they came to be known as the legendary Trưng Sisters of Vietnamese history . A large number of names and biographies of leaders under
4280-433: The Han, however he continued using the title of emperor within his kingdom. Tribute bearing envoys from Nanyue were sent to the Han and thus the iron trade was resumed. In 179, Zhao Tuo defeated the kingdom of Âu Lạc and annexed it. Zhao Tuo died in 137 and was succeeded by his grandson, Zhao Mo . Upon Zhao Mo's accession, the neighboring king of Minyue, Zou Ying, sent his army to attack Nanyue. Zhao sent for help from
4387-541: The Jiu family of Handan , who gave birth to his second son, Zhao Xing . Yingqi behaved without any scruples and committed murder on several occasions. When his father died in 122, he refused to visit the Han emperor to ask for his leave due to fearing that he would be arrested and punished for his behavior. Yingqi died in 115 and was succeeded by his second son, Zhao Xing , rather than the eldest, Zhao Jiande . In 113, Emperor Wu of Han sent Anguo Shaoji to summon Zhao Xing and
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4494-456: The Minyue capital, the Yue native Wu Yang rebelled against Zou Yushan and murdered him. Wu Yang was enfeoffed by the Han as marquis of Beishi . Emperor Wu of Han felt it was too much trouble to occupy Minyue as it was a region full of narrow mountain passes. He commanded the army to evict the region and resettle the people between the Yangtze and Huai River, leaving the region (modern Fujian )
4601-475: The Ou lords built the citadel Cổ Loa , literally 'Old snail'—so called because its walls were laid out in concentric rings reminiscent of a snail shell. According to legend, the construction of the citadel was halted by a group of spirits seeking to gain revenge for the son of the previous king. The spirits were led by a white chicken. A golden turtle appeared, subdued the white chicken, and protected An Dương Vương until
4708-461: The Qin defeat as follows: The Yue fled into the depths of the mountains and forests, and it was not possible to fight them. The soldiers were kept in the garrisons to watch over abandoned territories. This went on for a long time, and the soldiers went weary. Then the Yue went out and attacked; the Ch'in (Qin) soldiers suffered a great defeat. Subsequently, convicts were sent to hold the garrisons against
4815-474: The Queen Dowager Jiu to Chang'an for an audience with the emperor. The Queen Dowager Jiu, who was Han Chinese, was regarded as a foreigner by the Yue people, and it was widely rumored that she had an illicit relationship with Anguo Shaoji before she married Zhao Yingqi. When Anguo arrived, quite a number of people believed the two resumed their relationship. The Queen Dowager feared that there would be
4922-714: The Shanyue population from the region presently known as Southern China, thus initiating a process of brutal ethnic cleansing during his early tenure in office. Ke strategically engineered and ruthlessly executed the systematic destruction of their settlements as a result of the tribe's acquiescence upon their engagement against the Three Kingdom's imperial army. The Three Kingdom's immense imperial military power coupled with its vast strategic intensification of internal Han Chinese migratory pressures ultimately led to their eventual demographic displacement and territorial dispossession. Captured Shanyue tribesmen who refused to submit to
5029-524: The Shanyue tribes within Dangyang having surrendered to the Kingdom of Wu, indicative of their final acquiescence to have their eventual fates to be assimilated into the Han empire. In the year 234, subsequent to the designation of Zhuge Ke as the governor of Danyang , Ke discarded his outwardly magnanimous pose of compassion and noble posture of benevolence by embarking on a campaign to forcibly remove
5136-463: The Shanyue with Wu's and Chinese clemency, compassion, and dignity and potential rewards, the Shanyue tribesmen would submit to their government without bloodshed. After he was granted the authority to request material from counties when required, Ling led a unit with decorative weapons and armors to go deep into the hills. When the Shanyue discovered Wu troops, they were impressed by Ling's contingent; then Ling emerged and told them that if they would join
