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127-474: The Shetland Bus ( Norwegian Bokmål : Shetlandsbussene , def. pl. ) was the nickname of a clandestine special operations group that made a permanent link between Mainland Shetland in Scotland and German-occupied Norway from 1941 until the surrender of Nazi Germany on 8 May 1945. This link transferred agents in and out of Norway and provided them with weapons, radios and other supplies. From mid-1942,

254-501: A fleet in being , forcing the British Royal Navy to retain significant naval forces in the area to contain the battleship. In September 1943, Tirpitz , along with the battleship Scharnhorst , bombarded Allied positions on Spitzbergen , the only time the ship used her main battery in an offensive role. Shortly thereafter, the ship was damaged in an attack by British mini-submarines and subsequently subjected to

381-649: A stenographer ; Harald Albertsen, a Norwegian cook at Lunna and two maids in Flemington. During the first winter Flemington House was used to train saboteurs and house agents and to accommodate Norwegian refugees. Later the refugees were received in a special camp at the James Sutherland Herring Factory in Lerwick , administered by James Adie and his Norwegian-born wife. The lack of a slipway and other repair facilities meant that at first

508-406: A 500-pound (230 kg) bomb, exploded causing superficial damage. Six aircraft were shot down in the attack. Goodwood IV followed on 29 August, with 34 bombers and 25 fighters from Formidable and Indefatigable . Heavy fog prevented any hits from being scored. Tirpitz ' s gunners shot down one Firefly and a Corsair . The battleship expended 54 rounds from her main guns, 161 from

635-529: A British submarine at the entrance to the Fættenfjord, and was temporarily out of action. In March 1942 Tirpitz and Admiral Scheer , along with the destroyers Z14 Friedrich Ihn , Z5 Paul Jakobi , Z7 Hermann Schoemann and Z25 and a pair of torpedo boats , were intended to attack the homebound convoy QP 8 and the outbound Convoy PQ 12 as part of Unternehmen Sportpalast (Operation Sports Palace). Admiral Scheer , with

762-520: A co-official language. The term Riksmål ( Rigsmaal ), meaning National Language , was first proposed by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1899 as a name for the Norwegian variety of written Danish as well as spoken Dano-Norwegian. It was borrowed from Denmark where it denoted standard written and spoken Danish. The same year the Riksmål movement became organised under his leadership in order to fight against

889-465: A design speed of 26 knots (48 km/h; 30 mph), was too slow to operate with Tirpitz and was left in port, as was the destroyer Paul Jakobi . The two torpedo boats were also released from the operation. On 5 March, Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft spotted PQ 12 near Jan Mayen Island ; the reconnaissance failed to note the battleship HMS  Duke of York or the battlecruiser HMS  Renown , both of which were escorting

1016-471: A forward base at Yagodnik in Russia, 23 Lancasters (17 each carrying one Tallboy and six each carrying twelve JW mines ), scored a single hit on the ship's bow. The Tallboy penetrated the ship, exited the keel, and exploded in the bottom of the fjord. The bow was flooded with 800 to 1,000 t (790 to 980 long tons) of water, causing a serious increase in trim forward. The ship was rendered unseaworthy and

1143-715: A language form regulated by the non-governmental organisation The Norwegian Academy of Language and Literature. It is based on pre-1938 Bokmål and has been regulated by The Academy as a private alternative to the official Bokmål spelling standard since the 1950s. Over time it has accepted widespread "radical" spellings into the Riksmål standard. Since the official Samnorsk policy was abolished, Riksmål and Bokmål have converged, and The Academy currently edits an online dictionary that covers both. The differences have diminished (now being comparable to American and British English differences ), but The Academy still upholds its own standard. Norway's most popular daily newspaper, Aftenposten ,

1270-508: A length of 251 m (823 ft 6 in), a beam of 36 m (118 ft 1 in) and a maximum draft of 10.60 m (34 ft 9 in). Her standard crew numbered 103 officers and 1,962 enlisted men; during the war this was increased to 108 officers and 2,500 men. She was powered by three Brown, Boveri & Cie geared steam turbines , each driving a screw propeller , with steam provided by twelve oil-fired Wagner superheated water-tube boilers . Her propulsion system developed

1397-542: A major overhaul. Hitler had forbidden the ship to make the dangerous return to Germany, and so the overhaul was conducted in Trondheim. On 23 October, the ship left Bogenfjord and returned to Fættenfjord outside Trondheim. The defences of the anchorage were further strengthened; additional anti-aircraft guns were installed, and double anti-torpedo nets were laid around the vessel. The repairs were conducted in limited phases, so Tirpitz would remain partially operational for

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1524-669: A perfect location in Lunna Ness north of Lerwick, from which the boats could operate. Before then the boats had been moored in Cat Firth. Lunna Ness had a sheltered harbour and a small population that were not too curious about what was going on and Lunna House was used as accommodation for the boat crews. Whilst Mitchell stayed in Flemington, Howarth set up headquarters in Lunna House. Their whole staff consisted of three British sergeants; Almond, Sherwood and Olsen; Norman Edwards,

1651-410: A plaque on the churchyard wall in remembrance to these two unknown men. British naval officer, historian and author David Howarth (28 July 1912 – 2 July 1991) requested that his ashes be scattered over the water at Lunna Voe. A memorial plaque is mounted on the churchyard wall at Lunna Kirk. The Shetland Bus Memorial is located at Scalloway , and the local museum has a permanent exhibition relating to

1778-536: A role in the plot of mystery novel, Red Bones by Ann Cleeves , and in the BBC television series based on Cleeves' novels, Shetland , episodes 1 and 2, "Red Bones". This article incorporates text from the article Shetland Bus The Shetland Bus on Shetlopedia , which was licensed under the GNU Free Documentation Licence until September 14, 2007. Norwegian Bokm%C3%A5l Bokmål

1905-441: A series of large-scale air raids. On 12 November 1944, British Lancaster bombers equipped with 12,000-pound (5,400 kg) "Tallboy" bombs scored two direct hits and a near miss which caused the ship to capsize rapidly. A deck fire spread to the ammunition magazine for one of the main battery turrets, which caused a large explosion. Figures for the number of men killed in the attack range from 950 to 1,204. Between 1948 and 1957,

