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63-517: The Royal Infirmary was a hospital in Upperthorpe , Sheffield , South Yorkshire , England. Founding an infirmary for Sheffield was suggested in an anonymous letter written 1789 and following a public meeting in April 1792, public subscriptions amounting to £15,000 were collected and a site on Upperthorpe Meadows purchased. Designed by John Rawsthorne, with many unique features, the first stone of

126-404: A pub first being called The Eversley House, then The Moon and it is now known as The Office. The Sheffield Royal Infirmary closed in the 1980s; it has been renovated and renamed Heritage Park. It is used as office space. The complex comprises four buildings, Heritage House, Centenary House and The Roundhouse which were all part of the hospital. The fourth building, Victoria House is newly built and

189-550: A tannery . The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin tannāre , derivative of tannum ( oak bark ), from French tan (tanbark), from old-Cornish tann (oak). These terms are related to the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European * dʰonu meaning ' fir tree'. (The same word is source for Old High German tanna meaning 'fir', related to modern German Tannenbaum ). Ancient civilizations used leather for waterskins , bags, harnesses and tack, boats, armour , quivers , scabbards , boots , and sandals . Tanning

252-516: A Grade II* listed building survived, it was renamed Heritage House and converted into offices. A former gatehouse lodge also remains, although late 2020 was in a state of neglect, marred by graffiti. Upperthorpe, Sheffield Upperthorpe is a part of the City of Sheffield , England. It lies 1.2 miles (2 km) west of the city centre. The area falls within the Walkley ward of the City. It

315-441: A bath solution containing vegetable tannins, such as found in gallnuts , the leaves of sumac , the leaves of certain acacia trees, the outer green shells of walnuts , among other plants. The use of vegetable tanning is a process that takes longer than mineral tanning when converting rawhides into leather. Mineral tanned leather is used principally for shoes, car seats, and upholstery in homes (sofas, etc.). Vegetable tanned leather

378-520: A cost of £7 million. After the late sixties redevelopment, a recreation area, known as The Ponderosa was created next to the tower blocks on the site of demolished terraced houses. The Kelvin Flats were constructed in 1965 on Infirmary Road; this was a massive and radical development similar to Park Hill Flats . It consisted of two 13 storey deck access blocks containing 948 flats. The two blocks consisted of four wide walks, informally known as "Streets in

441-463: A farming settlement with the first sign of the encroachment of Sheffield town being the building of Sheffield Royal Infirmary on Upperthorpe Meadows, then half a mile outside the town. The Infirmary opened for patients on 4 October 1797 and received a very good supply of clean water from the Spring Vale stream which flowed down from the vicinity of Crookes village; the stream continued to supply

504-427: A high content of glycine , proline , and hydroxyproline , usually in the repeat -gly-pro-hypro-gly-. These residues give rise to collagen's helical structure. Collagen's high content of hydroxyproline allows cross-linking by hydrogen bonding within the helical structure. Ionized carboxyl groups (RCO 2 ) are formed by the action of hydroxide. This conversion occurs during the liming process, before introduction of

567-480: A large factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is especially prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries. The UN Leather Working Group (LWG) "provides an environmental audit protocol, designed to assess the facilities of leather manufacturers," for "traceability, energy conservation, [and] responsible management of waste products." Untanned hides can be dried and made pliable by rubbing and stretching

630-540: A plot of land of one rood (quarter of an acre) and were occupied mainly by steel industry craftsmen and their families with the original occupants including scissors , spring knife and cutlery manufacturers. Today the Birkendale neighbourhood is a conservation area with 65 houses in total. Sir Stuart Goodwin (1886–1969) founder of the Neepsend Steel and Tool Corporation was born at 120 Upperthorpe; he

693-400: A skin at a slaughterhouse, farm, or local fur trader. Before tanning, the skins are often dehaired, then have fat, meat and connective tissue removed. They are then washed and soaked in water with various compounds, and prepared to receive a tanning agent. They are then soaked, stretched, dried, and sometimes smoked. Preparing hides begins by curing them with salt to prevent putrefaction of

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756-507: A small recreation area featuring mature trees and wildlife. The Upperthorpe Public Library is a grade II listed building in the heart of Upperthorpe. It was constructed in 1874 by E.M. Gibbs. The Upperthorpe Baths stand next door to the library and date from 1895 and are by the architect Charles Wike. Both the library and the baths have since 2003 been part of the Upperthorpe Healthy Living Centre, now known as

