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138-535: In the Arab world , it represented the culmination of a long struggle to reclaim the caliphate from Ottoman hands. The first Arab revolts challenging the validity of the Ottoman caliphate and demanding that an Arab Sayyid be chosen as caliph can be traced back to 1883 when Sheikh Hamat-al-Din seized Sanaa and called for the caliphate as a Sayyid. However, it was not until the end of the Ottoman caliphate , abolished by

276-615: A Central Semitic group in southern Levant and northern Arabian peninsula . Arab tribes and federations such as Nabataeans , Tanukhids , Salihids , Ghassanids , and numerous other groups were prevalent in southern Levant ( Syrian Desert ) and northern Arabia. Their expansion beyond Arabia and the Syrian desert is due to the Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. Iraq was conquered in 633, Levant (modern Syria, Israel, Palestine, Jordan and Lebanon ) between 636 and 640 CE. Egypt

414-567: A Reuters dispatch, instead set the date as March 7, 1924, and describe Hussein bin Ali being elected as a caliph by Muslims from "Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Hejaz". A third counting of the official date takes place when he received the homage of the majority of the Arab population in Amman as the caliph, on March 11, 1924. Finally, a fourth version places the date on Friday, March 14, 1924, when Hussein

552-725: A Zionist delegation led by rabbi Yaakov Meir and a British colonel. Despite having welcomed them with respect, he would not change his position. As his stance was seen by the United Kingdom as extremist, the British and the Zionist media engaged in press campaigns against Hussein, where his positions were misrepresented. They also engaged heavily against his Caliphate , calling it illegitimate. After him becoming Caliph, he continued on this path, stating: "I consider Zionism unjust towards Muslims, Christians and Orthodox Jews, and as

690-651: A madhhab was more fluid. In 1911, Hussein became involved in an Ottoman campaign in 'Asir ; the Young Turks requested his support to fight Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi , who had recently revolted there and proclaimed the Idrisid Emirate . Hussein was very supportive of this campaign because 'Asir traditionally belonged to the Hejaz, and al-Idrisi presence in the area severed his financial and political ties with 'Asir. He gathered an army of about 5,000 men from

828-919: A policy of extermination of the minorities in the Ottoman Empire through various genocides . This frightened the Arabs , who were the largest minority in the Empire, and was openly criticized by Hussein bin Ali. These oppositions with the Turks became so violent that they overshadowed those that existed in Arab society and Bedouin society; and many rival tribes to the Hashemites rallied behind their leadership. An independentist and anti-colonial Arab movement developed, mainly in Ottoman Syria , where Arab intellectuals and newspapers called for

966-637: A religious and anti-colonial one. Twenty days after the start of the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire , Hussein bin Ali's son, Faisal , met with the leaders of the revolutionary organization Al-Fatat in Damascus . They assured him of their support in case of revolt and recognized Hussein as the representative of the Arab nation . When Hussein took up the pan-Arab claims in 1916, after his proclamation of independence, he became

1104-629: A hill station near Mecca, which after an initial repulse settled down into a siege. With the British-Egyptian artillery support, Abdullah took Ta'if on 22 September 1916. After this, and for most of the war, Hussein's sons directed the fighting ; most notably Faisal , future Faisal I of Iraq, and Abdullah , future Abdullah I of Jordan. Hussein mostly stayed in Mecca to direct the operations, while his sons were fighting. The Arab revolt laid siege to Medina but wasn't able to take it for

1242-463: A large group of countries, mainly located in West Asia and North Africa . While the majority of people in the Arab world are ethnically Arab , there are also significant populations of other ethnic groups such as Berbers , Kurds , Somalis and Nubians , among other groups . Arabic is used as the lingua franca throughout the Arab world. The Arab world is at its minimum defined as

1380-410: A manner contrary to the laws and doctrines established in the books of religion on the accession and dethronement of Caliphs – which facts are recorded in their history? (...) We want those who are present here to tell you who are far away that we shall confess before Almighty God, on the last day, that today we do not know of any Moslem ruler more righteous and fearing God than the son of His Prophet who

1518-772: A mixture of Arab and Nubian elements. The Arab Abbasid Caliphate fell to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Egypt, the Levant and Hejaz also came under the Turkish Mamluk Sultanate . By 1570, the Turkish Ottoman Empire controlled most of the Arab world. However, Morocco remained under the rule of the Zenata Wattasid dynasty , which was succeeded by the Saadi dynasty in

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1656-475: A national cinema. While Egyptian and Lebanese cinema have a long history of production, most other Arab countries did not witness film production until after independence, and even today, the majority of film production in countries like Bahrain, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and the United Arab Emirates is limited to television or short films. There is increased interest in films originating in

1794-599: A payment of £30,000 conditional on signature. Hussein declined and in 1921, stated that he could not be expected to "affix his name to a document assigning Palestine to the Zionists and Syria to foreigners". He refused again to accept the Balfour Declaration in 1923, and stated : "I look at the people of Palestine as I look at my own family, without distinction between Muslim, Christian, Jewish, or nationalist". In January 1924, Hussein received in Amman

1932-769: A protector of justice, I will resist this unjust Zionism". This contributed to aggravate his relationship with the Zionists towards a breaking point. After the Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly , Hussein was proclaimed as Caliph. The accounts on the official date and proceedings vary, some place the beginning of the Caliphate on 3 March 1924, when Hussein would have declared himself Caliph at his son Abdullah's winter camp in Shunah, Transjordan . Other accounts, such as

2070-715: A southwestern region in the Khuzestan Province ; others inhabit the Bushehr and Hormozgan provinces and the city of Qom . Mali and Senegal recognize Hassaniya , the Arabic dialect of the Moorish ethnic minority, as a national language . Greece and Cyprus also recognize Cypriot Maronite Arabic under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . Additionally, Malta, though not part of

2208-481: A type of vernacular poetry ( malhun ) of the Bedouins. He also practiced horseback riding and hunting. In 1875, he married Abdullah's daughter, Abdiyah, his cousin. In 1877, Abdullah died, and Hussein, along with his cousin Ali ibn Abdullah, received the rank of Pasha . After a series of political assassinations among his uncles vying for the position of Sharif, he gained attention for his independence of thought and

2346-577: A year, thus impeding the operations. During this battle, the Ottomans killed and deported the civilian Arabic population of Medina into the Syrian desert , an event hidden by the pretense of doing " Seferberlik ", or mobilization. On 30 October 1916, Emir Abdullah called a meeting of majlis where he read a letter in which "Husayn ibn Ali was recognized as sovereign of the Arab nation. Then all those present arose and proclaimed him Malik al-Arab , King of