2032-410: A skipper and could choose his own crew. His first crew was Palmer Bjørnøy, Leif Kinn, Arne Kinn, Kåre Iversen, Karsten Sangolt, Nils Nipen and Otto Pletten. His first boat was M/K Arthur , the boat that he had "requisitioned" on his escape from Norway, after the wrecking of Nordsjøen . On 8 November 1941, Larsen sailed from Shetland on his first tour as skipper. On their return to Shetland, they ran into

2159-683: A storm and Sangolt was blown overboard and drowned. Larsen made several tours with the Arthur but he also skippered other boats, like M/B Siglaos and M/B Feie . In October 1942, he had to scuttle the Arthur in Trondheimsfjord after a failed attempt to attack the German warship Tirpitz . He and the crew escaped to Sweden but a British agent, A.B. Evans, was arrested and later shot. On 23 March 1943, returning from Træna, Nordland, with M/K Bergholm , they were attacked by German aircraft. The boat

2286-558: A subsequent reform in 1917, so much so that he is now often called the "father of Bokmål". Since the creation of Landsmål , the Danish written in Norway was referred to as (det almindelige) Bogmaal , etc. ("(The ordinary) book language"), e.g. in Den norske Literatur fra 1814 indtil vore Dage (Hans Olaf Hansen, 1862), or the synonym Bogsprog , e.g. in the 1885 decision that adopted Landsmål as

2413-589: A total of 163,023  PS (160,793  shp ; 119,903  kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 30.8 knots (57.0 km/h; 35.4 mph) on speed trials. She was armed with eight 38 cm SK C/34 L/52 guns arranged in four twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets forward—Anton and Bruno—and two aft—Caesar and Dora. Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm L/55 guns. The main-battery and secondary guns were aimed from three fire-control director stations, using mechanical computers to plot target distances and courses and to calculate angles for

2540-406: Is in fact often referred to as Standard Østnorsk ('Standard East Norwegian'). Standard Østnorsk ( lit.   ' 'Standard East Norwegian' ' ) or sometimes described as " Urban East Norwegian " is the pronunciation most commonly given in dictionaries. However, Standard Østnorsk as a spoken language is not used (and does not have prestige ) outside South-Eastern Norway. All spoken variations of

2667-563: Is notable for its use of Riksmål as its standard language. Use of Riksmål is rigorously pursued, even with regard to readers' letters, which are "translated" into the standard. Aftenposten gave up its most markedly conservative "signal words" in 1990. While the specifics of the debate are unique to Norway, some parallels can be found in Austrian German and the One Standard German Axiom , which revolves over

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2794-511: Is regulated by the governmental Language Council of Norway . A related, more conservative orthographic standard, commonly known as Riksmål , is regulated by the non-governmental Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature . The written standard is a Norwegianised variety of the Danish language . The first Bokmål orthography was officially adopted in 1907 under the name Riksmål after being under development since 1879. The architects behind

2921-586: The Hohentwiel , was mounted in 1944 in her topmast, and a Model 213 Würzburg fire-control radar was added on her stern 10.5 cm (4.1 in) Flak rangefinders. The ship's main belt was 320 mm (13 in) thick and was covered by a pair of upper and main armoured decks that were 50 mm (2 in) and 100 to 120 mm (3.9 to 4.7 in) thick, respectively. The 38 cm turrets were protected by 360 mm (14 in) thick faces and 220 mm (8.7 in) thick sides. Tirpitz

3048-553: The Aksel , skippered by August Nærøy, departed for Bergen from Hamna Voe, on the west side of Lunna Ness, on 30 August 1941. The other crew on this first tour were Mindor Berge, Ivar Brekke, Andreas Gjertsen, and Bård Grotle. Fishing boats were used at first, but after some losses, it was decided that faster vessels were necessary. On 26 October 1943, the US Navy officially transferred the submarine chasers Hitra , Vigra , and Hessa to

3175-880: The Commander-in-chief , Scottish Command and the Admiral Commanding Orkney and Shetland. The most prominent guest was HKH Crown Prince Olav of Norway who visited in October 1942. Mitchell left the base in Scalloway in December 1942 and Captain Arthur William Sclater , known as "Rogers", became leader of operations; his Norwegian-born wife, Alice, acted as welfare officer for the crews. At first, there were fourteen fishing boats of various sizes. The original Shetland Bus boat,

3302-690: The Soviet Baltic Fleet . In early 1942, the ship sailed to Norway to act as a deterrent against an Allied invasion. While stationed in Norway, Tirpitz was also intended to be used to intercept Allied convoys to the Soviet Union , and two such missions were attempted in 1942. This was the only feasible role for her, since the St Nazaire Raid had made operations against the Atlantic convoy lanes too risky. Tirpitz acted as

3429-448: The de facto standard for spoken Bokmål. In The Phonology of Norwegian , Gjert Kristoffersen writes that Bokmål [...] is in its most common variety looked upon as reflecting formal middle-class urban speech, especially that found in the eastern part of Southern Norway [sic], with the capital Oslo as the obvious centre. One can therefore say that Bokmål has a spoken realisation that one might call an unofficial standard spoken Norwegian. It

3556-408: The "educated daily speech" had become the mother tongue of elites in most Norwegian cities, such as Bergen , Kristiania and Trondheim . This Dano-Norwegian koiné could be described as Danish with regional Norwegian pronunciation (see Norwegian dialects ), some Norwegian vocabulary, and simplified grammar. With the gradual subsequent process of Norwegianisation of the written language used in

3683-611: The 15 cm guns and up to 20 per cent of her light anti-aircraft ammunition. The ineffectiveness of the great majority of the strikes launched by the Fleet Air Arm in mid-1944 led to the task of Tirpitz ' s destruction being transferred to the RAF's No. 5 Group . The RAF used Lancaster bombers to carry 6-short-ton (5.4 t) Tallboy bombs to penetrate the ship's heavy armour. The first attack, Operation Paravane , took place on 15 September 1944; operating from