5243-526: The Shanyue, deprived of food supplies were thus starved into submission as their previous tactics involving the gathered food by plundering any unfortunate Han wanderer that came across their path instead of planting it themselves ultimately left them hamstrung upon their submission to the Chinese. As soon as the subdued Shanyue submitted, Zhuge Ke under his outwardly generous façade of charitable demeanor treated them with benevolence. The military operation ran for approximately three to four years, with virtually all
5350-472: The Three Kingdom's imperial military power and resisted were either driven out to the coastal extremities such as the river valleys and highland areas where they eventually became marginal scavengers and outcasts or used as front line fodder for the Imperial Chinese army during its imperial military excursions. The remaining Shanyue tribes who cooperated with the Han imperial military authorities in
5457-426: The Trưng Sisters are recorded in temples dedicated to them, many of them also women. In 42 AD, the veteran Han general Ma Yuan led 20,000 troops against the Trưng Sisters. His advance was checked by Cổ Loa Citadel for over a year, but the Lạc lords became increasingly nervous at the sight of a large Han army. Realizing that she would soon lose her followers if she did not do anything, Trưng Trắc sallied out against
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#17327651407535564-548: The Wei regent Sima Shi sent three separate forces to attack Wu, with the main one focusing on the Dongxing dam. Zhuge Ke, along with the veteran Wu general Ding Feng and others, caught the enemy off guard by pretending to lower their guard, and inflicted a devastating defeat on them and forced them to withdraw from Dongxing. In 253, Zhuge Ke prepared for another invasion of Wei and said that he wanted to take advantage of Sima Shi 's "youth and inexperience" (even though Sima Shi
5671-428: The Wu forces, handsome rewards would be offered to sway the Shanyue's loyalty. Tens of thousands of the Shanyue complied by coming out from their caverns and joined Ling. Ling selected 10,000 strong men to form a unit, and returned. Because of Ling Tong’s diplomatic success, Zhuge Ke , another Wu general and future regent, would adopt his strategy. In 203, the Shanyue rebelled against Sun Quan 's rule and were defeated by
5778-689: The Wu people for willing to stand up to Sima Yi, who had a huge reputation in Wei. The Wu general Lu Xun was concerned about Zhuge Ke's recklessness so he wrote a letter to him, urging him to be more cautious in the future. Zhuge Ke decided to defer to Lu Xun, who was much more senior than him, so he wrote back and apologised for his attitude. After Lu Xun's death in 245, Sun Quan appointed Zhuge Ke as General-in-Chief ( 大將軍 ) and ordered him to assume Lu Xun's role at Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou , Hubei ) to supervise military affairs in Jing Province . In 251, when Sun Quan became critically ill, he sought
5885-407: The Yue coastal regions increased, many Chinese families joined them to escape political unrest, military service, tax obligations, persecution, or sought new opportunities. As early arrivals took advantage of the easily accessible fertile land, latecomers had to continue migrating to more remote areas. Conflicts would sometimes arise between the two groups but eventually Han Chinese immigrants from
5992-671: The Yue tribes who refused to submit to Han Chinese imperial power and resisted the influx of Han Chinese immigrants, driving them out to the coastal extremities such as the river valleys and highland areas where they became marginal scavengers and outcasts. Han dynasty rulers saw the opportunity offered by the Chinese family agricultural settlements and used it as a tool for colonizing newly conquered regions and transforming those environments. Displaced Yue tribes often staged sneak attacks and small-scale raids or attacks to reclaim their lost territories on Chinese settlements termed "rebellions" by traditional historians but were eventually stymied by
6099-481: The Yue. Afterwards, Qin Shi Huang sent reinforcements to defend against the Yue. In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of the Lingqu Canal, which linked the north and south so that reinforcements could be transported to modern Guangdong, Guangxi and northern Vietnam, which were subjugated and reorganized into three prefectures within the Qin empire. Qin Shi Huang imposed sinicisation by sending
6206-403: The administration. The four most prominent ones were Zhuge Ke ( Zhuge Jin 's son), Zhang Xiu ( Zhang Zhao 's son), Gu Tan ( Gu Yong 's grandson) and Chen Biao ( Chen Wu 's son). Sun Deng treated the four of them as his close friends and they served as his advisers. When he ordered his secretary Hu Zong ( 胡綜 ) to write a commentary on four of his advisers in 229, Hu Zong wrote that Zhuge Ke