2484-577: Is a regional organisation that aims, among other things, to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries and sets out the following definition of an Arab: An Arab is a person whose language is Arabic, who lives in an Arab country, and who is in sympathy with the aspirations of the Arab people. This standard territorial definition is sometimes seen to be inappropriate or problematic, and may be supplemented with certain additional elements (see ancillary linguistic definition below). As an alternative to, or in combination with,

2622-601: Is a member-state of the Arab League, although both Chad and Eritrea are observer states of the League (with possible future membership) and have large populations of Arabic speakers. Israel is not a part of the Arab world. By some definitions, Arab citizens of Israel may concurrently be considered a constituent part of the Arab world. Iran has about 1.5 million Arabic speakers. Iranian Arabs are mainly found in Ahvaz ,

2760-489: Is also an Afro-Asiatic language. The majority of the population speaks Somali and Afar, although Arabic is also widely used for trade and other activities. The Comoros has three official languages: Arabic, Comorian and French. Comorian is the most widely spoken language, with Arabic having a religious significance, and French being associated with the educational system. Chad , Eritrea and Israel all recognize Arabic as an official or working language, but none of them

2898-651: Is considered by some as the last "traditional" caliphate of Sunni Islam before the more recent claims of various jihadist groups starting in the 1990s, notably the Islamic State . Several mosques bear his name to the present day, such as the Hussein bin Ali mosque in Aqaba , the Hussein bin Ali mosque in Ma'an or the al-Husseini mosque in Amman . In 2020, a documentary was made about him and his life by Al-Araby , which

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3036-718: Is evidently enthroned as caliph in Baghdad during the Friday prayer. In any case, all sources agree on a date in March 1924, shortly after the abolition of the Ottoman caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . Separately, he made statements in support of the Ottoman dynasty , which had been ruined and exiled from Turkey . In this regard, he declared: The services rendered by the Ottoman family to Islam and Muslims are undeniable; their heroism cannot be belittled. The recent decision regarding

3174-496: Is little evidence, that the idea of a Sharifian Caliphate ever gained wide grassroots support in the Middle East or anywhere else for that matter. However, Saudi researcher Mai Yamani supports that the idea "became extensively debated in the Arab world in the waning years of the Ottoman Empire." When the Ottomans, aware of his religious importance, asked Hussein bin Ali to join them in the jihad they had proclaimed against

3312-465: Is now on the throne of the Arab country . We do not know any one more zealous than he in religion, more observant of the law of God in words and deeds, and more capable of managing our affairs in such a way as would please God. The people of the Holy Land have proclaimed him their King simply because, in so doing, they would be serving their religion and country. Despite this Hussein continued to attack

3450-464: Is said to have saved up to 4,000 people from the genocide, in collaboration with Hussein al-Attrache, a Druze chieftain who then disguised the refugees as Druzes . His son, Faisal, provided free transportation to all Armenian refugees for their trip towards the British refugee camp in Damascus and free use of the Hejaz railway  ; even if that meant impeding on the war effort. In the aftermath of

3588-573: Is the one in control and the one with the final word." Before officially assuming the title, in March 1919, he was acclaimed by the Muslim residents of Jaffa when he liberated the city. In their declaration, the inhabitants affirmed: "The Muslim residents of Jaffa gathered in their grand mosque and pledged their allegiance to Your Majesty, the Islamic caliphate. They recited benevolent prayers to support your glorious Arab throne and expressed gratitude to

3726-436: Is widely spoken; whether Arabic is an official or national language; or whether an Arabic cognate language is widely spoken. While Arabic dialects are spoken in a number of Arab League states, Literary Arabic is official in all of them. Several states have declared Arabic to be an official or national language , although Arabic is not as widely spoken there. As members of the Arab League, however, they are considered part of

3864-556: The Arabic language and was also educated in Islamic law and doctrine . Among his teachers was Sheikh Muhammad Mahmud at-Turkizi ash-Shinqiti, with whom he studied the seven Mu'allaqat . With Sheikh Ahmad Zayni Dahlan , he studied the Quran , completing its memorization before the age of 20. During Abdullah's reign, Hussein became familiar with the politics and intrigue surrounding

4002-745: The Balfour Declaration , a document supporting the Jewish settlers in Palestine , and the establishment of British and French mandates in Syria , Iraq , and Palestine . His sons Faisal and Abdullah were made rulers of Iraq and Transjordan respectively in 1921. He later refused to sign the Anglo-Hashemite Treaty and thus was left in a very precarious position, the British decided progressively to stop supporting him after

4140-711: The Banu Hashim clan who was the Sharif and Emir of Mecca from 1908 and, after proclaiming the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire , King of the Hejaz , even if he refused this title, from 1916 to 1924. He proclaimed himself Caliph after the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924 and stayed in power until 1925 when Hejaz was invaded by the Saudis . His Caliphate was opposed by

4278-709: The Battle of Megiddo , in September 1918, Hussein's troops led by his son Faisal, joined the British forces and managed to utterly destroy the 4th, 7th and 8th Ottoman armies, and push into retreat the Yildirim Army Group , comprising the German Asian Corps and led at the time by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , thus leaving the Palestinian and Arabian front without defence, and finally breaking inside

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4416-603: The British and French empires, the Zionists and the Wahhabis alike. However, he received support from a large part of the Muslim population of that time and from Mehmed VI . He is usually considered as the father of modern pan-Arabism . In 1908, in the aftermath of the Young Turk Revolution , Hussein was appointed Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II . His relationship with

4554-482: The British should not be overestimated. The deep-rooted reason for the Arab revolt, according to him, remains the persecutions and abuse carried out by the Young Turks against the Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, and is not necessarily linked to British support. This support would therefore be contingent and the revolt would have still occurred without their help. This point was shared at the time by Abbas II of Egypt ,

4692-541: The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) while sparing the Ottoman caliph. For example, in a statement published in 1917, Hussein declared: "It will be the opening of our disassociation from it, except for the name of its Sultan , which we have kept sacred until now, in reverence to the legacy of his ancestors and in the hope of someone emerging to rescue his country from the dominance of the Turanian faction . And Allah

4830-911: The Druzes (mainly in Syria and also in Lebanon, Jordan) and Mandaeans (in Iraq). Formerly, there were significant minorities of Jews throughout the Arab World. However, the Arab–Israeli conflict prompted their mass exodus between 1948 and 1972. Today small Jewish communities remain, ranging anywhere from just 10 in Bahrain , to more than 1,000 in Tunisia and some 3,000 in Morocco . Historically, slavery in