3810-508: The 1950s under the leadership of Arnulf Øverland . Riksmålsforbundet organised a parents' campaign against Samnorsk in 1951, and the Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature was founded in 1953. Because of this resistance, the 1959 reform was relatively modest, and some of the common traditional Danish spellings and inflections were admitted back into the standard through the reforms in 1981 and 2005. Currently, Riksmål denotes

3937-646: The 35,000- long-ton (36,000  t ) limit imposed by the Washington regime that governed battleship construction in the interwar period . The ships secretly exceeded the figure by a wide margin, though before either vessel was completed, the international treaty system had fallen apart following Japan's withdrawal in 1937, allowing signatories to invoke an "escalator clause" that permitted displacements as high as 45,000 long tons (46,000 t). Tirpitz displaced 42,900 t (42,200 long tons) as built and 52,600 t (51,800 long tons) fully loaded , with

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4064-533: The Bergen area, others the more rounded "Møre Cutters", from the area around Ålesund. It appeared that the "Møre Cutter" was the strongest and best-fitted for the heavy weather in the North Sea. The boats were of many kinds and shapes, but most of those used as a "Shetland Bus", were from 50–70 feet (15–21 m) long, with two masts and equipped with a 30 to 70 hp single-cylinder semi-diesel engine , which made

4191-408: The Danish standard, which became used for virtually all administrative documents. Norwegians used Danish primarily in writing, but it gradually came to be spoken by urban elites on formal or official occasions. Although Danish never became the spoken language of the vast majority of the population, by the time Norway's ties with Denmark were severed in 1814, a Dano-Norwegian vernacular often called

4318-583: The Germans aborted the operation and turned over the attack to U-boats and the Luftwaffe. The scattered vessels could no longer be protected by the convoy escorts, and the Germans sank 21 of the 34 isolated transports. Tirpitz returned to Altafjord via the Lofoten Islands . Following Rösselsprung , the Germans moved Tirpitz to Bogenfjord near Narvik. By this time, the ship needed

4445-584: The Germans attacked Norway he was a fisherman and soon joined the underground army . His activities were discovered by the Germans and he had to leave the country. He and three other men escaped to Shetland in August 1941 with his father's boat, the 42-foot Villa II . From Shetland he was transferred to England where he joined and trained with the Kompani Linge . He was among the men Larsen choose as crew on M/B Arthur and sailed several tours with Larsen. He

4572-695: The Germans. Sometimes the group was involved in special operations, like the failed attack on the German battleship Tirpitz , Operation Archery , the raids on Måløy and Operation Claymore in the Lofoten Islands. The men put in charge of organising the group were a British Army officer, Major Leslie Mitchell and his assistant, Lieutenant David Howarth RNVR . Upon their arrival in Shetland they commandeered Flemington House, (later named "Kergord"), in Weisdale , for their headquarters and they found

4699-468: The North Sea, most of them as engineer. On 6 December 1944, he married the Scalloway girl Christine 'Cissie' Slater. They stayed in Scalloway after the war and had three daughters. In 1996, Shetland Times Ltd. published Iversen's memoirs, I Was a Shetland Bus Man , which was reprinted in 2004, with a new introduction and the title Shetland Bus Man . The first of the Shetland Bus men to lose his life

4826-458: The Norwegian language are used in the Storting (parliament) and in Norwegian national broadcasters such as NRK and TV 2 , even in cases where the conventions of Bokmål are used. The spoken variation typically reflects a speaker's native region. Up until about 1300, the written language of Norway, Old Norwegian , was essentially the same as the other Old Norse dialects . The speech, however,

4953-556: The Oslofjord area) and written Danish; and subsequently Riksmål and Bokmål, which primarily inherited their non-Oslo elements from Danish. The present-day Oslo dialect is also influenced by other Eastern Norwegian dialects. The following table shows some important cases where traditional Bokmål and Standard Østnorsk followed Danish rather than the traditional Oslo dialect as it is commonly portrayed in literature about Norwegian dialects. In many of these cases, radical Bokmål follows

5080-543: The RAF. Admiral John Tovey , the commander in chief of the British Home Fleet , was not made aware of Tirpitz ' s activities until 17 January, well after the ship had arrived in Norway. On 16 January, British aerial reconnaissance located the ship in Trondheim. Tirpitz then moved to the Fættenfjord , just north-east of Trondheim. The movement was codenamed Operation Polarnacht (Polar Night);

5207-574: The Riksmål movement, and Riksmålsvernet (The Society for the Protection of Riksmål) was founded in 1919. In 1929, the parliament voted to rename the written standards. Bokmål was re-introduced as the official name for the Dano-Norwegian standard, replacing Riksmål , while Landsmål was renamed Nynorsk . In 1938 both written standards were heavily reformed and many common spellings and grammatical endings were made mandatory. This meant

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5334-620: The Second World War". Repairs lasted until 2 April 1944; full speed trials were scheduled for the following day in Altafjord. The British were aware that Neumark and the repair crews left in March, which intimated Tirpitz was nearly operational. A major air strike— Operation Tungsten —involving the fleet carriers Victorious and Furious and the escort carriers Emperor , Fencer , Pursuer , and Searcher ,

5461-716: The Second World War. Named after Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the architect of the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy), the ship was laid down at the Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven in November 1936 and her hull was launched two and a half years later. Work was completed in February 1941, when she was commissioned into the German fleet. Like her sister ship, Bismarck , Tirpitz

5588-744: The Shetland Bus operation. These craft were 110 feet (34 m) long and powered by two 1,200 hp diesel engines, capable of a top speed of 22 kn (25 mph; 41 km/h), with a normal cruising speed of 17 kn (20 mph; 31 km/h). When the submarine chasers arrived, the group became an official part of the Royal Norwegian Navy and was renamed the Royal Norwegian Naval Special Unit (RNNSU). They carried out more than 100 tours to Norway, with no loss of men or ships. On 9 May 1945, Vigra , commanded by Larsen, and Hitra , by Eidsheim, entered

