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81-694: The name's etymon may be Egyptian šꜣsw , which originally meant "those who move on foot". Levy, Adams, and Muniz report similar possibilities: the Egyptian word šꜣs that means "to wander", and an alternative Semitic triliteral root , Hebrew : שָׁסַס‎ , romanized :  šāsas , with the meaning "to plunder". Though their homeland seems to be in the Transjordan , the Shasu also appear in Canaan, Syria and even Egypt . The earliest known reference to

162-403: A 100,000 years, and may our mistress grant both of us great joy. And let us act as friends. Is Šauška for me alone my god[dess], and for my brother not his god[dess]? The likeliest explanation is that the statue was sent to Egypt "to shed her blessings on the wedding of Amenhotep and Tadukhepa, as she had been sent previously for Amenhotep and Gilukhepa ." Moran agrees that this explanation

243-669: A city dedicated to his new deity, the Aten . Amenhotep built extensively at the temple of Karnak , including the Luxor temple with two pylons , a colonnade behind the new temple entrance, and a new temple to the goddess Ma'at . Amenhotep dismantled the Fourth Pylon of the Temple of Amun at Karnak to construct a new Third Pylon — and created a new entrance to this structure where he erected two rows of columns with open papyrus capitals down

324-442: A country that I love, and then return." Now I herewith send her, and she is on her way. Now, in the time, too, of my father,...[she] went to this country, and just as earlier she dwelt there and they honored her, may my brother now honor her 10 times more than before. May my brother honor her, [then] at [his] pleasure let her go so that she may come back. May Šauška (i.e., Ishtar ), the mistress of heaven, protect us, my brother and me,

405-468: A forensic examination of his mummy revealed worn and cavity-pitted teeth which must have inflicted constant pain. An examination of the mummy by the Australian anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith concluded that the pharaoh had died at between the age of 40 and 50. He was survived by at least one child, his successor Amenhotep IV. His wife Tiye is known to have outlived him by at least twelve years, as she

486-642: A mix of biconsonantal and triconsonantal roots. A triliteral or triconsonantal root ( Hebrew : שורש תלת־עיצורי , šoreš təlat-ʻiṣuri ; Arabic : جذر ثلاثي , jiḏr ṯulāṯī ; Syriac : ܫܪܫܐ , šeršā ) is a root containing a sequence of three consonants. The following are some of the forms which can be derived from the triconsonantal root k-t-b כ־ת־ב ك-ت-ب (general overall meaning "to write") in Hebrew and Arabic: Note: The Hebrew fricatives stemming from begadkefat lenition are transcribed here as "ḵ", "ṯ" and "ḇ", to retain their connection with

567-611: A nearly undamaged 6 feet (1.8 m)-high pink quartzite statue of the king wearing the Double Crown . It was mounted on a sled, and may have been a cult statue. Only the name of the god Amun had been hacked out wherever it appeared in the pharaoh's cartouche , clearly part of Akhenaten's campaign against the god of his father. One of Amenhotep's most popular epithets was Aten-tjehen which means "the Dazzling Sun Disk"; it appears in his titulary at Luxor temple and

648-541: A number of settlements on the island, and they exported copper and other raw materials from Cyprus to Egypt in exchange for luxury goods and other commodities. However, the Egyptian presence on Cyprus was at times interrupted by incursions of other powers, including the Hittites and the Mycenaeans. Thutmose, the eldest son of Amenhotep III with his wife Tiye, became Crown Prince, but died before his father. Amenhotep

729-406: A period of unprecedented prosperity and splendour, when Egypt reached the peak of its artistic and international power, and as such he is considered one of ancient Egypt's greatest pharaohs. When he died in the 38th or 39th year of his reign he was succeeded by his son Amenhotep IV, who later changed his name to Akhenaten . Amenhotep was the son of Thutmose IV and his minor wife Mutemwiya . He

810-471: A place where bedouins brought their flocks. The story of Joseph in the Hebrew Bible also mentions nomads who come to water their animals at a source near Dothan. During the pharaoh Seti I 's campaign, primarily attested as a historic event by the presence of victory steles found at Tel Megiddo and Beth Shean , the Shasu live in a fertile, mountainous area between Sileh and Pa-Canaan (perhaps