6313-618: The ancient Yue. Variations of the name are still used for the name of modern Vietnam, in Zhejiang-related names including Yue opera , the Yue Chinese language, and in the abbreviation for Guangdong . The modern term "Yue" ( traditional Chinese : 越 ; ; pinyin : Yuè ; Cantonese Jyutping : Jyut6 ; Wade–Giles : Yüeh ; Vietnamese : Việt ; Early Middle Chinese : Wuat ) comes from Old Chinese *ɢʷat . It
6420-427: The army was disbanded. The next year, Zou Yushan learned that Yang Pu had requested permission to attack him and saw that Han forces were amassing at his border. Zou Yushan made a preemptive attack against the Han, taking Baisha , Wulin , and Meiling , killing three commanders. In the winter, the Han retaliated with a multi-pronged attack by Han Yue, Yang Pu, Wang Wenshu , and two Yue marquises. When Han Yue arrived at
6527-644: The citadel's completion. When the turtle departed, he left one of his claws behind, which An Dương Vương used as the trigger for his magical crossbow, the "Saintly Crossbow of the Supernaturally Luminous Golden Claw". An Dương Vương sent a giant called Lý Ông Trọng to the Qin dynasty as tribute. During his stay with the Qin, Lý Ông Trọng distinguished himself in fighting the Xiongnu , after which he returned to his native village and died there. In 179 BC, An Dương Vương acknowledged
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#17327651407536634-414: The empire lacked the military means to realistically control and subdue them prior the southward expansion . To ensure a sustainable source of livelihood to support their survival, the Shanyue would regularly conduct sneak attacks and perform rebellions against any unfortunate Han Chinese wanderer that crossed paths with them by lurking around their domains to loot and gather rudimentary living essentials. At
6741-479: The end of the empire just like the Qin. A compromise was made to allow Zhuang Zhu to call up troops, but only from Kuaiji Commandery , and finally an army was transported by sea to Dong'ou. By the time the Han forces had arrived, Minyue had already withdrawn its troops. The king of Dong'ou no longer wished to live in Dong'ou, so he requested permission for the inhabitants of his state to move into Han territory. Permission
6848-517: The expedition and arrest Lü Jia. When Han crossed the Han–Nanyue border, Lü conducted a coup, killing Xing, Queen Dowager Jiu, and all the Han emissaries in the capital. Xing's brother, Zhao Jiande , was declared the new king. The 2000 men led by Han Qianqiu took several small towns but were defeated as they neared Panyu, which greatly shocked and angered Emperor Wu. The emperor then sent an army of 100,000 to attack Nanyue . The army marched on Panyu in
6955-415: The following months, but her reputation prevented it. When news of the situation reached Emperor Wu in 112, he ordered Zhuang Can to lead a 2,000 men expedition to Nanyue. However, Zhuang refused to accept the mission, declaring that it was illogical to send so many men under the pretext of peace, but so few to enforce the might of the Han. The former prime minister of Jibei , Han Qianqiu , offered to lead
7062-407: The four attendants were promoted to commandants under various titles; Zhuge Ke continued playing a supporting role to Sun Deng. Among his four attendants, Sun Deng favoured and trusted Zhuge Ke and Gu Tan the most, and he regarded them more highly than others such as Fan Shen (范慎), Xie Jing (謝景) and Yang Hui (羊徽). After Hu Zong made his commentary public, Yang Dao (羊衜 ) commented to Hu in private on
7169-479: The four neighboring commanderies to seal their borders and not combat the Shanyue; then, when the rice became ready for harvest, he had the rice harvested quickly and then safely gathered up, away from the imperilment of the potential threat posed by the pilfering Shanyue. The result of the strategic maneuvers crippled the Shanyue from being able to regularly stage their random sneak attacks and pillaging rampages against unfortunate Chinese wanderers at will. Consequently,