5715-707: The Soviet Union, and act as a fleet in being to tie down British naval assets and deter an Allied invasion of Norway. Hitler, who had forbidden an Atlantic sortie after the loss of Bismarck , agreed to the proposal. The ship was taken into dock for modifications for the deployment. The ship's anti-aircraft battery was strengthened, and the 10.5 cm guns on the superstructure next to the catapult were moved outboard to increase their field of fire. The two quadruple 53.3 cm torpedo tube mounts were also installed during this refit. The ship's commander, Kapitän zur See (KzS–Captain at Sea) Karl Topp , pronounced

5842-536: The Soviet Union, was the next convoy targeted by Tirpitz and the rest of the German fleet stationed in Norway, during Unternehmen Rösselsprung ( Operation Knight's Move ). Escorting the convoy were the battleships Duke of York and USS  Washington and the carrier Victorious . Tirpitz , Admiral Hipper , and six destroyers sortied from Trondheim, while a second task force consisting of Lützow , Admiral Scheer , and six destroyers operated from Narvik and Bogenfjord. Lützow and three of

5969-581: The activities of the Shetland Bus. In 2018 Norwegian visitors were among those attending a service at the memorial to commemorate the 75th anniversary of an improvement in the safety of operations as a result of the introduction of new ships - the Hitria , Vigra and Hessa Films portraying the Shetland Bus include Shetlandsgjengen (1954; released as Suicide Mission in the United States) in which Leif Larsen played himself. The Shetland Bus plays

6096-418: The advent of Nynorsk in the 19th century, a written language based on rural Modern Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to the Danish and Dano-Norwegian spoken in Norwegian cities. The following table shows a few central differences between Bokmål and Danish. Most natives of Oslo today speak a dialect that is an amalgamation of vikværsk (which is the technical term for the traditional dialects in

6223-597: The aftermath of the Battle of the Barents Sea on 31 December 1942, ordered an attack on Spitzbergen , which housed a British weather station and refuelling base. Spitzbergen was defended by a garrison of 152 men from the Norwegian Armed Forces in exile . The two battleships, escorted by ten destroyers, left port on 6 September; in a ruse de guerre , Tirpitz flew the white ensign on

6350-401: The aircraft catapult and the funnel and caused severe damage. A very large hole was blown in the ship's side and bottom; the entire section of belt armour abreast of the bomb hit was completely destroyed. A third bomb may have struck the port side of turret Caesar. The amidships hit caused significant flooding and quickly increased the port list to between 15 and 20 degrees. In ten minutes

6477-495: The approach to the island the following day. During the bombardment, Tirpitz fired 52 main-battery shells and 82 rounds from her 15 cm secondaries. This was the first and only time the ship fired her main battery at an enemy surface target. An assault force destroyed shore installations and captured 74 prisoners. By 11:00, the battleships had destroyed their targets and headed back to their Norwegian ports. The British were determined to neutralise Tirpitz and remove

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6604-413: The attack together, which resulted in only one near miss, partially the result of bad weather over the target. The underwater explosion damaged the port rudder and shaft and caused some flooding. Tirpitz ' s 38 cm fragmentation shells proved ineffective in countering the high-level bombers; one aircraft was damaged by ground-based anti-aircraft guns. Following the attack, the ship's anchorage

6731-498: The attack, Tirpitz made for Vestfjord , and from there to Trondheim, arriving on the evening of 13 March. On 30 March, thirty-three Halifax bombers attacked the ship; they scored no hits, and five aircraft were shot down. The RAF launched a pair of unsuccessful strikes in late April. On the night of 27–28 April, thirty-one Halifaxes and twelve Lancasters attacked; five of the bombers were shot down. Another raid, composed of twenty-three Halifaxes and eleven Lancasters, took place

6858-480: The attack. A force of 32 Lancasters from Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons dropped 29 Tallboys on the ship, landing two direct hits and one near miss. Several other bombs landed within the anti-torpedo net barrier and caused significant cratering of the seabed; this removed much of the sandbank that had been constructed to prevent the ship from capsizing. One bomb penetrated the ship's deck between turrets Anton and Bruno but failed to explode. A second hit amidships between

6985-468: The attacking aircraft were shot down. Goodwood III followed on 24 August, composed of aircraft from the fleet carriers only. Forty-eight bombers and 29 fighters attacked the ship and scored two hits which caused minor damage. One, a 1,600-pound bomb, penetrated the upper and lower armour decks and came to rest in the No. 4 switchboard room. Its fuze had been damaged and the bomb did not detonate. The second,

7112-424: The battleship was escorted by the destroyers Z4 Richard Beitzen , Z5 Paul Jakobi , Z8 Bruno Heinemann and Z29 for the voyage. The Norwegian resistance movement transmitted the location to London. She was moored next to a cliff, which protected the ship from air attacks from the southwest. The ship's crew cut down trees and placed them aboard Tirpitz to camouflage her. The crew also frequently hid

7239-542: The boats had to be repaired at Malakoff's in Lerwick. Later, they moved the boats and crews to Scalloway , where William Moore & Son had a mechanical workshop and where "Prince Olav's Slipway" was built. Harald Angeltveit and Johan Haldorsen were the head mechanics and Severin Roald became leader of the carpenters. All ship repairs were done there but Lunna Voe was still used for preparing special operations. Dinapore House

7366-406: The bomb hits caused serious fires aboard the ship. Concussive shock disabled the starboard turbine engine, and saltwater used to fight the fires reached the boilers and contaminated the feed water. Some 2,000 t (2,000 long tons) of water flooded the ship, primarily through the two holes in the side shell created by shell splinters from near misses. Water used to fight the fires also contributed to

7493-644: The characteristic "tonk-tonk" sound. In late 1940, both the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) and the Special Operations Executive (SOE) Norwegian Naval Independent Unit (not to be confused with another SOE Norwegian unit: the Norwegian Independent Company. No.1 or Kompani Linge ), established a base in Lerwick (pronounced Lerrick ); SIS later moved to Peterhead . They asked some of