891-411: A pre- Natufian cultural background, i.e., older than c.  14500 BCE . As we have no texts from any Semitic language older than c.  3500 BCE , reconstructions of Proto-Semitic are inferred from these more recent Semitic texts. A quadriliteral is a consonantal root containing a sequence of four consonants (instead of three consonants , as is more often the case). A quadriliteral form

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972-456: A sequence of five consonants. Traditionally, in Semitic languages, forms with more than four basic consonants (i.e. consonants not introduced by morphological inflection or derivation) were occasionally found in nouns, mainly in loanwords from other languages, but never in verbs. However, in modern Israeli Hebrew, syllables are allowed to begin with a sequence of two consonants (a relaxation of

1053-433: A series of tests that demonstrated the pharaoh's fitness for continuing as ruler of Egypt. Based on indications left by Queen Tiye's steward Khenruef, the festival may have lasted two to eight months. Amenhotep wanted his Sed Festivals to be far more spectacular than those of the past. He appointed Amenhotep, son of Hapu to plan the ceremony, potentially because he was one of the few courtiers still alive to have served at

1134-568: A small temple with a colonnade (dedicated to Thutmose III ) at Elephantine , a rock temple dedicated to Amun "Lord of the Ways" at Wadi es-Sebuam, and the temple of Horus of Miam at Aniba ...[as well as founding] additional temples at Kawa and Sesebi . His enormous mortuary temple on the west bank of the Nile was, in its day, the largest religious complex in Thebes , but the king built too close to

1215-406: A strong wind'. The conjugation of this small class of verb roots is explained by Wolf Leslau . Unlike the Hebrew examples, these roots conjugate in a manner more like regular verbs, producing no indivisible clusters. Amenhotep III Amenhotep III ( Ancient Egyptian : jmn-ḥtp(.w) Amānəḥūtpū , IPA: [ʔaˌmaːnəʔˈħutpu] ; " Amun is satisfied" ), also known as Amenhotep

1296-524: A subset of the verb derivations formed from triliteral roots are allowed with quadriliteral roots. For example, in Hebrew, the Piʿel, Puʿal, and Hiṯpaʿel , and in Arabic, forms similar to the stem II and stem V forms of triliteral roots . Another set of quadriliteral roots in modern Hebrew is the set of secondary roots. A secondary root is a root derived from a word that was derived from another root. For example,

1377-560: A synthesis of hypotheses, arguing that while the Israelites were a Canaanite people, Shasu contribution cannot be excluded. The highlands were largely uninhabited in the Late Bronze Age , and the settlers would have included former pastoralists , farmers moving to less settled areas, migrants from outside Canaan and people in general seeking a new land and life. According to Grabbe, archaeology suggests that those who settled in

1458-613: Is Year 38, which appears on wine jar-label dockets from Malkata . He may have lived briefly into an unrecorded Year 39 and died before the wine harvest of that year. Reliefs from the wall of the temple of Soleb in Nubia and scenes from the Theban tomb of Kheruef , Steward of the King's Great Wife, Tiye, depict Amenhotep as a visibly weak and sick figure. Scientists believe that in his final years he suffered from arthritis and obesity. Further,

1539-591: Is a word derived from such a four-consonant root. For example, the abstract quadriliteral root t-r-g-m / t-r-j-m gives rise to the verb forms תרגם ‎ tirgem in Hebrew, ترجم ‎ tarjama in Arabic, ተረጐመ täräggwämä in Amharic , all meaning "he translated". In some cases, a quadriliteral root is actually a reduplication of a two-consonant sequence. So in Hebrew דגדג ‎ digdeg / Arabic دغدغ ‎ daġdaġa means "he tickled", and in Arabic زلزل ‎ zalzala means "he shook". Generally, only

1620-486: Is attested only once, on a colossal limestone group of statues from Medinet Habu, and Beketaten only appears in Amarna . Amenhotep is also sometimes credited as the father of Smenkhkare or Tutankhamun , with varying proposals for their mothers, but these theories are not as accepted as his other, known children. In addition to Tiye, Amenhotep had several other wives . In Regnal Year 10, Amenhotep married Gilukhepa ,