819-534: A time when both Viking and Old English words had been integrated into local speech giving a founding date in the 9th or 10th century. By 1383 the settlement was known as Hoperthorpe which gradually evolved into Upperthorpe over the centuries. By the middle of the 16th century tanning had become a major industry within Upperthorpe with the Rawsons, an ancient Hallamshire family, setting up tanning pits in

882-525: Is an area of residential housing and is bounded by Walkley to the north, Crookes to the west and Netherthorpe to the south. The date of the first settlement in the Upperthorpe area is not clear; the name itself is a combination of the Danish word "thorpe" meaning "outlying farmstead" and a surname which was the Middle English word for a cooper . This means that the settlement was founded at

945-419: Is considered one of the most effective tanning compounds. Chromium-tanned leather can contain between 4 and 5% of chromium. This efficiency is characterized by its increased hydrothermal stability of the skin, and its resistance to shrinkage in heated water. Vegetable tanning uses tannins (a class of polyphenol astringent chemicals), which occur naturally in the bark and leaves of many plants. Tannins bind to

1008-403: Is consistent with cross-linking by polychromium species, of the sort arising from olation and oxolation. Before the introduction of the basic chromium species in tanning, several steps are required to produce a tannable hide. The pH must be very acidic when the chromium is introduced to ensure that the chromium complexes are small enough to fit between the fibers and residues of the collagen. Once

1071-416: Is excellent for use in handbags and garments. After application of the chromium agent, the bath is treated with sodium bicarbonate in the basification process to increase the pH to 3.8–4.0, inducing cross-linking between the chromium and the collagen. The pH increase is normally accompanied by a gradual temperature increase up to 40 °C. Chromium's ability to form such stable bridged bonds explains why it

1134-419: Is not very flexible. It is used for luggage, furniture, footwear, belts, and other clothing accessories. Wet white is a term used for leathers produced using alternative tanning methods that produce an off-white colored leather. Like wet blue, wet white is also a semifinished stage. Wet white can be produced using aldehydes , aluminum, zirconium, titanium, or iron salts, or a combination thereof. Concerns with

1197-428: Is preferred. Once bating is complete, the hides and skins are treated by first soaking them in a bath containing common salt (sodium chloride), usually 1 quart of salt to 1 gallon of hot water. When the water cools, one fluid ounce of sulfuric acid is added. Small skins are left in this liquor for 2 days, while larger skins between 1 week and as much as 2 months. In vegetable tanning, the hides are made to soak in

1260-421: Is tawed by soaking in a warm potash alum and salts solution, between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F). The process increases the hide's pliability, stretchability, softness, and quality. Then, the hide is air dried (crusted) for several weeks, which allows it to stabilize. The use of alum alone for tanning rawhides is not recommended, as it shrinks the surface area of the skin, making it thicker and hard to

1323-420: Is the characteristic of the keratin class of proteins that gives strength to hair and wools (keratin typically makes up 90% of the dry weight of hair). The hydrogen atoms supplied by the sharpening agent weaken the cystine molecular link whereby the covalent disulfide bond links are ultimately ruptured, weakening the keratin. To some extent, sharpening also contributes to unhairing, as it tends to break down

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1386-439: Is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause problems in the kidneys and liver and is also considered a carcinogen . Formaldehyde and arsenic, which are used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens. The waste from leather tanneries is detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies plays

1449-461: Is used in leather crafting and in making small leather items, such as wallets, handbags and clothes. Chromium(III) sulfate ( [Cr(H 2 O) 6 ] 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ) has long been regarded as the most efficient and effective tanning agent. Chromium(III) compounds of the sort used in tanning are significantly less toxic than hexavalent chromium , although the latter arises in inadequate waste treatment. Chromium(III) sulfate dissolves to give

1512-620: The cholera outbreak of 1832 . With a gradient of 16.6° Blake Street is the third steepest residential street England. Ebenezer Elliott , the Corn Law Rhymer lived at Upperthorpe Villa between 1834 and 1841, a fact marked by a blue plaque on the building. House building continued in the area in the late 1840s with the Birkendale Freehold Land Society building a development of detached and semi detached villas on an area of over nine acres. Each villa had

1575-664: The Infirmary's 100th year, along with ophthalmic wards and a theatre, and the hospital was renamed from Sheffield General Infirmary, to Sheffield Royal Infirmary. Further additions followed in the 20th century. Radium treatment was first carried out in 1914 and the Radium Centre established at the Infirmary in 1930. In April 1941, during the Second World War , incendiary bombs fell on the infirmary. The buildings were saved by fire-fighters, while patients were moved to