7620-472: The cities of Norway, from Danish to Bokmål and Riksmål, the upper-class sociolects in the cities changed accordingly. In 1814, when Norway was ceded from Denmark to Sweden , Norway defied Sweden and her allies, declared independence and adopted a democratic constitution. Although compelled to submit to a dynastic union with Sweden, this spark of independence continued to burn, influencing the evolution of language in Norway. Old language traditions were revived by

7747-617: The coast, fishermen and sailors with detailed local knowledge. Most came over after the occupation, some with their own vessels, others with vessels that were "stolen" with the owner's approval. They were young men, most of them in their twenties, some even younger. Many of them did several tours in the spring and summer of 1940, evacuating British soldiers who had been stranded in Norway after the Norwegian Campaign and other British citizens living in Norway. Leif Larsen (9 January 1906 – 12 October 1990) nicknamed Shetlands Larsen ,

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7874-683: The commander of III./ Jagdgeschwader 5 (3rd Wing of the 5th Fighter Group), was blamed for the Luftwaffe's failure to intercept the British bombers. He was court-martialled in Oslo and threatened with the death penalty. Evidence was presented that his unit had failed to help the Kriegsmarine when requested. He was sentenced to three years in prison, but was released after a month, demoted, and reassigned to an Me 262 fighter squadron in Germany. Ehrler

8001-413: The commander of the German squadron, had decided to return to port the previous evening. An air attack was launched early on the 9th; twelve Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers attacked the ship in three groups, and Tirpitz successfully evaded the torpedoes. Only three men were wounded in the attack. Tirpitz ' s anti-aircraft gunners shot down two of the British aircraft. After the conclusion of

8128-491: The convoy, along with four destroyers. Unknown to the Germans, Admiral Tovey was providing distant support to the convoys with the battleship HMS  King George V , the aircraft carrier HMS  Victorious , the heavy cruiser HMS  Berwick , and six destroyers. Enigma intercepts again forewarned the British of Tirpitz ' s attack, which allowed them to reroute the convoys. Admiral Tovey attempted to pursue Tirpitz on 9 March, but Admiral Otto Ciliax,

8255-521: The crew as fishermen . The fishing boats were armed with light machine guns concealed inside oil drums placed on deck. The operation was under constant threat from German forces, and several missions went awry, of which the Telavåg tragedy in spring 1942 was a prime example. Several fishing boats were lost during the early operations, but after receiving the three submarine chasers there were no more losses. When Germany launched Operation Weserübung ,

8382-567: The destroyers struck uncharted rocks while en route to the rendezvous and had to return to port. Shortly after Tirpitz left Norway, the Soviet submarine K-21 fired two or four torpedoes at the ship, all of which missed. The Soviets claimed two hits on the battleship. Swedish intelligence had meanwhile reported the German departures to the British Admiralty , which ordered the convoy to disperse. Aware that they had been detected,

8509-406: The end of the month gunnery trials were possible. During the repair process, the 15 cm guns were modified to allow their use against aircraft, and specially fuzed 38 cm shells for barrage anti-aircraft fire were supplied. A series of carrier strikes was planned over the next three months, but bad weather forced their cancellation. A repeat of Operation Tungsten, codenamed Operation Planet,

8636-528: The end of war. Larsen arrived in Shetland with the boat M/B Motig I , on 11 February 1941. After training with Kompani Linge in England and Scotland, Larsen returned to Lerwick in the St Magnus on 19 August 1941. He did his first Shetland Bus tour with M/B Siglaos , skippered by Petter Salen, on 14 September 1941. After the loss of the minelayer Nordsjøen , where Larsen was second in command, he became

8763-453: The entire ship from aerial reconnaissance and attacks inside a cloud of artificial fog, created using water and chlorosulfuric acid . Additional anti-aircraft batteries were installed around the fjord, as were anti-torpedo nets and heavy booms in the entrance to the anchorage. Tirpitz was known as the "Lonely Queen of the North" because she was so rarely deployed, and life for her crew

8890-610: The fleet on 25 February for sea trials , which were conducted in the Baltic. After sea trials, Tirpitz was stationed in Kiel and performed intensive training in the Baltic. While the ship was in Kiel, Germany invaded the Soviet Union . A temporary Baltic Fleet was created to prevent the breakout of the Soviet fleet based in Leningrad . Tirpitz was briefly made the flagship of

9017-421: The flooding. Dönitz ordered the ship be repaired, regardless of the cost, despite the fact that he understood Tirpitz could no longer be used in a surface action because of insufficient fighter support. Repair work began in early May; destroyers ferried important equipment and workers from Kiel to Altafjord over the span of three days. By 2 June, the ship was again able to steam under her own power, and by

9144-433: The following night. Two of the bombers were shot down by the German anti-aircraft defences. The actions of Tirpitz and her escorting destroyers in March used up 8,230 tonnes (8,100 long tons) of fuel oil , which greatly reduced the available fuel supply. It took the Germans three months to replenish the fuel spent in the attempt to intercept the two Allied convoys. Convoy PQ 17 , which left Iceland on 27 June bound for

9271-531: The gold from the Norwegian National Bank . In northern Norway, the fighting lasted for another month. A few weeks after the occupation began, the first boats of an "armada" of fishing vessels and other boats began to arrive in Shetland. Some boats made several journeys across the North Sea carrying refugees. Many of the boats were "Hardanger Cutters ", with a straight bow and long stern from

9398-518: The group's official name was the Norwegian Naval Independent Unit (NNIU). In October 1943, it became an official part of the Royal Norwegian Navy and was renamed the Royal Norwegian Naval Special Unit (RNNSU). The unit was operated initially by a large number of small fishing boats and later augmented by three fast and well-armed submarine chasers – Vigra , Hessa and Hitra . Crossings were mostly made during

9525-597: The growing influence of Nynorsk, eventually leading to the foundation of the non-governmental organisation Riksmålsforbundet in 1907, which he led until his death in 1910. The 1907 reform documents do not mention the language by name, but the term Riksmål eventually caught on and was adopted by the Ministry of Church and Education in the years leading up to the 1917 spelling reform, appearing in its 1908 publication Utredning av spørsmaalet om et mulig samarbeide mellem landsmaal og riksmaal i retskrivningen ("Investigation of