1701-480: Is mentioned in several Amarna letters dated from her son's reign, as well as depicted at the royal dinner table in Akhenaten's years 9 and 12, in scenes from the tomb of Huya . Foreign leaders communicated their grief at the pharaoh's death, with Tushratta saying: When I heard that my brother Nimmureya had gone to his fate, on that day I sat down and wept. On that day I took no food, I took no water. Amenhotep

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1782-650: The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties , where it lay until discovered by Victor Loret in 1898. For the 18th dynasty, the mummy shows an unusually heavy use of subcutaneous stuffing to make the mummy look more lifelike. The mummy has museum inventory number CG 61074. In April 2021, his mummy was moved from the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization , along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed

1863-556: The Merneptah Stele at the end of the 13th century BCE, are to be identified as a Shasu enclave. Since later Biblical tradition portrays Yahweh "coming forth from Seʿir", the Shasu, originally from Moab and northern Edom/Seʿir, went on to form one central element in the amalgam that would constitute the "Israel" which later established the Kingdom of Israel . Per his analysis of the Amarna letters , Anson Rainey concluded that

1944-454: The Pharaohs' Golden Parade . Amenhotep has the distinction of having the most surviving statues of any Egyptian pharaoh, with over 250 identified. These statues provide a series of portraits covering the entire length of his reign. When Amenhotep died, he left behind a country at the very height of its power and influence, commanding immense respect in the international world. However, it

2025-487: The Sea Peoples . Two Egyptian texts, one dated to the period of Amenhotep III (14th century BCE), the other to the age of Ramesses II (13th century BCE), refer to tꜣ šꜣśw yhwꜣ , i.e. "The Land of the Shasu yhwꜣ ", in which yhwꜣ (also rendered as yhw ) or Yahu , is a toponym . Regarding the name yhwꜣ , Michael Astour observed that the "hieroglyphic rendering corresponds very precisely to

2106-492: The city of Gaza ). The introductory text of the relief showing the Shasu under notes: "The Shasu enemies plot a rebellion, their tribal leaders are gathered, standing on the hills of Khor(Kharu) , and they are engaged in turmoil and tumult. They don't respect their neighbours, they don't consider the laws of the Palace!" In this campaign, the pharaoh confronts the ʿAbiru around Megiddo. The Shasu would eventually be eclipsed by

2187-523: The floodplain , and less than two hundred years later it was reduced to ruins. Much of the masonry was purloined by Merneptah and later pharaohs for their own construction projects. All that remained standing was the gateway with the Colossi of Memnon — two massive stone statues depicting Amenhotep,18 m (59 ft) high. Amenhotep also built the Third Pylon at Karnak and erected 600 statues of

2268-480: The viziers Ramose , Amenhotep , Aperel , and Ptahmose . Other officials included the treasurers Ptahmose and Merire; the high stewards, Amenemhat Surer and Amenhotep (Huy) ; and the Viceroy of Kush, Merimose. Amenhotep, son of Hapu held many offices during the reign of Amenhotep the pharaoh, but is best known for receiving the right to build his mortuary temple behind that of the king. Amenhotep, son of Hapu,

2349-446: The "marriage scarabs," Amenhotep affirmed his divine power and the legitimacy of his wife. With Tiye, Amenhotep fathered at least two sons, Crown Prince Thutmose and Amenhotep IV (later called Akhenaten) . In addition, several daughters are frequently credited to the couple: Sitamun , Henuttaneb , Iset , Nebetah , and Beketaten . Most of the daughters appear frequently on statues and reliefs from Amenhotep's reign. However, Nebetah

2430-410: The 18th dynasty attest to the increasing importance of the Shasu in Canaan, by the large number of prisoners (at Amenhotep II , a list of prisoners gives about half of those of Khor/Kharu ), and then by their appointment to Egypt's greatest enemies, like Babylon or Tehenou (Libya). During the reign of Amenhotep III , the origin of the Shasu ("En-Shasus") is given as near the biblical city of Dothan ,