4968-477: The Grand National Assembly of Turkey formally abolished the caliphate . After the exile of Mehmed VI , Hussein bin Ali made statements in support of the Ottoman dynasty , which had been ruined and exiled from Turkey . In this regard, he declared: The services rendered by the Ottoman family to Islam and Muslims are undeniable; their heroism cannot be belittled. The recent decision regarding

5106-544: The Kemalists , that Hussein bin Ali was proclaimed caliph in March 1924. His stance towards the Ottoman caliphate was ambiguous, and while he was hostile to it, he preferred to wait for its official abolition before assuming the title, so as not to break the Ummah by creating a second caliph alongside the Ottoman caliph . He also supported financially the late Ottoman dynasty in exile, to avoid them being ruined. His caliphate

5244-596: The Mashreq . The majority of the vocabulary in these vernaculars is shared with Standard Arabic, but they also significantly borrow from other languages, such as Berber , French , Spanish and Italian in the Maghreb. Although no globally accepted definition of the Arab world exists, all countries that are members of the Arab League are generally acknowledged as being part of the Arab world. The Arab League

5382-430: The Mashriq at 73.6%. The United Nations published an Arab human development report in 2002, 2003 and 2004. These reports, written by researchers from the Arab world, address some sensitive issues in the development of Arab countries: women empowerment, availability of education and information among others. There is no single description of Arab cinema since it includes films from various countries and cultures of

5520-506: The Middle East , film production was scarce until the late 1960s and early 1970s when filmmakers began to receive funding and financial assistance from state organizations. This was during the post-independence and is when most Arab cinema took root. Most films produced at that time were funded by the state and contained a nationalistic dimension. These films helped to advance certain social causes such as independence, and other social, economic and political agendas. A sustained film industry

5658-427: The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) definition. In post-classical history , the Arab world was synonymous with the historic Arab empires and caliphates. Arab nationalism arose in the second half of the 19th century along with other nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire . The Arab League was formed in 1945 to represent the interests of Arab people and especially to pursue the political unification of

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5796-437: The Sunni caliphate during various eras, the most famous one being under the Abbasid caliphate . The idea of the Sharifian Caliphate has been floating since at least the 15th century. The Sharifs of Mecca were significant figures in Sunni Islam because, in addition to them being Sayyids and their control over the two most important mosques in Islam , they also guaranteed the free passage for performing Hajj and defended

5934-598: The Syrian territories in which the Armenian genocide took place, he issued a decree to protect Armenians from persecution and allow them to settle in peace, in which he ordered : "What is requested of you is to protect and to take good care of everyone from the Jacobite Armenian community living in your territories and frontiers and among your tribes; to help them in all of their affairs and defend them as you would defend yourselves, your properties and children, and provide everything they might need whether they are settled or moving from place to place, because they are

6072-518: The abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate . Mahatma Gandhi , who was closely following the events in Palestine and the Muslim world supported the restoration of the caliphate but didn't take position on which he would support. In practice, the caliphate quickly came to an end when the Hashemite family had to flee the Hejaz after its capture by the Ikhwan forces of Ibn Saud , the founder of Saudi Arabia, in 1924-1925, preventing any long-term establishment. Nevertheless, despite his exile and imprisonment by

6210-430: The standard territorial definition , various parameters may be applied to determine whether a state or territory should be included in this alternative definition of the Arab world. These parameters may be applied to the states and territories of the Arab League (which constitute the Arab world under the standard definition) and to other states and territories. Typical parameters that may be applied include: whether Arabic

6348-587: The 16th to 17th centuries. The Ajuran Sultanate also held sway in the southern part of the Horn region. The sentiment of Arab nationalism arose in the second half of the 19th century along with other nationalisms within the declining Ottoman Empire . When the Ottoman Empire collapsed as a result of World War I , much of the Arab world came to be controlled by the European colonial empires: Mandatory Palestine , Mandatory Iraq , British protectorate of Egypt , French protectorate of Morocco , Italian Libya , French Tunisia , French Algeria , Mandate for Syria and

6486-406: The 19 states where Arabs form at least a plurality of the population. At its maximum it consists of the 22 members of the Arab League , an international organization, which on top of the 19 plurality Arab states also includes the Comoros , Djibouti and Somalia . The region stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in

6624-410: The Almighty, who restored the sacred caliphate to its rightful owners." The Ottoman sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, at the close of the Turkish War of Independence . The office of caliph, however, was retained for an additional sixteen months, during which it was held by Abdülmecid II . He served as caliph under the patronage of the newly founded Turkish Republic until 3 March 1924, when

6762-429: The Ankara government abolishing the caliphate prompted the distinguished religious scholars of the holy sites of Mecca and Medina , as well as those of Al-Aqsa Mosque and the surrounding countries, to surprise us and compel us to pledge allegiance with great enthusiasm to the grand leadership and the grand caliphate. This was in lieu of observing religious rituals and the fasting prescribed by clear legislation, due to

6900-425: The Aqil and Bisha tribes, both tribes being from 'Asir, in Mecca and then began to march against al-Idrisi. After an initial defeat due to the heat and a cholera epidemic, he managed to inflict two heavy defeats on the Idrisid forces . Then, he managed to break the siege of Abha , which was being conducted by al-Idrisi forces and where Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governor of the city, was entrenched. Overall, he

7038-522: The Arab countries; a project known as Pan-Arabism . In page 9 of Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions , 10th century Arab geographer Al Maqdisi used the term Arab regions ( Arabic : أَقَالِيمُ ٱلْعَرَبِ ) to refer to the lands of the Arabian Peninsula (Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen). He also considered Iraq, alongside Upper Mesopotamia (Iraq, Syria and Turkey), Ash-Sham (Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and Turkey), Egypt and

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7176-485: The Arab world adhere to Islam , and the religion has official status in most countries. Shariah law exists partially in the legal system in some countries (especially in the Arabian Peninsula ), while others are legislatively secular . The majority of the Arab countries adhere to Sunni Islam . Iraq and Bahrain , however, are Shia majority countries, while Lebanon , Yemen , and Kuwait have large Shia minorities. In Saudi Arabia , Ismailite pockets are also found in