1638-583: The Sky" and were named Edith Walk, Woollen Walk, Portland Walk and Kelvin Walk. The Kelvin had many social problems although a strong community spirit existed among the residents. In September 1992 Sheffield City Council announced the flats were to be knocked down with demolition taking place during 1995–6. The flats were replaced with an estate of conventional housing and the Philadelphia Green Space,

1701-483: The Victoria Block in 1872, and a new south-east wing designed by John Dodsley Webster which was completed 1884. Incorporated in the new courtyard was an innovative octagonal outpatients department, lit by a cupola, with a roof of wrought iron lattice girders; it had a tiled waiting room with consulting rooms leading off it. A Nurses' home named "Centenary House", also designed by Webster, was completed in 1897,

1764-462: The Zest Centre. Apart from the library and the pool, the centre offers a gym , café, office space and meeting rooms. Eversley House at 115 Upperthorpe Road is also grade II listed; it was originally constructed in 1840 as a private residence. In 1919 it was donated to St. Philip's church by Mr. James Wing, a steel manufacturer, and used as community rooms. In later years the house has been used as

1827-411: The adoption in medicine of soaking gut sutures in a chromium (III) solution after 1840, it was discovered that this method could also be used with leather and thus was adopted by tanners. The tanning process begins with obtaining an animal skin. When an animal skin is to be tanned, the animal is killed and skinned before the body heat leaves the tissues. This can be done by the tanner, or by obtaining

1890-529: The area around Daniel Hill, Blake Street and Birkendale, as well a small historic core area featuring the 19th century public baths and library. Seven tower blocks were built in Martin Street and Oxford Street between 1959 and 1961, these had 12 residential floors and are named Wentworth, Adelphi, Martin, Burlington, Bond, Albion and Oxford. The blocks were re-clad between 1993 and 1996 in a brown and white colour scheme by local contractors Henry Boot PLC at

1953-457: The area. Their business flourished over the years and they also established tanneries at nearby Walkley and Philadelphia. The industry started to falter in the 19th century and eventually lost out to more established tanning areas in Walsall and Leeds . Upperthorpe was the location of the first reservoir to supply water to Sheffield. In 1712 John Goodwin and Robert Littlewood were appointed by

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2016-437: The area; The White Rails and The Office. The Upperthorpe Hotel shut in 2009 and is now flats and shops. There is a small shopping area located centrally on Upperthorpe Road and a large Tesco store located within the grounds of the former Sheffield Royal Infirmary. There are no schools in the immediate area; Upperthorpe primary and infant school on Daniel Hill Street was closed down in the 1990s, demolished, and apartments built on

2079-408: The bark of certain trees, in the production of leather. An alternative method, developed in the 1800s, is chrome tanning, where chromium salts are used instead of natural tannins. Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin, making it more durable and less susceptible to decomposition and coloring. The place where hides are processed is known as

2142-491: The case of Bangladesh, chickens (the nation's most common source of protein). Up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained harmful levels of hexavalent chromium, adding to the national health problem load. Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases. Methylisothiazolinone , which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes problems with the eyes and skin. Anthracene , which

2205-436: The collagen from bacterial growth during the time lag from procuring the hide to when it is processed. Curing removes water from the hides and skins using a difference in osmotic pressure. The moisture content of hides and skins is greatly reduced, and osmotic pressure increased, to the point that bacteria are unable to grow. In wet-salting, the hides are heavily salted, then pressed into packs for about 30 days. In brine -curing,

2268-459: The collagen proteins in the hide and coat them, causing them to become less water-soluble and more resistant to bacterial attack. The process also causes the hide to become more flexible. The primary barks processed in bark mills and used in modern times are chestnut , oak , redoul , tanoak , hemlock , quebracho , mangrove , wattle (acacia; see catechol ), and myrobalans from Terminalia spp., such as Terminalia chebula . In Ethiopia ,

2331-416: The collagen's carboxyl groups, amine groups from the side chains of the amino acids , and masking agents. Masking agents are carboxylic acids , such as acetic acid , used to suppress formation of polychromium(III) chains. Masking agents allow the tanner to further increase the pH to increase collagen's reactivity without inhibiting the penetration of the chromium(III) complexes. Collagen is characterized by

2394-544: The combined vegetable oils of Niger seed ( Guizotia abyssinica ) and flaxseeds were used in treating the flesh side of the leather, as a means of tawing, rather than of tanning. In Yemen and Egypt , hides were tanned by soaking them in a bath containing the crushed leaves and bark of the Salam acacia (Acacia etbaica; A. nilotica kraussiana). Hides that have been stretched on frames are immersed for several weeks in vats of increasing concentrations of tannin. Vegetable-tanned hide