2511-469: The Babylonian monarch may indeed have followed from Egyptian royal custom, which allowed a claim upon the throne through descent from a royal princess. It could also be viewed as a diplomatic stratagem to enhance Egypt's prestige, as Amenhotep himself married the daughters of several foreign rulers while refusing them his own daughters. The Amarna Letters also reference the exchange between Amenhotep and

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2592-555: The Colossi of Memnon as well as from Tanis in the Delta. In 2014, two giant statues of Amenhotep toppled by an earthquake in 1200 BC were reconstructed from more than 200 fragments and re-erected at the northern gate of the king's funerary temple. One of the most stunning finds of royal statues dating to his reign was made as recently as 1989 in the courtyard of Amenhotep 's colonnade of the Temple of Luxor. The cache of statues included

2673-595: The Hebrew Tetragrammaton YHWH, or Yahweh , and antedates the hitherto oldest occurrence of that divine name – on the Mesha Stele – by over five hundred years." K. Van Der Toorn concludes: "By the 14th century BC, before the cult of Yahweh had reached Israel, groups of Edomites and Midianites worshipped Yahweh as their god." Donald B. Redford has argued that the earliest Israelites, semi-nomadic highlanders in central Canaan mentioned on

2754-582: The Magnificent or Amenhotep the Great and Hellenized as Amenophis III , was the ninth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty . According to different authors following the "Low Chronology", he ruled Egypt from June 1386 to 1349 BC, or from June 1388 BC to December 1351 BC/1350 BC, after his father Thutmose IV died. Amenhotep was Thutmose's son by a minor wife, Mutemwiya . His reign was

2835-587: The Mitanni King Tushratta of the statue of a healing goddess, Ishtar of Nineveh , late in Amenhotep's reign. Scholars have generally assumed that the statue's sojourn to Egypt was requested by Amenhotep in order to cure him of his various ailments, which included painful abscesses in his teeth. However, William L. Moran 's analysis of Amarna Letter EA 23 , relating to the dispatch of the statue to Thebes, discounts this theory. The arrival of

2916-552: The Shasu are shown dressed differently from the Israelites, who are dressed and hairstyled as Canaanites. Scholars point out that Egyptian scribes tended to bundle up "rather disparate groups of people within a single artificially unifying rubric." The usefulness of the determinatives has been called into question, though, as in Egyptian writings, including the Merneptah Stele, determinatives are used arbitrarily. Gösta Werner Ahlström countered Stager's objection by arguing that

2997-456: The Shasu occurs in a 16th-century BCE list of peoples in the Transjordan region . The first occurrence of Shasu is in the biographical inscription of Admiral Ahmose found in Elkab , who claims to have taken Shasu prisoners while serving Pharaoh Aakheperenre Thutmose II . The Shasu were on his way as he led a punitive expedition north. Giveon (1971) argued that the only event that could account for

3078-648: The Shasu' appearance at that date was the expulsion of the Hyksos (around 1550 BC). In the year 39 of Thutmose III , during his 14th campaign, the pharaoh fought the Shasu before reaching the Retjenu . Shasu are therefore found in southern Canaan. According to the Pharaoh's list, they are more specifically located in the Negev (No. 14 of the list). The name appears in a list of Egypt's enemies inscribed on column bases at

3159-598: The Tetragrammaton, with the writings in the Shasu-sequence at Soleb and Amarah-West. In an Egyptian Book of the Dead from the late 18th or 19th dynasty, Schneider identifies a Northwest Semitic theophoric name ʾadōnī-rō‘ē-yāh , meaning "My lord is the shepherd of Yah", which would be the first documented occurrence of the god Yahweh in a theophoric form. On the other hand, Lester L. Grabbe offers

3240-483: The celebration as the affirmation of transition to divinity. Diplomatic correspondence from Amenhotep's reign are partially preserved in the Amarna Letters , a collection of documents found near the city of Amarna . The letters come from the rulers of Assyria , Mitanni , Babylon , Hatti , and other states, typically including requests by those rulers for gold and other gifts from Amenhotep. The letters cover