7276-705: The four's shortcomings; Yang's criticism of Zhuge Ke was that "Yuanxun (Zhuge's courtesy name) is talented but neglectful." Later, Yang's criticism of the four became known to them, estranging them from Yang. However, eventually all four failed at politics, causing the people of Wu to comment that Yang's criticisms were valid. Around 234, Zhuge Ke submitted a plan to Sun Quan to suppress the indigenous Shanyue tribes and recruit about 40,000 locals to serve as soldiers in Danyang Commandery (丹陽郡; around present-day Xuancheng , Anhui ). Most of Sun Quan's senior officials, including Zhuge Ke's father Zhuge Jin, considered
7383-415: The front. What do you mean when you say this is not a proper ceremony to pay respect to an elder?" At a loss for words, Zhang Zhao consented and accepted the wine offered by Zhuge Ke. After this incident, Sun Quan regarded Zhuge Ke even more highly and consequently appointed him as a close aide to his then-heir apparent, Sun Deng . On another occasion, an ambassador from Wu's ally state, Shu, showed up with
7490-482: The generals Lü Fan , Cheng Pu , and Taishi Ci . In 217, Sun Quan appointed Lu Xun supreme commander of an army to suppress martial activities orchestrated by the Shanyue in Guiji (modern-day Shaoxing ). In 234 AD, Ke proposed to Sun Quan that the Shanyue of Danyang could be subdued, and he just needed full governing powers to set his plan in motion. Zhuge's requests were granted, and upon Zhuge's arrival, he requested
7597-537: The hills for generations and knew the area well, and would strategically retreat by going into hiding once they lost a battle. However, one of the Wu generals, Ling Tong , attempted a different military approach to deal with the Shanyue tribes, he proposed that Sun Quan should attempt to win the hearts and minds of the Shanyue peoples and assimilate them through persuasive rhetoric, crafty guile, deceit and peaceful means instead of purely using military force to hamper and subdue them. Ling reasoned that if they could impress
7704-432: The indigenous Yue tribes through instituting a policy of 'harmonizing and gathering' while creating a syncretic culture that was a blend of Han and Yue cultures. In 196, Emperor Gaozu of Han dispatched Lu Jia to recognize Zhao Tuo as king of Nanyue. Lu gave Zhao a seal legitimizing him as king of Nanyue in return for his nominal submission to the Han. Zhao received him in the manner of the local people with his hair in
7811-594: The king of Yelang , which bordered the Dian Kingdom , and convinced him to submit to the Han. Jianwei Commandery was established in the region. In 122, Emperor Wu dispatched four groups of envoys to the southwest in search of a route to Daxia in Central Asia. One group was welcomed by the king of Dian but none of them were able to make it any further as they were blocked in the north by the Sui and Kunming tribes of
7918-664: The king or the Queen Dowager. According to the Records of the Grand Historian and Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư , Lü Jia was chief of a Lạc Việt tribe, related to King Qin of Cangwu by marriage, and over 70 of his kinsmen served as officials in various parts of the Nanyue court. Lü refused to meet the Han envoys which angered the Queen Dowager. She tried to kill him at a banquet but was stopped by Xing. The Queen Dowager tried to gather enough support at court to kill Lü in
8025-492: The kings of Yue were related to the royal family of Chu . Other sources simply name the Yue ruling family as the house of Zou. There is no scholarly consensus on the origin of the Yue or their royalty. Wu and Yue spent much of the time at war with each other, during which Yue gained a fearsome reputation for its martial valour: Zhuangzi of Qi wanted to attack Yue, and he discussed this with Hezi. Hezi said: “Our former ruler handed down his instruction: ‘Do not attack Yue, for Yue
8132-417: The late 3rd century BC, Thục Phán , a descendant of the last ruler of Shu , came to rule the Western Ou. In 219 BC, Western Ou came under attack from the Qin empire and lost its king. Seeking refuge, Thục Phán led a group of dispossessed Ou lords south in 208 BC and conquered the Lạc Việt state of Văn Lang, which he renamed Âu Lạc . Henceforth he came to be known as An Dương Vương. An Dương Vương and
8239-685: The lowlands would go on to become tenant farmers on the agricultural settlements administered and presided by Han Chinese landlords. Baiyue During the Warring States period , the word "Yue" referred to the state of Yue in Zhejiang . The later kingdoms of Minyue in Fujian and Nanyue in Guangdong were both considered Yue states. During the Zhou and Han dynasties, the Yue lived in