2457-409: The desired level of penetration of chrome into the substance is achieved, the pH of the material is raised again to facilitate the process. This step is known as basification. In the raw state, chrome-tanned skins are greyish-blue, so are referred to as wet blue . Chrome tanning is faster than vegetable tanning (taking less than a day for this part of the process) and produces a stretchable leather which

2520-425: The end use of the leather, hides may be treated with enzymes to soften them, a process called bating . In modern tanning, these enzymes are purified agents, and the process no longer requires bacterial fermentation (as from dung-water soaking) to produce them. Pickling is another term for tanning, or what is the modern equivalent of turning rawhide into leather by the use of modern chemical agents, if mineral tanning

2583-562: The fibers with a hide stretcher, and fatting. However the hide will revert to rawhide if not periodically replenished with fat or oil, especially if it gets wet. Many Native Americans of the arid western regions wore clothing made by this process. Smoke tanning is listed among the conventional methods like chrome tanning and vegetable tanning. Impregnation of the hide's cells with formaldehyde (from smoke) offers some microbial and water resistance. Leftover leather would historically be turned into glue . Tanners would place scraps of hides in

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2646-418: The hair proteins. The isoelectric point of the collagen (a tissue-strengthening protein unrelated to keratin) in the hide is also shifted to around pH 4.7 due to liming. Any hairs remaining after liming are removed mechanically by scraping the skin with a dull knife, a process known as scudding. The pH of the collagen is then reduced so the enzymes may act on it in a process known as deliming. Depending on

2709-406: The hexaaquachromium(III) cation, [Cr(H 2 O) 6 ] , which at higher pH undergoes processes called olation to give polychromium(III) compounds that are active in tanning, being the cross-linking of the collagen subunits. The chemistry of [Cr(H 2 O) 6 ] is more complex in the tanning bath rather than in water due to the presence of a variety of ligands. Some ligands include the sulfate anion,

2772-459: The hides are agitated in a saltwater bath for about 16 hours. Curing can also be accomplished by preserving the hides and skins at very low temperatures. The steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning are collectively referred to as beamhouse operations. They include, in order, soaking, liming , removal of extraneous tissues (unhairing, scudding and fleshing), deliming , bating or puering, drenching, and pickling. In soaking,

2835-406: The hides are soaked in clean water to remove the salt left over from curing and increase the moisture so that the hide or skin can be further treated. To prevent damage of the skin by bacterial growth during the soaking period, biocides , typically dithiocarbamates , may be used. Fungicides such as TCMTB may also be added later in the process, to protect wet leathers from mold growth. After 1980,

2898-521: The hospital until 1861. By the 1820s Upperthorpe was becoming "a pleasant and favourable residential district". In 1826 John Blake, who was to become Master Cutler in 1831, built Upperthorpe Villa, a stone built house with porch at 22 Blake Grove Road; the house still stands today and is a grade II listed building . The nearby Blake Street, the steep road which leads to Walkley and the Blake Hotel public house are named after John Blake who died in

2961-564: The initial anonymous letter was attributed, who served in post for 43 years) three surgeons (Mr. Cheney, Mr. C. H. Webb and William Staniforth ) and a Matron. The founders had been able to acquire a large site with space for expansion; later additions included the Recovery House 1839, later called the Norfolk Wing, designed by William Flockton in the same style as the main building, detached to serve as an isolation unit,

3024-542: The new building was laid 4 September 1793 and the hospital opened on 4 October 1797. The main entrance featured two niched statues of 'Hope' and 'Charity' (now replicas), by renowned Sheffield born sculptor Sir Francis Leggatt Chantrey . A biblical inscription above the door read; I was sick and ye visited me, verily in as much as ye have done it unto one of the least of my brethren, ye have done it unto me. With accommodation for around 100 in-patients, its senior staff comprised three physicians (including William Younge to whom

3087-427: The outskirts of town, among the poor. Tanning by ancient methods is so foul-smelling that tanneries are still isolated from those towns today where the old methods are used. Skins typically arrived at the tannery dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. First, the ancient tanners would soak the skins in water to clean and soften them. Then they would pound and scour the skin to remove any remaining flesh and fat . Hair

3150-508: The process. Chemicals used in tanned leather production increase the levels of chemical oxygen demand and total dissolved solids in water when not disposed of responsibly. These processes also use large quantities of water and produce large amounts of pollutants. Boiling and sun drying can oxidize and convert the various chromium(III) compounds used in tanning into carcinogenic hexavalent chromium , or chromium(VI). This hexavalent chromium runoff and scraps are then consumed by animals, in