9652-465: The guns. On top of each fire-control station a rangefinder was mounted in a rotating cupola. The heavy anti-aircraft armament consisted of sixteen 10.5 cm L/65 . Anti-aircraft fire control for these guns was provided by four stabilized SL-8 directors . The middle and light anti-aircraft armament consisted of sixteen 3.7 cm (1.5 in) L/83, and initially twelve 2 cm (0.79 in) C/30 anti-aircraft guns. The number of 2 cm guns

9779-432: The harbour of Lyngøy near Bergen in free Norway. The group had made 198 trips to Norway in fishing boats and submarine chasers, Leif Larsen completing 52 of them. The "Shetland Bus" had transported 192 agents and 383 long tons (389 t) of weapons and supplies to Norway and had brought out 73 agents and 373 refugees. Forty-four members of the group were killed. The crews of the Shetland Bus ( Shetlandsgjengen ) were men of

9906-544: The invasion of Norway on 9 April 1940, French and British troops and ships were sent to help the Norwegians. Several coastal towns were bombed and destroyed by the Germans, and during April and May, the British ships had to retreat from mid-Norway. On 29 April, HMS  Glasgow left the devastated city of Molde with King Haakon VII , Crown Prince Olav , members of the Norwegian Government, and most of

10033-491: The kind of standard to be used in a non-dominant country. In the Norwegian discourse, the term Dano-Norwegian is seldom used with reference to contemporary Bokmål and its spoken varieties. The nationality of the language has been a hotly debated topic, and its users and proponents have generally not been fond of the implied association with Danish (hence the neutral names Riksmål and Bokmål , meaning state language and book language respectively). The debate intensified with

10160-466: The list increased to 30 to 40 degrees, and the captain issued the order to abandon ship. The list increased to 60 degrees by 09:50; this appeared to stabilise temporarily. Eight minutes later, a large explosion rocked turret Caesar. The turret roof and part of the rotating structure were thrown 25 m (82 ft) into the air and into a group of men swimming to shore, crushing them. Tirpitz rapidly rolled over and buried her superstructure in

10287-454: The main armour but nonetheless caused significant damage to the ship's superstructure and inflicted serious casualties. William Garzke and Robert Dulin report the attack killed 122 men and wounded 316 others, while Hildebrand, Röhr, & Steinmetz report 132 fatalities and 270 wounded men, including the ship's commander, KzS Hans Meyer. Two of the 15 cm turrets were destroyed by bombs, and both Ar 196 floatplanes were destroyed. Several of

10414-595: The majority of the overhaul. A caisson was built around the stern to allow the replacement of the ship's rudders. During the repair process, the British attempted to attack the battleship with two Chariot human torpedoes , but before they could be launched, rough seas caused them to break away from the fishing vessel which was towing them. By 28 December, the overhaul had been completed, and Tirpitz began sea trials. She conducted gunnery trials on 4 January 1943 in Trondheim Fjord . On 21 February, Topp

10541-444: The nets and sunk by a combination of gunfire and depth charges. The mines damaged the ship extensively. The first exploded abreast of turret Caesar, and the second detonated 45 to 55 m (148 to 180 ft) off the port bow. A fuel oil tank was ruptured, shell plating was torn, a large indentation was formed in the bottom of the ship, and bulkheads in the double bottom buckled. Some 1,430 t (1,410 long tons) of water flooded

10668-485: The new submarine chasers arrived and Larsen became commander of Vigra , with the rank of Sub-Lieutenant . In total he made 52 tours to Norway in fishing vessels and submarine chasers. British awards: Norwegian awards: Kåre Emil Iversen, (10 October 1918 – 22 August 2001), was born in Flatanger Municipality , Norway. He was the son of a sea pilot and had joined his father on the pilot boat . When

10795-422: The patriotic poet Henrik Wergeland (1808–1845), who championed an independent non-Danish written language. Haugen indicates that: "Within the first generation of liberty, two solutions emerged and won adherents, one based on the speech of the upper class and one on that of the common people. The former called for Norwegianisation of the Danish writing, the latter for a brand new start." The more conservative of

10922-426: The question of a possible cooperation between Landmål and Riksmål with regards to orthography"). Through this work an official policy to merge the standards (to a common Samnorsk ) through spelling reforms came to be. In line with these plans, the 1917 reform introduced some elements from Norwegian dialects and Nynorsk as optional alternatives to traditional Dano-Norwegian forms. The reform met some resistance from

11049-415: The reform were Marius Nygaard and Jacob Jonathan Aars. It was an adaptation of written Danish - commonly used since the past union with Denmark - to Dano-Norwegian , the koiné spoken by the Norwegian urban elite, especially in the capital. When the large conservative newspaper Aftenposten adopted the 1907 orthography in 1923, Danish writing was practically out of use in Norway. The name Bokmål

11176-548: The removal of many traditional Dano-Norwegian forms in Bokmål, a decision that was harshly criticised by the Riksmål movement for being too radical and premature. While it criticised the adoption of Nynorsk spellings, it initially also expressed support for making the orthography more phonemic , for instance by removing silent h's in interrogative pronouns (which was done in Swedish a few years earlier). The resistance culminated in

11303-408: The sea bed under the target. Ten vessels were assigned to the operation, scheduled for 20–25 September 1943. Only eight of them reached Kåfjord in Norway for the attack, which began early on 22 September. Three of the vessels, X5 , X6 , and X7 , successfully breached Tirpitz ' s defences, two of which— X6 and X7 —managed to lay their mines. X5 was detected 200 m (660 ft) from

11430-498: The sea floor. In the aftermath of the attack, 82 men trapped in the upturned hull were rescued by cutting through the exposed bottom. Figures for the death toll vary from approximately 950 to 1,204. Approximately 200 survivors of the sinking were transferred to the heavy cruiser Lützow in January 1945. The performance of the Luftwaffe in the defence of Tirpitz was heavily criticised after her loss. Major Heinrich Ehrler ,