8346-456: The more sinicized of the two states. The royal family of Wu claimed descent from King Wen of Zhou as the founder of their dynasty. King Fuchai of Wu made every effort to assert this claim and was the source of much contention among his contemporaries. Some scholars believe the Wu royalty may have been Chinese and ethnically distinct from the people they ruled. The recorded history of Wu began with King Shoumeng ( r. 585–561 BC ). He
8453-588: The new Wu emperor. Sun Xiu staged a coup against Sun Chen shortly after his accession to the throne and succeeded in eliminating him. Sun Xiu posthumously rehabilitated Zhuge Ke and ordered him to be reburied with full honours. However, he refused to have a monument built to commemorate Zhuge Ke when someone suggested doing so, because he felt that Zhuge Ke's recklessness and the losses he caused to Wu made him unworthy of such commemoration. An anecdote goes that sometime in Zhuge Ke's childhood or adolescence, he attended
8560-425: The next three decades. Wu campaigns against other states such as Jin and Qi are also mentioned. In 473, King Goujian of Yue finally conquered Wu and was acknowledged by the northern states of Qi and Jin . In 333, Yue was in turn conquered by Chu. After the unification of China by Qin Shi Huang , the former Wu and Yue states were absorbed into the nascent Qin empire . The Qin armies also advanced south along
8667-401: The north, as provinces of the Han empire. Division among the Yue leaders were exploited by the Han dynasty with the Han military winning battles against the southern kingdoms and commanderies that were of geographic and strategic value to them. Han foreign policy also took advantage of the political turmoil among rival Yue leaders and enticed them with bribes and lured prospects for submitting to
8774-530: The northern plains moved south to form ad hoc groups and take on the role as powerful local political leaders, many of whom accepted Chinese government titles. Each new wave of Han immigrants exerted additional pressure on the indigenous Yue inhabitants as the Han Chinese in southern China gradually became the predominant ethnic group in local life while displacing the Yue tribes into more mountainous and remote border areas. The difficulty of logistics and
8881-517: The people over the heavy losses incurred from the previous campaign. Sun Jun , a Wu general distantly related to the Wu emperor Sun Liang , decided to launch a coup d'état against Zhuge Ke to oust him from power. He lied to Sun Liang that Zhuge Ke was secretly plotting to usurp the throne and then set up a trap for Zhuge Ke. (The extent of Sun Liang's involvement in the coup d'état is unclear. However, historians traditionally consider him to have understood and approved Sun Jun's actions even though he
8988-528: The plan reckless and costly; Zhuge Jin was recorded to have commented, "If Ke does not bring great fortune to our clan, he'll bring great disaster instead.". However, after Zhuge Ke insisted that his plan would be successful, Sun Quan appointed him as the Administrator ( 太守 ) of Danyang Commandery and General Who Pacifies the Yue ( 撫越將軍 ), effectively giving him full authority to implement his plan. Once Zhuge Ke arrived in Danyang Commandery, he requested
9095-433: The regency proved to be militarily disastrous due to Zhuge Ke's aggressive foreign policy towards Wu's rival state, Cao Wei . In 253, he was ousted from power in a coup d'état and killed along with his family. In 221, when the Wu king Sun Quan designated his son Sun Deng as crown prince, he set up a staff for the crown prince composed of the sons of key officials in his government or other well-known younger members of
9202-410: The right Emperor to serve while my uncle didn't. Therefore, my father is better than my uncle." Impressed by the subtle flattery, Sun Quan instructed Zhuge Ke to serve wine to the other guests present at the banquet. (It was an honour for junior officials to serve wine to senior officials at the time.) When Zhuge Ke came to Zhang Zhao , the latter refused to drink and said, "This isn't the proper form for
9309-541: The roads at Hengpu, Yangshan, and Huangqi. Using one excuse or another he eliminated the Qin officials and replaced them with his own appointees. By the time the Qin fell in 206 BC, Zhao had also conquered the provinces of Guilin and Xiang. He declared himself King Wu of Nanyue (Southern Yue). Unlike Qin Shi Huang , Zhao respected Yue customs, rallied their local rulers, and let local chieftains continue their old policies and local political traditions. Under Zhao's rule, he encouraged Han Chinese settlers to intermarry with