3321-764: The centre of this newly formed forecourt. The forecourt between the Third and Fourth Pylons, sometimes called an obelisk court, was also decorated with scenes of the sacred funerary barques of the deities Amun , Mut , and Khonsu . The king also started work on the Tenth Pylon at the Temple of Amun. Amenhotep's first recorded act as king — in his Years 1 and 2 — was to open new limestone quarries at Tura , just south of Cairo and at Dayr al-Barsha in Middle Egypt to undertake his great building projects. He virtually covered Nubia with new monuments: ...including

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3402-550: The consonantal root כ־ת־ב k-t-b. They are pronounced [ x ] , [ θ ] , [ β ] in Biblical Hebrew and [ χ ] , [ t ] , [ v ] in Modern Hebrew respectively. Modern Hebrew has no gemination ; where there was historically gemination, they are reduced to single consonants, with consonants in the begadkefat remaining the same. In Hebrew grammatical terminology,

3483-491: The contrasting depictions are because the Shasu were the nomads, while the Israelites were sedentary, and added: "The Shasu that later settled in the hills became known as Israelites because they settled in the territory of Israel". Moreover, the hill-country determinative is not always used for Shasu, with the Egyptologist Thomas Schneider connecting references to "Yah", believed to be a short form of

3564-482: The daughter of Shuttarna II of Mitanni . He later married Tadukhepa , daughter of Tushratta of Mitanni, in or around Regnal Year 36 of his reign. Other wives, whose names are unknown, included: a daughter of Kurigalzu , king of Babylon ; a daughter of Kadashman-Enlil , king of Babylon ; a daughter of Tarhundaradu , ruler of Arzawa ; and a daughter of the ruler of Ammia (modern-day Syria). Finally, he married at least two of his daughters, Sitamun and Iset, in

3645-510: The description of the Shasu best fits that of the early Israelites. If this identification is correct, these Israelites/Shasu would have settled in the uplands in small villages with buildings similar to contemporary Canaanite structures towards the end of the 13th century BCE. Objections exist to this proposed link between the Israelites and the Shasu, given that a group of people in relief at Karnak , which has been suggested as depicting

3726-412: The establishment of a long coregency between the two rulers and in favor of either no coregency or one of at most two years. Donald B. Redford , William J. Murnane , Alan Gardiner , and Lawrence Berman contest the view of any coregency whatsoever between Akhenaten and his father. Evidence against a coregency includes Amarna Letter EA 27 , which is dated to Regnal Year 2 of Amenhotep IV. The subject of

3807-420: The event. He directed Amenhotep to use his mace to knock on the temple doors. Beside him, Amenhotep-Hapu mirrored his effort like a royal shadow. The king was followed by Queen Tiye and the royal daughters. When moving to another venue, the banner of the jackal god Wepwawet, "Opener of Ways" preceded the King. The king changed his costume at each major activity of the celebration. One of the major highlights of

3888-624: The festival was the king's dual coronation. He was enthroned separately for Upper and Lower Egypt. For Upper Egypt, Amenhotep wore the white crown but changed to the red crown for the Lower Egypt coronation. After the Sed festival, Amenhotep transcended from being a near-god to one divine. The king may have later traveled across Egypt following the festival, potentially reenacting the ceremony for different audiences. Few Egyptian kings lived long enough for their own celebration. Those who survived used

3969-631: The formation of actual words by adding the vowels and non-root consonants (or " transfixes ") which go with a particular morphological category around the root consonants, in an appropriate way, generally following specific patterns. It is a peculiarity of Semitic linguistics that a large majority of these consonantal roots are triliterals (although there are a number of quadriliterals, and in some languages also biliterals). Such roots are also common in other Afroasiatic languages. While Berber mostly has triconsonantal roots, Chadic , Omotic , and Cushitic have mostly biconsonantal roots, and Egyptian shows

4050-461: The goddess Sekhmet in the Temple of Mut to the south. Some of the most magnificent statues of New Kingdom Egypt date to his reign "such as the two outstanding couchant rose granite lions originally set before the temple at Soleb in Nubia " as well as a large series of royal sculptures. Several black granite seated statues of Amenhotep wearing the nemes headress have come from excavations behind

4131-437: The hill country of Canaan (Cis-Jordan) and Trans-Jordan regions. The Shasu had become so powerful during this period that they could even cut off Egypt's northern routes for a while. This, in turn, prompted vigorous punitive campaigns by Ramesses II and his son Merneptah . After Egyptian abandonment, Canaanite city-states came under the mercy of the Shasu and the ʿAbiru, who were seen as 'mighty enemies'. The other documents of