7314-456: The Arab world and therefore does not have one form, structure, or style. In its inception, Arab cinema was mostly an imitation of Western cinema. However, it has and continues to constantly change and evolve. It mostly includes films made in Egypt , Lebanon , Syria , Iraq , Kuwait , Algeria , Morocco , and Tunisia . Egypt is a pioneer in the field, but each country in the region has its own unique cinema. Elsewhere in North Africa and

7452-608: The Arab world under the standard territorial definition. Somalia has two official languages, Arabic and Somali , while Somaliland has three, Arabic, Somali and English . Both Arabic and Somali belong to the larger Afro-Asiatic language family. Although Arabic is widely spoken by many people in the north and urban areas in the south, Somali is the most widely used language, and contains many Arabic loan words . Similarly, Djibouti has two official languages, Arabic and French . It also has several formally recognized national languages; besides Somali, many people speak Afar , which

7590-407: The Arab world, has as its official language Maltese . The language is grammatically akin to Maghrebi Arabic. In the Arab world, Modern Standard Arabic , derived from Classical Arabic (symptomatic of Arabic diglossia ), serves as an official language in the Arab League states, and Arabic dialects are used as lingua franca. Various indigenous languages are also spoken, which predate the spread of

7728-546: The Arab world. For example, films from Algeria , Lebanon , Morocco , Palestine , Syria and Tunisia are making wider and more frequent rounds than ever before in local film festivals and repertoire theaters. Arab cinema has explored many topics from politics, colonialism, tradition, modernity and social taboos. It has also attempted to escape from its earlier tendency to mimic and rely on Western film devices. In fact, colonization did not only influence Arab films, but it also had an impact on Arab movies theaters. Apart from

7866-415: The Arabic language. This contrasts with the situation in the wider Islamic world , where, in contiguous Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan, the Perso-Arabic script is used and Arabic is the primary liturgical language, but the tongue is not official at the state level or spoken as a vernacular . Arabs constitute around one quarter of the 1.5 billion Muslims in the Islamic world. The majority of people in

8004-461: The Arabs". During the whole duration of the war, Hussein's troops stayed underequipped and lacking artillery – which the Allies didn't want to give, seing that front as utopical and not as important as the fight was in the Western front , among others. This lack of artillery and high mobility ; since most of the troops were mounted Bedouins , pushed them to use guerilla tactics in the desert ; for example by severing Ottoman supplies with

8142-433: The British High Commissioner in the Sultanate of Egypt , Hussein seized the opportunity and demanded recognition of an Arab nation that included the Hejaz and other adjacent territories as well as approval for the proclamation of an Arab Caliphate of Islam. High Commissioner McMahon accepted and assured him that his assistance would be rewarded by an Arab empire encompassing the entire span between Egypt and Persia , with

8280-434: The British on Cyprus , he continued to use the caliph title until his death. Hussein bin Ali was buried in Jerusalem in 1931, as he wasn't able to be buried in Mecca , as he wanted and as was the norm for Sharifs of Mecca until then, for Ibn Saud didn't want to allow him being buried there. Thus, local dignitaries and leaders wanted him to be buried in the al-Aqsa mosque compound. As the last caliph of Sunni Islam , he

8418-423: The Committee of Union and Progress of violating tenets of Islam and limiting the power of the sultan-caliph. While his armies, led by his sons, were engaged in fighting the Ottoman and German troops in the Middle East , Hussein supported the Armenians during the Armenian genocide and saved up to 4,000 of them. In the aftermath of World War I , Hussein refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles , in protest of

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8556-530: The Dhawu Awn branch and ending the centuries-long dominance of the Dhawu Zayd. He reigned until 1851, when he was replaced by Sharif Abd al-Muttalib ibn Ghalib of the Dhawu Zayd. After being deposed, he sent his family and sons to reside in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople . It was there that Hussein was born to Muhammad's son, Ali, in 1853–1854. Muhammad was reinstated to power in 1856, and Hussein, then two or three years old, accompanied his father and grandfather to Mecca . Muhammad quickly died in 1858 and

8694-410: The Dhawu Awn clan of the Abadilah, a branch of the Banu Qatadah tribe. The Banu Qatadah had ruled the Sharifate of Mecca since the accession of their ancestor Qatadah ibn Idris in 1201 and were the last of the four branches of Hashemite sharifs who, together, had governed Mecca since the 11th century . In 1827, Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in was appointed as the Sharif, becoming the first Sharif of

8832-409: The First World War, siding with fellow anti-Saudis, the Ottomans in 1910. Hussein initiated a series of reforms, including measures to avoid offending Muslims from French or British colonies who undertook the Hajj . He also addressed the issue of stray dogs, attempted to ensure the security of the Hajj routes, and sought to combat the prevalent slave markets in the Hejaz region . He undertook

8970-419: The GPI of Yemen is only 0.46 in a 53% adult literacy rate. Literacy rate is higher among the youth than adults. Youth literacy rate (ages 15–24) in the Arab region increased from 63.9 to 76.3% from 1990 to 2002. The average rate of GCC States * Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) was 94%, followed by the Maghreb at 83.2% and

9108-505: The Grand Sherif could not be found; if they are still unavailable it may be somewhat awkward when King Hussein produces the originals. (...) Failing a satisfactory solution King Hussein will have some grounds for considering that Great Britain has broken her pledged word." In 1919, King Hussein refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles . In August 1920, five days after the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres , Curzon asked Cairo to procure Hussein's signature to both treaties and agreed to make

9246-401: The Hashemite King of the Arabs, Hussein bin Ali bin Awn al-Hashemi , with the Islamic caliphate , on the condition that the matter is conducted through consultation, as commanded by Allah Almighty. It is also conditioned that no actions contradict the public interest of Muslims , and that decisions regarding the affairs of Palestine, its government structure, and its opinions are made only with

9384-423: The Lebanon and the so-called Trucial States , a British protectorate formed by the sheikhdoms on the former "Pirate Coast". Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi ( Arabic : ٱلْحُسَيْن بِن عَلِي ٱلْهَاشِمِي , romanized :  al-Ḥusayn bin 'Alī al-Hāshimī pronunciation ; 1 May 1854 – 4 June 1931) was an Arab leader from the Banu Qatadah branch of

9522-428: The Maghreb (Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia and Western Sahara Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic) to be part of the Arab regions. Malta , an island country in Southern Europe whose national language derives from Arabic (through Sicilian Arabic ), is not included in the region. Similarly, Chad , Eritrea and Israel recognize Arabic as one of their official or working languages but are not included in