9416-623: The ruling family moved south to what is now Fujian and established the kingdom of Minyue . There they stayed, outside the reach of Chinese history until the end of the Warring States period and the rise of the Qin dynasty . In 512 BC, Wu launched a large expedition against the large state of Chu , based in the Middle Yangtze River. A similar campaign in 506 succeeded in sacking the Chu capital Ying . Also in that year, war broke out between Wu and Yue and continued with breaks for
9523-402: The sea and subdued all the evil of the land, taught the people how to cultivate rice and wear clothes, and then returned to the sea again. He then met and married Âu Cơ, a goddess, daughter of Đế Lai. Âu Cơ soon bore an egg sac, from which hatched a hundred children. The first born son became Hùng King and ancestor of Luoyue people. Despite its legendary origins, Lạc Việt history only begins in
9630-406: The sea where he was welcomed by the golden turtle. Âu Lạc was divided into the two prefectures of Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen . Zhao Tuo was a Qin general originally born around 240 BC in the state of Zhao (within modern Hebei ). When Zhao was annexed by Qin in 222 BC, Zhao Tuo joined the Qin and served as one of their generals in the conquest of the Baiyue. The territory of the Baiyue
9737-414: The southern Han dynasty which used to be Nanyue was the result of several factors. Northern and central China was often a theater of imperial dynastic conflict which resulted Han Chinese refugees fleeing to the south. With dynastic changes, wars, and foreign invasions, Han Chinese living in central China were forced to expand into the unfamiliar southern regions. As the number of Han Chinese immigrants into
9844-568: The strong action of the Han dynasty's military superiority. Zhuge Ke Zhuge Ke (203 – November or December 253), courtesy name Yuanxun (元逊) , was a Chinese military general and politician of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the eldest son of Zhuge Jin , a military general who served under Wu's founding emperor, Sun Quan . After Sun Quan's death in 252, Zhuge Ke served as regent for Sun Quan's son and successor, Sun Liang , but
9951-472: The suzerainty of the Han dynasty , causing Zhao Tuo of Nanyue to become hostile and mobilize forces against Âu Lạc. Zhao Tuo's initial attack was unsuccessful. According to legend, Zhao Tuo asked for a truce and sent his son to conduct a marriage alliance with An Dương Vương's daughter. Zhao Tuo's son stole the turtle claw that powered An Dương Vương's magical crossbow, rendering his realm without protection. When Zhao Tuo invaded again, An Dương Vương fled into
10058-579: The throne. Not much is known about their reigns as Yue history largely concentrates on the last two Wu kings, Helü of Wu , who killed his cousin Liao, and his son Fuchai of Wu . Records for the southern state of Yue begin with the reign of King Yunchang (d. 497 BC). According to the Records of the Grand Historian , the Yue kings were descended from Shao Kang of the Xia dynasty . According to another source,
10165-580: The time of the Eastern Han dynasty, the Shanyue tribe became a major geopolitical impetus and by the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, the Shanyue tribes were subsumed into Han Empire after the Sun family established a strong local government in Jiangdong . The Kingdom of Wu , founded by Sun Quan , launched numerous campaigns against the Shanyue, but to no avail because the tribesmen of Shanyue had lived in
10272-482: The victorious Han, the territories of the Lac states were annexed and ruled directly, along with other former Yue territories to the north as provinces of the Han empire. In 40 AD, the Lạc lord Thi Sách rebelled on the advice of his wife Trưng Trắc. The administrator of Jiaozhi Commandery , Su Ding, was too afraid to confront them and fled. The commanderies of Jiuzhen , Hepu , and Rinan all rebelled. Trưng Trắc abolished
10379-609: Was 45 years old then). Despite strong opposition from some Wu officials, Zhuge Ke rallied an army from among all able-bodied men in Wu for the invasion. He also coordinated the invasion with Jiang Wei , a general from Wu's ally state Shu Han . (At the time, Jiang Wei was also actively launching a series of campaigns against Wei at Wei's western border.) However, Zhuge Ke's strategy turned out to be flawed when he switched his target from Shouchun (壽春; around present-day Shou County , Anhui ) to Hefei , even though Hefei's defences were much stronger and built to withstand enemy attacks. After