3213-566: The safety of its basements, with underground tunnels providing protective routes between buildings. The hospital provided accommodation for military patients as well as civilian air raid casualties. The infirmary joined the National Health Service in 1948. In 1980, after almost 200 years of medical care, it was closed, with services being transferred to the Royal Hallamshire Hospital . The last patient

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3276-419: The site in a similar style. Children now have to attend schools in either Netherthorpe or Walkley. Upperthorpe has a population of 2,960 according to the 2001 census. A high percentage of properties in the suburb are flats, apartments or maisonettes and are rented from the local authority. Leather tanning Historically, vegetable based tanning used tannin , an acidic chemical compound derived from

3339-403: The tanning agent (chromium salts). Later during pickling, collagen carboxyl groups are temporarily protonated for ready transport of chromium ions. During basification step of tanning, the carboxyl groups are ionized and coordinate as ligands to the chromium(III) centers of the oxo-hydroxide clusters. Tanning increases the spacing between protein chains in collagen from 10 to 17 Å. The difference

3402-407: The touch. If alum is applied to the fur, it makes the fur dull and harsh. Depending on the finish desired, the leather may be waxed, rolled, lubricated, injected with oil, split, shaved, or dyed. The tanning process involves chemical and organic compounds that can have a detrimental effect on the environment. Agents such as chromium, vegetable tannins, and aldehydes are used in the tanning step of

3465-543: The town trustees and the Duke of Norfolk to pipe water from springs at the White House, Upperthorpe to Townhead in the centre of Sheffield. In 1737 they were joined by Joshua Matthewman and the first of several reservoirs was built. By the late 1780s the water from the Upperthorpe dams was insufficient to supply the growing town of Sheffield and a new chain of reservoirs was built at Crookesmoor . Upperthorpe remained mainly

3528-492: The toxicity and environmental impact of any chromium (VI) that may form during the tanning process have led to increased research into more efficient wet white methods. The conditions present in bogs, including highly acidic water, low temperature, and a lack of oxygen, combine to preserve but severely tan the skin of bog bodies . Tawing is a method that uses alum and other aluminium salts , generally in conjunction with binders such as egg yolk, flour, or other salts. The hide

3591-418: The use of pentachlorophenol and mercury -based biocides and their derivatives was forbidden. After soaking, the hides are treated with milk of lime (a basic agent) typically supplemented by "sharpening agents" (disulfide reducing agents) such as sodium sulfide , cyanides , amines , etc. This: The weakening of hair is dependent on the breakdown of the disulfide link of the amino acid cystine , which

3654-419: Was a fermentative process that relied on enzymes produced by bacteria found in the dung. Among the kinds of dung commonly used were those of dogs or pigeons. Historically the actual tanning process used vegetable tanning. In some variations of the process, cedar oil , alum , or tannin was applied to the skin as a tanning agent. As the skin was stretched, it would lose moisture and absorb the agent. Following

3717-533: Was being carried out by the inhabitants of Mehrgarh in Pakistan between 7000 and 3300 BCE. Around 2500 BCE , the Sumerians began using leather, affixed by copper studs , on chariot wheels . The process of tanning was also used for boats and fishing vessels: ropes, nets, and sails were tanned using tree bark. Formerly, tanning was considered a noxious or "odoriferous trade" and relegated to

3780-541: Was constructed around 1990 and is located towards the south-western part of the grounds. The only GP practice in the suburb is the Upperthorpe Medical Centre on Addy Street; 47% of the population are registered at this practice. There are no churches in the Upperthorpe area, the suburb being served by St Stephen's at Netherthorpe and St Barts on the Langsett estate. There are two public houses in

3843-417: Was discharged on 13 December 1980, the premises entirely vacated December 1983. The empty infirmary building was later used for filming a casualty scene from an imagined nuclear attack on Sheffield in the 1984 film Threads . Some of the hospital buildings were demolished, replaced with a supermarket and large car-parking area, but the original block along with its south-east and south-west wings, which remains

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3906-633: Was one of Sheffield's top industrialists in the inter war period. He later became one of the City's most renowned patrons, funding Sheffield's Christmas illuminations for many years and the Goodwin Sports Centre , he is commemorated by the Goodwin Fountain in the Peace Gardens . Upperthorpe underwent substantial redevelopment in the 1950s and 1960s and again in the 1980s, although an area of traditional housing survived in

3969-424: Was removed by soaking the skin in urine , painting it with an alkaline lime mixture, or simply allowing the skin to putrefy for several months then dipping it in a salt solution. After the hair was loosened, the tanners scraped it off with a knife. Once the hair was removed, the tanners would " bate " (soften) the material by pounding dung into the skin, or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Bating

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