9660-437: The Muslim world developed out of pre-Islamic practices of slavery in the Arab world . According to UNESCO , the average rate of adult literacy (ages 15 and older) in this region is 78% . In Mauritania the rate is lower than the average, at less than 50%. Bahrain , Palestine , Kuwait , Qatar , and Jordan record a high adult literacy rate of over 95%. The average rate of adult literacy shows steady improvement, and

9798-419: The Nile Valley, Levant and northern Iraq respectively. There are also Assyrian , Armenian , Syriac - Aramean and Arab Christians throughout Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and Jordan. There are also native Arab Christian communities in Algeria, Bahrain, Morocco, Kuwait and Tunisia. Smaller ethno-religious minorities across the Arab League include the Yezidis , Yarsan and Shabaks (mainly in Iraq),

9936-590: The Ottoman Empire. The battle happened at the same time as the Vardar offensive in the Balkans , which managed to overrun Bulgarian defences, thus opening the Balkans and ultimately Austria-Hungary . Since the war was seemingly won, and the Ottoman defences were crumbling, Faisal projected himself towards Damascus, which he took the 1st of October 1918. After this, he engaged in the pursuit to Haritan , pursuing

10074-487: The Ottoman government deteriorated after the Committee of Union and Progress took power, particularly because of their policies of Turkification and persecution of ethnic minorities, including Arabs. In 1916, with the promise of British support for Arab independence, although it is debated as to what extent the British were influential in his choice, he proclaimed the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire , accusing

10212-627: The Protected People of the Muslims ( Ahl Dimmat al-Muslimin ) – about whom the Prophet Muhammad (may Allah grant him His blessings and peace) said: "Whosoever takes from them even a rope, I will be his adversary on the day of Judgment". This is among the most important things we require of you to do and expect you to accomplish, in view of your noble character and determination". The Armenian National Institute considers it to be

10350-957: The Saudis, bringing the Kingdom of Hejaz, the Sharifate of Mecca and the Sharifian Caliphate to an end. Hussein was then sent into exile to Cyprus , where the British kept him prisoner until his health deteriorated so much that they allowed him to go back to Amman , next to his son Abdullah I of Jordan . He died in Amman in 1931 and was buried as a Caliph in the Al-Aqsa mosque compound. Hussein bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in bin Awn

10488-619: The Sharifian court. He also participated in numerous expeditions to the Najd and the eastern regions of Hejaz to meet the Arab tribes, over whom the Sharifate of Mecca then exerted a loose form of control. He learned the customs of the Bedouins , including the skills necessary to withstand the harsh desert environment. During his travels, he also gained a thorough knowledge of the desert's flora and fauna and composed poems in humayni verse,

10626-674: The Supreme Islamic Council in Jerusalem , at the Al-Aqsa Mosque. Under the presidency of Amin al-Husseini and Al-Taji, they discussed the matter. Finally, they proclaimed a document of allegiance to the caliphate of Hussein bin Ali, in which they stated: We, the muftis, judges, dignitaries, and representatives of the Palestinian land , the people of authority and contract, pledge our allegiance to His Majesty,

10764-479: The Triple Entente powers, he refused, considering this jihad illegitimate. On 1 November 1916, as the British sought to inquire about Hussein bin Ali's stance on the caliphate issue, he expressed through his son that he aligned himself with the opinion of the ulama of Mecca , who would have deemed it illegitimate. However, he stated that he preferred to leave the decision to the ulama . In 1917, after

10902-500: The absolute number of adult illiterates fell from 64 million to around 58 million between 1990 and 2000–2004. Overall, the gender disparity in adult literacy is high in this region, and of the illiteracy rate, women account for two-thirds, with only 69 literate women for every 100 literate men. The average GPI (Gender Parity Index) for adult literacy is 0.72, and gender disparity can be observed in Egypt, Morocco, and Yemen. Above all,

11040-502: The advance of Saudi forces. However, Hussein's caliphate received a rather diverse recognition from the Arab world who was still under colonial rule. For example, the situation in Egypt was different, King Fuad of Egypt tried to assume the title by organizing an Islamic Congress in Cairo in 1925, with the support of Al-Azhar University , which would chose him as a new Caliph, but this plan

11178-444: The age of 18. Rapists are often treated leniently or acquitted in the Arab region if they marry their victims. 37% of Arab women experienced violence in their lifetime, but the numbers may be higher according to indicators. In some countries, the share of women experiencing violence and abuse by intimate partner reaches 70%. Table of largest cities in the Arab world by official city propers : The Arabs historically originate as

11316-492: The appointment of an Arab Sayyid as caliph can be traced back to 1883, when Sheikh Hamat-al-Din seized control of Sanaa and explicitly called for the establishment of a caliphate led by a Sayyid. During this period, an increasing number of Muslim and Arab thinkers began to advocate for the idea of a caliphate returning to the Quraysh , such as Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi . According to Israeli historian Joshua Teitelbaum, there

11454-487: The areas affected. The troops of Hussein also committed war crimes, deciding to execute Turkish troops responsible of the Tafas massacre against Arabian civilians, instead of taking them prisoners. After the fall of Aqaba, the Arab forces, supplemented with British auxiliaries and with the design of joining forces with the British main armies, which were trying to break out of Egypt and Palestine, managed to join them. During

11592-716: The areas in question had already been claimed by the new British ally, France. Having received a British subsidy totalling £6.5m between 1916 and April 1919, in May 1919, the subsidy was reduced to £100K monthly (from £200K), dropped to £75K from October, £50K in November, £25K in December until February 1920 after which no more payments were made. The British were not disposed to fulfill their promises to Hussein, as Colonel Wilson stated in secret correspondence : "At one time, our Arabic copies of Sir H. MacMahon's letters to

11730-506: The bombings of specific sections of the Hejaz railway . After the fall of Medina, the Arab troops were able to secure Aqaba quickly and this allowed them to project themselves farther; they still ambushed Ottoman troops, such as during the battle of Wadi Musa , helping themselves with their superior knowledge of the Arabian and Syrian deserts. This conflict was marked by widespread ethnic cleansing directed at non-Turkish populations in

11868-581: The caliphate as being "paid by the British". Finally, supporters who refused to abandon the caliphate were arrested and then deported. Meanwhile, they had the Sultan of Morocco ready to assume the caliph title if necessary, offering the French a caliph who was more aligned with their interests, albeit less significant. In the Weimar Republic , the Muslim communities supported Hussein and were opposed to