11557-453: The ship in fuel tanks and void spaces in the double bottom of the port side, which caused a list of one to two degrees, which was balanced by counter-flooding on the starboard side. The flooding damaged all of the turbo-generators in generator room No. 2, and all apart from one generator in generator room No. 1 were disabled by broken steam lines or severed power cables. Turret Dora was thrown from its bearings and could not be rotated; this

11684-400: The ship made the 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi) trip to Tromsø under her own power, the last voyage of her career. The RAF made a second attempt on 29 October, after the ship was moored off Håkøya Island outside Tromsø. Thirty-two Lancasters attacked the ship with Tallboys during Operation Obviate . As on Operation Paravane, No. 9 Squadron and No. 617 Squadron carried out

11811-548: The ship ready for combat operations on 10 January 1942. The following day, Tirpitz left for Wilhelmshaven, a move designed to conceal her actual destination. The ship left Wilhelmshaven at 23:00 on 14 January and made for Trondheim . British military intelligence, which was capable of decrypting the Enigma messages sent by the German navy, detected the departure of the vessel, but poor weather in Britain prevented action by

11938-478: The ship's namesake. Adolf von Trotha , a former admiral in the Imperial German Navy , spoke at the ship's launching, which was also attended by Adolf Hitler . Fitting-out work was completed by February 1941. British bombers repeatedly attacked the harbour in which the ship was being built; no bombs struck Tirpitz , but the attacks slowed construction work. Tirpitz was commissioned into

12065-573: The skippers of the boats that were coming from Norway, if they would return to deliver agents and bring others back to Shetland. This went on throughout the winter of 1940–41. In early 1941 it was decided formally to establish a group of men and boats to assist the SIS and the SOE. The main purpose of the group was to transfer agents in and out of Norway and provide them with weapons, radios and other supplies. They would also bring out Norwegians who feared arrest by

12192-405: The squadron, which consisted of the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer , the light cruisers Köln , Nürnberg , Leipzig , and Emden , several destroyers, and two flotillas of minesweepers . The Baltic Fleet, under the command of Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax , patrolled off Åland from 23 to 26 September 1941, after which the unit was disbanded and Tirpitz resumed training. During

12319-553: The threat she posed to the Allied arctic convoys . Following the repeated, ineffectual bombing attacks and the failed torpedo attack in October 1942, the British turned to the newly designed X Craft midget submarines . The planned attack, Operation Source , included attacks on Tirpitz , Scharnhorst , and Lützow . The X Craft were towed by large submarines to their destinations, where they could slip under anti-torpedo nets and each drop two powerful two-tonne mines onto

12446-446: The traditional Oslo dialect and Nynorsk, and these forms are also given. Closest match to the traditional Oslo dialect. However, Bokmål uses ku "cow" and (now archaic) su "sow" exclusively. German battleship Tirpitz Tirpitz ( German pronunciation: [ˈtɪʁpɪt͡s] ) was the second of two Bismarck -class battleships built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine (navy) prior to and during

12573-573: The training period, Tirpitz tested her primary and secondary guns on the old pre-dreadnought battleship Hessen , which had been converted into a radio-controlled target ship . The British Royal Air Force (RAF) continued to launch unsuccessful bombing raids on Tirpitz while she was stationed in Kiel. Grand Admiral Erich Raeder , the commander of the Kriegsmarine , proposed on 13 November 1941 that Tirpitz be deployed to Norway. The ship would be able to attack convoys bound for

12700-405: The two language transitions was advanced by the work of writers like Peter Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe , schoolmaster and agitator for language reform Knud Knudsen , and Knudsen's famous disciple, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson , as well as a more cautious Norwegianisation by Henrik Ibsen . In particular, Knudsen's work on language reform in the mid-19th century was important for the 1907 orthography and

12827-557: The weaker member of the union. During this period, the modern Danish and Norwegian languages emerged. Norwegian went through a Middle Norwegian transition, and a Danish written language more heavily influenced by Low German was gradually standardised. This process was aided by the Reformation , which prompted Christiern Pedersen 's translation of the Bible into Danish. Remnants of written Old Norse and Norwegian were thus displaced by

12954-473: The weather improved, allowing the Goodwood series of attacks . Operations Goodwood I and II were launched on 22 August; a carrier force consisting of the fleet carriers Furious , Indefatigable and Formidable and the escort carriers Nabob and Trumpeter launched a total of 38 bombers and 43 escort fighters between the two raids. The attacks failed to inflict any damage on Tirpitz and three of

13081-437: The winter under the cover of darkness. This meant the crews and passengers had to endure very heavy North Sea conditions, with no lights and constant risk of discovery by German aircraft or patrol boats. There was also the possibility of being captured whilst carrying out the mission on the Norwegian coast. Early on it was decided that camouflage was the best defence, and the boats were disguised as working fishing boats and

13208-463: The withdrawal of the German destroyer forces to support Operation Cerberus , the movement of the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen through the English Channel . These caused a planned attack against the outbound convoy PQ 8 at the end of January to be abandoned. A planned British air attack at the end of January by four-engined heavy bombers

13335-596: The wreck was broken up by a joint Norwegian and German salvage operation. The two Bismarck -class battleships were designed in the mid-1930s by the German Kriegsmarine as a counter to French naval expansion, specifically the two Richelieu -class battleships France had started in 1935. Laid down after the signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935, Tirpitz and her sister Bismarck were nominally within

13462-463: Was Nils Nesse, 23, from Bremnes on the island Bømlo south of Bergen. He was killed on 28 October 1941, when German aircraft attacked the Siglaos on its way to Shetland from Norway. Nesse was buried at Lunna Kirk churchyard with a Scottish ceremony, because there was no Norwegian clergyman to conduct the funeral. His body was moved to his home in Norway in 1948 and a cross marks his grave at Lunna. Nesse

13589-489: Was armed with a main battery of eight 38-centimetre (15 in) guns in four twin turrets . After a series of wartime modifications she was 2000 tonnes heavier than Bismarck , making her the heaviest battleship ever built by a European navy. After completing sea trials in early 1941, Tirpitz briefly served as the centrepiece of the Baltic Fleet, which was intended to prevent a possible break-out attempt by