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4212-507: The hillcountry had a pastoralist background, but one in which they lived near settled communities, perhaps forming a symbiotic relationship with the agrarian communities whereby they traded their animals for grain. Triliteral root The roots of verbs and most nouns in the Semitic languages are characterized as a sequence of consonants or " radicals " (hence the term consonantal root ). Such abstract consonantal roots are used in

4293-642: The king moved to the palace permanently around Regnal Year 29. Once completed, it was the largest royal residence in Egypt. Amenhotep celebrated three Sed festivals in Regnal Years 30, 34, and 37, each at Malkata palace in Western Thebes. A temple of Amun and festival hall were built especially for the celebrations. The Sed festival was a tradition that dated to the Old Kingdom , consisting of

4374-472: The lake. This event was commemorated on at least eleven commemorative scarabs. From other scarabs, Amenhotep is known to have killed either 102 or 110 lions in the first ten years of his reign. Despite the martial prowess Amenhotep displayed during the hunt, he is known to have participated in only one military incident. In Regnal Year Five, he led a victorious campaign against a rebellion in Kush. This victory

4455-541: The last Sed Festival, held for Amenhotep II. In preparation for the first Sed Festival, Amenhotep, son of Hapu enlisted scribes to gather information from records and inscriptions, most found in ancient funerary temples, describing the appropriate rituals and costumes. Temples were built and statues erected up and down the Nile. Craftsmen and jewelers created ornaments commentating the event including jewelry, ornaments, and stelae. The scribe Nebmerutef coordinated every step of

4536-480: The last decade of his reign. Jar-label inscriptions from Regnal Year 30 indicate that Sitamun was elevated to the status of Great Royal Wife by that time. Although shunned by common Egyptians, incest was not uncommon among royalty. A sculpture restored by Amenhotep for his grandfather, Amenhotep II, shows Sitamun with a young prince beside her. This has led to theories that Sitamun was the mother of Smekhkare and/or Tutankhamun. Amenhotep probably became pharaoh when he

4617-566: The letter involves a complaint from the Mitannian king Tushratta, claiming that Amenhotep IV did not honor his father's promise to send Tushratta gold statues as part of the marriage arrangement between Tadukhepa , and Amenhotep III. This correspondence implies that if any coregency occurred between Amenhotep and Akhenaten, it lasted no more than a year. However in February 2014, Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced that findings from

4698-410: The most frequent designation for the "foes of Shasu" is the hill-country determinative . Thus, they are differentiated from Israel, which is determined as a people, though not necessarily as a socio-ethnic group; and from (the other) Canaanites, who are defending the fortified cities of Ashkelon, Gezer , and Yenoam . Lawrence Stager also objected to identifying Merneptah's Shasu with Israelites, since

4779-700: The other of them was the original form of the Afroasiatic verb. According to one study of the Proto-Semitic lexicon, biconsonantal roots are more abundant for words denoting Stone Age materials, whereas materials discovered during the Neolithic are uniquely triconsonantal. This implies a change in Proto-Semitic language structure concomitant with the transition to agriculture . In particular, monosyllabic biconsonantal names are associated with

4860-403: The period from Year 30 of Amenhotep until at least the end of Akhenaten 's reign. In Amarna Letter EA 4 , Amenhotep is quoted by the Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil I in firmly rejecting the latter's entreaty to marry one of this pharaoh's daughters: From time immemorial, no daughter of the king of Egy[pt] is given to anyone. Amenhotep's refusal to allow one of his daughters to be married to

4941-543: The pharoah for a million years. Side view: A series of festival (ḥb) emblems together with a Sed (sd) emblem identifying the stela as one made for Amenhotep 's Sed Festival royal jubilee. Top and back view: These show malicious damage where the cartouche was chipped away. Cassirer suggests this was another example of Akhenaten's vandalism against Amun Other gods displayed on the stela, Re and Ma’at, showed no damage. The altered stela may then have been displayed by Akhenaten. Another striking characteristic of Amenhotep's reign