12006-574: The consent of its people. A third counting of the official date takes place when he received the homage of the majority of the Arab population in Amman as the caliph, on March 11, 1924. On 10 March 1924, he received the allegiance of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem , according to Arabic newspaper al-Rihlat. Finally, a fourth version places the date on Friday, 14 March 1924, when Hussein

12144-467: The current state of Arab cinema. Women in the Arab world are still denied equality of opportunity , although their disenfranchisement is a critical factor crippling the Arab nations' quest to return to the first rank of global leaders in commerce, learning and culture, according to a United Nations -sponsored report in 2008. According to the United Nations, 14% of Arab girls are married by

12282-572: The eastern Al-Hasa region and the southern city of Najran. Ibadi Islam is practiced in Oman , where Ibadis constitute around 75% of Muslims. There are also Christian adherents in the Arab world, particularly in Egypt , Syria , Lebanon , Iraq , Jordan , and Palestine . Small native Christian communities can be found also throughout the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa . Coptic , Maronite and Assyrian Christian enclaves exist in

12420-638: The empire. In 1908, the Hejaz Railway was completed, allowing the Turks to strengthen their control over the Hejaz and provide a rapid response capability to reinforce their garrisons in Mecca and Medina . It was built under constant threat of Arab raids, such as those from the Harb tribe , which demonstrated their hostility towards the project. Furthermore, in April 1915, the Ottoman government began

12558-639: The event of a conflict, and potentially giving the Red Sea to the British. As a result, the French were very opposed to this Caliphate. In the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon , although the first reactions were positive, they engaged in various strategies to fight against it. First, in Beirut , Damascus , and Aleppo , the French governors were ordered to monitor local muftis and ulamas . Subsequently, they forced local press to insert articles attacking

12696-465: The exception of British possessions and interests in Kuwait , Aden , and the Syrian coast. However, at that time, the British scarcely thought about the promises made; their primary concern was winning the war and dismantling the Ottoman Empire. The fate of the Arab populations and the division of territory were left for a future date. According to Ekrem Buğra Ekinci , the links between Hussein and

12834-399: The family [exile] has pierced the hearts and saddened the spirits of Muslims. Therefore, we see it as an obligation of Islamic brotherhood to meet the needs of the family and prevent them from experiencing financial difficulties. Those who wish to participate in this great endeavor should express their intentions to our representatives in Mecca. In the same perspective, he financially supported

12972-399: The family [exile] has pierced the hearts and saddened the spirits of Muslims. Therefore, we see it as an obligation of Islamic brotherhood to meet the needs of the family and prevent them from experiencing financial difficulties. Those who wish to participate in this great endeavor should express their intentions to our representatives in Mecca. In the same perspective, he financially supported

13110-549: The hands of a Quraysh . The newspaper Al-Iraq reported that the Ja'fari school agreed in seing him as the legitimate Caliph of Islam, even if he was Sunni. To reinforce his proclamation and establish legal foundations for his caliphate, Hussein convened an Islamic Congress at Mecca in 1924, it comprised both Sunni and Shia Muslims and was thus arguably one of the most inclusive Islamic Congresses in history. The Congress held twelve sessions before being indefinitely adjourned due to

13248-478: The history of Arab cinema, recently the portrayal of women became an important aspect in the production of Arab cinema. Arab women shaped a great portion of the film industry in the Arab world by employing their cinematic talents in improving the production of Arab films. The production of Arab cinema has declined in the last decades and many filmmakers in the Middle East gathered to hold a meeting and discuss

13386-429: The inadmissibility for Muslims to remain without an imam for more than three days, as explicitly stated in the recommendations of the venerable Farouk [= nickname of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb ]. He also started a program of restorations of religious buildings, starting with the mosques of Palestine, most notably the al-Aqsa mosque , for which he funded 26,672 liras. Even if some didn't support him, it seems that his claim to

13524-534: The increasingly nationalistic Ottoman administration. Following deliberations at Ta'if between Hussein and his sons in June 1915, during which Faisal counselled caution, Ali argued against rebellion and Abdullah advocated action and encouraged his father to enter into correspondence with Sir Henry McMahon ; over the period 14 July 1915 to 10 March 1916, a total of ten letters, five from each side, were exchanged between Sir Henry McMahon and Sherif Hussein. McMahon

13662-617: The lands of Allah in which nothing will ever stand except the Shariah of Allah [...] The constitution of the lands of Allah is the Shariah of Allah and the Sunnah of His Prophet". His main teacher was Ahmad Zayni Dahlan , with whom he became a hafiz . He had a Shafi'i and Hanafi education, but also allied with the Malikis and opposed the Wahhabis , at a time when adherence to

13800-480: The last Khedive of Egypt , even though he was a sympathizer of the Young Turks. Hussein decided to join the Allied camp immediately, because of information that he would soon be deposed as Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman government in favor of Sharif Ali Haidar , leader of the rival Zaʻid family. The much-publicized executions of the Arab nationalist leaders in Damascus led Hussein to fear for his life if he

13938-474: The last major restoration of the Masjid al-Haram in 1920 and a restoration of the mosques of Palestine and more specifically of al-Aqsa mosque , for which he funded 26,672 liras. Starting from 1917, Hussein made decisions to protect the Armenian refugees and those residing in his lands from the Armenian genocide . First, he condemned the genocide publicly as early as 1916, stating "We specifically bring to

14076-399: The leading figure behind whom the pan-Arabs rallied, and is therefore frequently regarded as the father of pan-Arabism . During World War I , Hussein initially remained allied with the Ottomans but began secret negotiations with the British on the advice of his son, Abdullah , who had served in the Ottoman parliament up to 1914 and was convinced that it was necessary to separate from

14214-558: The members of the exiled Ottoman dynasty to prevent them from being ruined. Despite his complicated financial and economic situation, he provided them with 2400 liras. The claim to the title was recognized by a large part of the Hejazi, Levantine and more generally Arabic Muslim population. He also received the support of Mehmed VI , on March 18, 1924, one of the last Ottoman Caliphs and the last Ottoman Sultan , according to The Times and Vatan , that reported that he supported him as

14352-459: The members of the exiled Ottoman dynasty to prevent them from being ruined. Despite his complicated financial and economic situation, he provided them with 2400 liras. As long as the Ottoman caliphate existed, Hussein didn't want to take the title, to avoid dividing the Ummah. After the Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly , Hussein was proclaimed as Caliph. The accounts on

14490-530: The mosques of Damascus , Jerusalem , Beirut , Mecca , Baghdad , Amman , Medina , and Aleppo organized public prayers for him. In the Haifa region, the British governor noted that both Christian and Muslim Arabs rallied behind the new proclamation. According to the newspaper al-Ahram , Hussein also received the allegiance of the Shia Muslims of Iraq , which were satisfied to see the Caliphate going in