10486-487: Was completely under the Wu government's control and had become a highly productive commandery for manpower and supplies. Zhuge Ke was also able to easily fulfill his quota of conscripting 40,000 local men to serve as soldiers. Sun Quan was so impressed with Zhuge Ke that he promoted him to General Who Awes the North ( 威北將軍 ) and awarded him the title of a Marquis of a Chief District ( 都鄉侯 ). In 243, Zhuge Ke planned to launch
10593-525: Was divided into the three provinces of Guilin, Nanhai, and Xiang. Zhao served as magistrate in the province of Nanhai until his military commander, Ren Xiao , fell ill. Before he died, Ren advised Zhao not to get involved in the affairs of the declining Qin, and instead set up his own independent kingdom centered around the geographically remote and isolated city of Panyu (modern Guangzhou ). Ren gave Zhao full authority to act as military commander of Nanhai and died shortly afterwards. Zhao immediately closed off
10700-518: Was first written using the pictograph 戉 for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty ( c. 1200 BC ), and later as 越 . At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang. In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue , a term later used for peoples further south. Between
10807-503: Was granted and he and all his people settled in the region between the Yangtze and Huai River . In 137, Minyue invaded Nanyue . An imperial army was sent against them, but the Minyue king was murdered by his brother Zou Yushan , who sued for peace with the Han. The Han enthroned Zou Wuzhu's grandson, Zou Chou, as king. After they left, Zou Yushan secretly declared himself king while the Han backed Zou Chou found himself powerless. When
10914-471: Was impressed with the young Zhuge Ke's wit, and gifted the donkey to him. In another anecdote, also in a banquet setting, Sun Quan once asked Zhuge Ke whether he thought that his father Zhuge Jin was better compared to his uncle Zhuge Liang , the Imperial Chancellor of Wu's ally state Shu Han . When Zhuge Ke said his father was better, Sun Quan asked him why and he replied, "My father chose
11021-507: Was made the king of Dong'ou . Both Minyue and Dong'ou claimed descent from Goujian. In 154, Liu Pi , the King of Wu, revolted against the Han and tried to persuade Minyue and Dong'ou to join him. The king of Minyue refused but Dong'ou sided with the rebels. However, when Liu Pi was defeated and fled to Dong'ou, they killed him to appease the Han, and therefore escaped any retaliation. Liu Pi's son, Liu Ziju , fled to Minyue and worked to incite
11128-630: Was only about 10 years old then.) Zhuge Ke met his end at the hands of Sun Jun's assassins when he unsuspectingly attended a banquet hosted by Sun Liang in the imperial palace. After Zhuge Ke's death, Sun Jun used the opportunity to send his troops to capture and execute Zhuge Ke's family members. Sun Jun became the new Wu regent after Zhuge Ke's death and he monopolised state power until his death in 256, after which his cousin Sun Chen succeeded him and continued to rule as regent. In 258, Sun Chen deposed Sun Liang and replaced him with his brother Sun Xiu as
11235-494: Was seen as attractive to the Han rulers as they desired to secure the area's maritime trade routes and gain access to luxury goods from the south such as pearls, incense, elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, coral, parrots, kingfishers, peacocks, and other rare luxuries to satisfy the demands of the Han aristocracy. Other considerations such as frontier security, revenue from a relatively large agricultural population, and access to tropical commodities all contributed to
11342-408: Was succeeded in succession by his sons King Zhufan ( r. 560–548 BC ), King Yuji ( r. 547–531 BC) , and King Yumei ( r. 530–527 BC ). The brothers all agreed to exclude their sons from the line of succession and to eventually pass the throne to their youngest brother, Prince Jizha, but when Yumei died, a succession crisis erupted which saw his son King Liao taking
11449-420: Was the most skillful and intelligent of his generation. While this might have been true, Zhuge Ke was also known for being reckless – a negative trait that his father Zhuge Jin repeatedly chided him for. On one occasion, Zhuge Jin observed, "This child will either bring great honour to my household or destroy it." After Sun Quan declared himself emperor in 229 and again designated Sun Deng as his crown prince ,
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