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5022-475: The relation between: The Hebrew root ש־ק־ף ‎ – √sh-q-p "look out/through" or "reflect" deriving from ק־ף ‎ – √q-p "bend, arch, lean towards" and similar verbs fit into the shaCCéC verb-pattern. This verb-pattern sh-C-C is usually causative , cf. There is debate about whether both biconsonantal and triconsonantal roots were represented in Proto-Afroasiatic , or whether one or

5103-428: The root מ-ס-פ-ר ‎ m-s-p-r is secondary to the root ס-פ-ר ‎ s-p-r . סָפַר ‎ saphar , from the root s-p-r , means "counted"; מִסְפָּר ‎ mispar , from the same root, means "number"; and מִסְפֶּר ‎ misper , from the secondary root מ-ס-פ-ר ‎, means "numbered". An irregular quadriliteral verb made from a loanword is: A quinqueliteral is a consonantal root containing

5184-552: The root have not gained the same currency in cross-linguistic Semitic scholarship as the Hebrew equivalents, and Western grammarians continue to use "stem"/"form"/"pattern" for the former and "root" for the latter—though "form" and "pattern" are accurate translations of the Arabic grammatical term wazan (originally meaning 'weight, measure'), and "root" is a literal translation of jiḏr . Although most roots in Hebrew seem to be triliteral, many of them were originally biliteral, cf.

5265-461: The situation in early Semitic, where only one consonant was allowed), which has opened the door for a very small set of loan words to manifest apparent five root-consonant forms, such as טלגרף ‎ tilgref "he telegraphed". However, -lgr- always appears as an indivisible cluster in the derivation of this verb and so the five root-consonant forms do not display any fundamentally different morphological patterns from four root-consonant forms (and

5346-525: The statue is known to have coincided with Amenhotep's marriage with Tadukhepa , Tushratta 's daughter, in the pharaoh's 36th year; letter EA 23's arrival in Egypt is dated to "regnal year 36, the fourth month of winter, day 1" of his reign. Furthermore, Tushratta never mentions in EA 23 that the statue's dispatch was meant to heal Amenhotep of his maladies. Instead, Tushratta writes in part: ... Thus Šauška of Nineveh, mistress of all lands: "I wish to go to Egypt,

5427-515: The temple of Soleb built by Amenhotep III . Among the details uncovered at the temple was a reference to a place called " sʿrr , in the land of Shasu" ( tꜣ-shꜣsw sʿr ), a name thought to be related to or near to Petra , Jordan . In the 13th century BCE , copies of the column inscriptions ordered by Seti I or by Ramesses II at Amara, Nubia , six groups of Shasu are mentioned: those of sʿrr , of rbn , of smʾt , of wrbr , of yhw , and of pysps . The Shasu continued to dominate

5508-518: The term "quinqueliteral" or "quinquiliteral" would be misleading if it implied otherwise). Only a few Hebrew quinqueliterals are recognized by the Academy of the Hebrew Language as proper, or standard; the rest are considered slang. Other examples are: In Amharic , there is a very small set of verbs which are conjugated as quinqueliteral roots. One example is wäšänäffärä 'rain fell with

5589-600: The tomb of Vizier Amenhotep-Huy gave "conclusive evidence" of a coregency that lasted at least eight years. In the tomb, the cartouches of the two pharaohs were carved side by side. However, this conclusion has since been called into question by other egyptologists, according to whom the inscription means only that construction on Amenhotep-Huy's tomb started during Amenhotep III's reign and ended under Akhenaten's, and Amenhotep-Huy thus simply wanted to pay his respects to both rulers, carving their names separately rather than simultaneously. Amenhotep's greatest attested regnal date

5670-457: The victory over the Israelites, are not described or depicted as Shasu. Frank J. Yurco and Michael G. Hasel would distinguish the Shasu in Merneptah's Karnak reliefs from the people of Israel since they wear different clothing and hairstyles and are determined differently by Egyptian scribes. The Shasu are usually depicted hieroglyphically with a determinative indicating a land, not a people;