14628-704: The north to the Indian Ocean in the southeast. The eastern part of the Arab world is known as the Mashriq , and the western part as the Maghreb . According to the World Bank , the Arab world has a total population of 456 million inhabitants and a gross domestic product of $ 2.85 trillion, as of 2021. The region is nevertheless diverse in many ways, and economically includes some of the wealthiest as well as poorest populations. The region mostly corresponds with

14766-520: The official date and proceedings vary, some place the beginning of the Caliphate on 3 March 1924, when Hussein would have declared himself Caliph at his son Abdullah's winter camp in Shunah, Transjordan . Other accounts, such as a Reuters dispatch, instead set the date as 7 March 1924, and describe Hussein bin Ali being elected as a caliph by Muslims from "Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Hejaz." He visited numerous scholars during this period, traveling within his territories. Thus, on 10 March 1924, he visited

14904-546: The oldest declaration by a head of state to recognize the Armenian genocide. Alongside this, he gave citizenship to his Armenian subjects. According to survivors of the Armenian genocide, such as Levon Yotnakhparian, Hussein personally received him and was shocked by the news of what was happening. He also supported Armenian survivors and provided men and protection for expeditions in the Syrian desert aimed at rescuing Armenian deportees. According to testimonies, this method

15042-482: The pilgrimage route against various raids carried out by Bedouins targeting the pilgrims. Towards the end of the 19th century, the prospects for a potential Sharifian Caliphate grew more realistic due to the decline of the Ottoman Empire , which had been heavily defeated in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 . The initial Arab uprisings challenging the authority of the Ottoman caliphate and advocating for

15180-553: The proclamation of his caliphate and the refusal to sign any treaty with them. Thus, they decided to support Ibn Saud , who promptly launched an invasion of the Kingdom of Hejaz. In October 1924, facing defeat by Ibn Saud, he abdicated and was succeeded as king by his eldest son Ali bin Hussein . After Hejaz was subsequently completely invaded by the Ibn Saud - Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan , on 23 December 1925, Hussein surrendered to

15318-726: The proclamation of independence of the Arab Kingdom , the ulamas of Mecca announced a series of reasons why the Ottoman Caliphate would be illegitimate and Hussein bin Ali would be legitimate: What does the Mohammedan world say of the Beni Osman who pretend to be Caliphs of Islam , while for many years they were like puppets in the hands of the Janissaries ; tossed about, dethroned, and killed by them, in

15456-428: The region because they are not members of the Arab League. The linguistic and political denotation inherent in the term Arab is generally dominant over genealogical considerations. In Arab states, Standard Arabic is used by the government. Local vernacular languages are referred to as Darija ( الدَّارِجَة "everyday/colloquial language" ) in the Maghreb or Aammiyya ( ٱلْعَامِيَّة "common language") in

15594-654: The remnants of the Yildirim Army Group and ultimately taking Aleppo on the 25 of October 1918 , thus ending the war on that front. The US State Department quotes an aide-mémoire dated 24 October 1917 given by the Arab Bureau to the American Diplomatic Agency in Cairo confirming that "...Britain, France and Russia agreed to recognize the Sherif as lawful independent ruler of the Hejaz and to use

15732-587: The restoration of the caliphate in the hands of a Quraysh , and especially for the acquisition of Arab independence from the Ottoman Empire . The relationship between Hussein and the Committee of Union and Progress worsened even more after the discovery and foiling of a plot by Enver Pasha to assassinate Hussein. All of these points led to a violent rupture between Arab elites and the Ottoman political class, and are reflected in Hussein's later proclamation of independence, where he presented his struggle as

15870-407: The standard territorial definition, the Arab world may be defined as consisting of peoples and states united to at least some degree by Arabic language, culture or geographic contiguity, or those states or territories in which the majority of the population speaks Arabic, and thus may also include populations of the Arab diaspora . When an ancillary linguistic definition is used in combination with

16008-473: The subject of Palestine. In January and February 1918, Hussein received the Hogarth Message and Bassett Letter in response to his requests for an explanation of the Balfour Declaration and Sykes-Picot Agreement respectively. Despite their explanations, he stated that Palestine should be included within the borders of the newly founded Arab Kingdom and should refuse Zionist settlers, even if he

16146-420: The title of "King of the Hejaz" when addressing him, and a note to this effect was handed to him on December 10, 1916". When Hussein declared himself King of the Hejaz , he also declared himself King of the Arab lands ( malik bilad-al-Arab ). This only aggravated his conflict with Abdulaziz ibn Saud , which was already present because of their differences in religious beliefs and with whom he had fought before

16284-476: The title was recognized by a large part of the Hejazi , Levantine and more generally Arabic Muslim population. He also received the support of Mehmed VI , on 18 March 1924 one of the last Ottoman Caliphs and the last Ottoman Sultan , according to The Times and Vatan , that reported that he supported him as the new Caliph. Arab publications like Al-Qiblah , Alif Ba , and Al-Nahdah supported him, and

16422-413: The two commanders, and Hussein decided to withdraw from 'Asir after having pursued the defeated Idrisid forces for some time. It seems that this campaign had a very negative impact on how Hussein viewed the Ottoman presence and actions in the Levant, and it is possible that from this moment on, he was already on the verge of rebellion. Although there is no formal evidence suggesting that Hussein bin Ali

16560-575: The veil covering the Kaaba and turned out to be a potent propaganda weapon for the Hashemites, who portrayed the Ottomans as desecrating Islam's most holy site. Hashemite forces in Mecca were joined by Egyptian troops sent by the British, who provided much needed artillery support, and took Mecca on 9 July 1916. Also on 10 June, another of Hussein's sons, the Emir Abdullah , attacked Ta'if ,

16698-523: The war, the Arabs found themselves freed from centuries of Ottoman rule. Hussein's son Faisal was made King of Syria , but this kingdom proved short-lived, as the Middle East came under mandate rule of France and the United Kingdom. The British Government subsequently made Faisal and his brother Abdullah kings of Iraq and Transjordan , respectively. Starting at the end of the war, Hussein found himself in severe conflict with Britain's views on

16836-606: The world's condemnation the atrocities committed against the Greeks and Armenians, atrocities that our holy law can only disapprove of". In this regard, he promulgated in 1917, in a decree: "In the name of Most Merciful Allah and our prophet Muhammad, we are addressing our Arab brothers (...) to take Armenian refugees in their families, to share with them their belongings – camels, food, shelter, blankets – and share everything that you have in excess, and everything that you can give to people." In April 1918, as part of his conquest of