5751-523: The word binyan ( Hebrew : בניין , plural בניינים binyanim ) is used to refer to a verb derived stem or overall verb derivation pattern, while the word mishqal (or mishkal ) is used to refer to a noun derivation pattern , and these words have gained some use in English-language linguistic terminology. The Arabic terms, called وزن wazan (plural أوزان , awzān ) for the pattern and جذر jiḏr (plural جذور , juḏūr ) for

5832-491: Was a country wedded to age-old political and religious certainties under the Amun priesthood. The resulting upheavals from his son Akhenaten 's reforming zeal shook these old certainties to their foundations, and forced the momentous question whether a pharaoh was more powerful than his society as represented in the worship of Amun. Akhenaten even moved the capital away from Thebes, the center of Amun's worship, and built Amarna ,

5913-450: Was between the ages of 6 and 12. While it is likely that a regent would have ruled until he came of age, none is attested in the surviving records. In Regnal Year 11, Amenhotep commanded the construction of an artificial lake at Tiye's hometown of Djakaru. He then celebrated a Festival of Opening the Lake in the third month of Inundation, day sixteen, and rowed the royal barge Aten-tjehen on

5994-581: Was born probably around 1401 BC. Later in his life, Amenhotep commissioned the depiction of his divine birth to be displayed at Luxor Temple. Amenhotep claimed that his true father was the god Amun , who had taken the form of Thutmose IV to father a child with Mutemwiya. In Regnal Year 2, Amenhotep married Tiye , the daughter of Yuya and Thuya . Tiye was the Great Royal Wife throughout Amenhotep's reign. Many commemorative scarabs were commissioned and distributed during Amenhotep's reign. On

6075-809: Was buried in tomb WV22 in the Western Valley of the Valley of the Kings outside of Thebes. The tomb is the largest in the West Valley of the Kings and includes two side chambers for his Great Royal Wives, Tiye and Sitamun. However, it does not seem that either woman was buried there. During the reign of Smendes in the Third Intermediate Period , Amenhotep's mummy was later moved to the mummy cache in KV35 along with several other pharaohs of

6156-485: Was commemorated by three rock-carved stelae found near Aswan and Saï in Nubia. The official account of Amenhotep's military victory emphasizes his martial prowess with the hyperbole typical of the period. There is a significant attestation for the court officials who served during Amenhotep's reign, primarily through the discovery of their tombs in the Theban Necropolis . Among these court officials were

6237-521: Was deified after his death and was one of the few non-royals to be worshiped in such a manner. The palace of Malkata was built in the 14th century BC and its ancient name was Per -Hay , "House of Rejoicing". Originally, the palace was known as the Palace of the Dazzling Aten . Built mostly out of mud-brick, it was Amenhotep's residence throughout most of the later part of his reign. Construction began around Regnal Year 11 and continued until

6318-544: Was frequently used as the name for one of his palaces, and for the Year 11 royal barge, as well as for a company of Amenhotep's army. In 2021, excavations revealed a settlement near Amenhotep's mortuary temple, called the Dazzling Aten , believed to have been built by king to house craftsmen and labourers working on royal projects at Thebes, along with its own bakery and cemetery. A Sed Festival Stela of Amenhotep III

6399-517: Was more likely. Further, Moran argues that the contents of Amarna Letter EA 21 support this claim, wherein Tushratta asks the gods, including Ishtar, for their blessing of the marriage. In the 14th century BCE, the pharaoh sent an expedition to Cyprus to establish Egyptian control over the island, which was subsequently maintained for several centuries. During this time, the Egyptians established

6480-469: Was taken from Egypt to Europe by an art dealer. Once owned by Eric Cassirer, it is now believed to be in a private collection in the United States. The white alabaster stela is 10 × 9 cm (3.94 × 3.54 in), but only its upper half survived. Front view: The god Heh, representing the number one million, holds notched palm leaves signifying years and the cartouche of Amenhotep, symbolically raising

6561-444: Was ultimately succeeded by his second son, who ascended the throne as Amenhotep IV and later took the name Akhenaten. It has long been theorized that Amenhotep III shared a coregency with his son Amenhotep IV. Lawrence Berman has claimed that proponents of the coregency theory tended to be art historians, while historians remained unconvinced. Eric Cline , Nicholas Reeves , Peter Dorman , and other scholars argue strongly against

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