16974-402: Was able to defeat the opposing forces. However, during this campaign, he seems to have been shocked by the violence of the Ottoman troops against the revolted and had a heated dispute with the Ottoman governor of Abha, Suleiman Pasha, after he began wanting to administer the territories he managed to reconquer according to Bedouin and Sharifian norms, as previously. This led to a rupture between

17112-490: Was able to emerge in Egypt when other parts of the Arab world had only been able to sporadically produce feature-length films due to limited financing. Arabic cinema is dominated by films from Egypt . Three quarters of all Arab movies are produced in Egypt. According to film critic and historian Roy Armes, the cinema of Lebanon is the only other in the Arabic-speaking region, beside Egypt's, that could amount to

17250-499: Was appointed grand sharif by official decree of the sultan Abdul Hamid II in November 1908. However, the situation was peculiar for Hussein, who arrived in Mecca in the midst of the Young Turk Revolution , which brought the Young Turks (CUP) to power. Upon his arrival, he met CUP representatives who greeted him as the "Constitutional Sharif," intending to gauge his response to such a designation. He replied: "Verily these are

17388-532: Was born in Constantinople in 1853 or 1854. He was the eldest son of Sharif Ali bin Muhammad, who is the second son of Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in , the former Sharif of Mecca . As a member of the Hashemite dynasty , he was a descendant of Muhammad in the 37th generation through his grandson Hasan bin Ali . His mother, Salah Bani-Shahar, the wife of Ali, would have been a Circassian . He belonged to

17526-686: Was buried in the Al-Arghuniyya Madrasa within the complex of the Al-Aqsa Mosque (Al-Haram al-Sharif) . The following inscription is written on the window above his tomb: Arabic : هَذَا قَبْرُ أَمِيرِ ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ ٱلْحُسَيْن بْنُ عَلِي , lit.   'Haḏa qabru ʾamīri ʾal-mūˈminīna ʾal-Ḥusayn bnu ʿAlī' which translates to "This is the tomb of the Commander of the Faithful, Hussein bin Ali." The Sharifian Caliphate

17664-489: Was conquered in 639, and gradually Arabized during the medieval period. A distinctively Egyptian Arabic language emerged by the 16th century. The Maghreb was also conquered in the 7th century, and gradually Arabized under the Fatimids . Islam was brought to Sudan from Egypt during the 8th to 11th centuries. The culture of Sudan today depends on the tribe, some have a pure Nubian, Beja , or Arabic culture and some have

17802-487: Was deposed in favour of Ali Haidar. The revolt proper began on 10 June 1916, when Hussein proclaimed the independence of the Kingdom of Hejaz and ordered his supporters to attack the Ottoman garrison in Mecca. In the Battle of Mecca , there ensued over a month of bloody street fighting between the out-numbered, but far better armed Ottoman troops and Hussein's tribesmen. Indiscriminate Ottoman artillery fire, set fire to

17940-442: Was evidently enthroned as caliph in Baghdad during the Friday prayer. In any case, all sources agree on a date in March 1924, shortly after the abolition of the Ottoman caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . The Kuwaiti newspaper Al-Rai also assigns the date of the caliphate to March 1924 and mentions the proclamation made by Hussein in Amman , followed by a pledge of allegiance from the Muslims. In it, they declared: The act of

18078-484: Was in contact with British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey throughout, and Grey was to authorise and be ultimately responsible for the correspondence. The British Secretary of State for War , Field Marshal Lord Kitchener , appealed to him for assistance in the conflict on the side of the Triple Entente . Starting in 1915, as indicated by an exchange of letters with Lieutenant Colonel Sir Henry McMahon ,

18216-554: Was inclined towards Arab nationalism before 1916, the rise of Turkish nationalism towards the end of the Ottoman Empire , culminating in the Young Turks Revolution of 1908 , strongly displeased the Hashemites and Bedouins . Additionally, the increasing centralization of the Ottoman Empire , the progressive prohibition of Arabic in teaching, Turkification policies , and the settlement of Turkish colonists in Arab areas worried and frightened Arabs throughout

18354-403: Was opposed by the British and French Empires, Zionists , and Wahhabis , but he received support from a large part of the Muslim population at the time, as well as from Mehmed VI . Although he lost the Hejaz and was exiled, then imprisoned by the British on Cyprus , Hussein continued to use the title until his death in 1931. The Banu Hashim , from which the Hashemites originate, held

18492-463: Was ready to accept Jewish people in Palestine , notably those who already lived there and were not coming from foreign countries. However, even after an assurance by McMahon, Hussein did not receive the lands promised by their British allies. McMahon claimed that the proposed lands to be taken in by the new Arab State were not purely Arab. In actuality, McMahon refused to hand over the new lands as

18630-409: Was seen more than five million times on YouTube as of May 2023. Arab world The Arab world ( Arabic : اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ al-ʿālam al-ʿarabī ), formally the Arab homeland ( اَلْوَطَنُ الْعَرَبِيُّ al-waṭan al-ʿarabī ), also known as the Arab nation ( اَلْأُمَّةُ الْعَرَبِيَّةُ al-ummah al-ʿarabiyyah ), the Arabsphere , or the Arab states , comprises

18768-406: Was sent back to Constantinople by the reigning uncle at that time in 1892–1893. He remained there for 15 years, until 1908, mainly focusing on raising his children, learning the politics of the Sublime Porte —where he aligned with the conservative faction—and hoping to return home. Following the removal of his predecessor in October and the sudden death of his successor shortly thereafter, Hussein

18906-415: Was succeeded by his eldest son, Sharif Abdullah Pasha, Hussein's uncle. He returned to Mecca after his father's death, at a young age, when his uncle Sharif Abdullah called them back, with his mother in 1861–1862. Hussein was raised at home, unlike other Hashemite youth who were typically sent outside the city to grow up among Bedouin nomads. Apparently a diligent young man, he mastered the principles of

19044-506: Was ultimately scrapped since it lacked general support and led to protests, in part because he was seen as a monarch closely linked with the British . The French viewed this proclamation as "the worst possible solution" in the words of Hubert Lyautey , who also defended that the Ottoman Caliphate was better for French interests than the Sharifian Caliphate. They believed that having a new influential caliph could risk reviving pan-Islamism , causing instability in French Muslim colonies in

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