13716-416: Was crewman on M/B Siglaos , M/B Feie , M/B Harald and M/B Heland . In December 1943, he joined the crew on the submarine chaser Hessa as engineer, under command of Petter Salen. When Hessa was under repair, Iversen served as engineer on Vigra and did one tour on a Norwegian Navy MTB. When Hessa was back again he rejoined the crew and stayed there until the war ended. Kåre Iversen did 57 tours across

13843-560: Was disrupted by poor weather over the target, which prevented the aircraft from finding the ship. In early February, Tirpitz took part in the deceptions that distracted the British in the run-up to Operation Cerberus. These included steaming out of the fjord and the appearance of preparations for a sortie into the North Sea . Later that month, the ship was reinforced by the heavy cruisers Admiral Scheer and Prinz Eugen and several destroyers. Prinz Eugen had been torpedoed by

13970-430: Was eventually increased to 58. After 1942, eight 53.3 cm (21 in) above-water torpedo tubes were installed in two quadruple mounts, one mount on each side of the ship. As built, Tirpitz was equipped with Model 23 search radars mounted on the forward, foretop, and rear rangefinders. These were later replaced with Model 27 and then Model 26 radars, which had a larger antenna array. A Model 30 radar, known as

14097-428: Was exonerated by further investigations which concluded poor communication between the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe had caused the fiasco; the aircrews had not been informed that Tirpitz had been moved off Håkøya two weeks before the attack. The wreck of Tirpitz remained in place until after the war, when a joint German-Norwegian company began salvage operations. Work lasted from 1948 until 1957; fragments of

14224-426: Was gradually differentiated into local and regional dialects. As long as Norway remained an independent kingdom , the written language remained essentially constant. In 1380, Norway entered into a personal union with Denmark. By the early 16th century, Norway had lost its separate political institutions, and together with Denmark formed the political unit known as Denmark–Norway until 1814, progressively becoming

14351-455: Was headquarters for the base in Scalloway , while Flemington House became quarters for agents awaiting transport to Norway and for de-brief on return. A former net loft, owned by Nicolson & Co. became accommodation for the boat crews and was named "Norway House". Sevrin Roald's wife, Inga Roald, was the housekeeper. Flemington House was also on occasion visited by high-ranking officers like

14478-422: Was limited to 8 to 10 knots (15 to 19 km/h; 9.2 to 11.5 mph). Concussive shock caused severe damage to fire-control equipment. The damage persuaded the naval command to repair the ship for use only as a floating gun battery. Repair work was estimated to take nine months, but patching of the holes could be effected within a few weeks, allowing Tirpitz to be moved further south to Tromsø . On 15 October,

14605-442: Was lost in the first wave; it took twelve to fourteen minutes for all of Tirpitz ' ' s anti-aircraft batteries to be fully manned. The first wave struck at 05:29, as tugs were preparing to assist the ship out of her mooring. The second wave arrived over the target an hour later, shortly after 06:30. Despite the alertness of the German anti-aircraft gunners, only one other bomber was shot down. The air strikes did not penetrate

14732-407: Was necessary to power the turbo-generators, and the crew was reduced to 1,600 officers and enlisted men. Operation Catechism , the final British attack on Tirpitz , took place on 12 November 1944. The ship again used her 38 cm guns against the bombers, which approached the battleship at 09:35; Tirpitz ' s main guns forced the bombers to disperse temporarily, but could not break up

14859-470: Was officially adopted in 1929 after a proposition to call the written language Dano-Norwegian lost by a single vote in the Lagting . The government does not regulate spoken Bokmål and recommends that normalised pronunciation should follow the phonology of the speaker's local dialect. Nevertheless, there is a spoken variety of Norwegian that, in the region of South-Eastern Norway , is commonly seen as

14986-442: Was ordered as Ersatz Schleswig-Holstein as a replacement for the old pre-dreadnought Schleswig-Holstein , under the contract name "G". The Kriegsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven was awarded the contract, where the keel was laid on 20 October 1936. The hull was launched on 1 April 1939; during the elaborate ceremonies, the ship was christened by Ilse von Hassell, the daughter of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz ,

15113-420: Was particularly significant, as there were no heavy-lift cranes in Norway powerful enough to lift the turret and place it back on its bearings. The ship's two Arado Ar 196 floatplanes were completely destroyed. Repairs were conducted by the repair ship Neumark ; historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin remarked that the successful repair effort was "one of the most notable feats of naval engineering during

15240-609: Was perhaps the most famous of the Shetland Bus men. In all he made 52 trips to Norway and became the most highly decorated Allied naval officer of the Second World War. Larsen was born in Bergen, Norway and joined the Norwegian volunteers during the Finnish Winter War . Soon after the war in Finland ended, Norway was invaded by Germany. A Swedish officer, Benckert, set up a company of volunteers who made their way to Norway and fought in eastern Norway until 8 June 1940, until

15367-533: Was promoted to Rear Admiral and was replaced by Captain Hans Meyer ; five days later the battleship Scharnhorst was ordered to reinforce the fleet in Norway. Vice Admiral Oskar Kummetz was given command of the warships stationed in Norway. By the time Scharnhorst arrived in Norway in March 1943, Allied convoys to the Soviet Union had temporarily ceased. To give the ships an opportunity to work together, Admiral Karl Dönitz , who had replaced Raeder in

15494-405: Was scheduled for 24 April. Operation Brawn, which was to have been carried out by 27 bombers and 36 fighters from Victorious and Furious , was to have taken place on 15 May, and Operation Tiger Claw was intended for 28 May. Formidable and Furious were joined by Indefatigable for Operation Mascot , which was carried out in bad weather on 17 July by 62 bombers and 30 fighters. In late August

15621-462: Was set for 4 April 1944, but rescheduled a day earlier when Enigma decrypts revealed that Tirpitz was to depart at 05:29 on 3 April for sea trials. The attack consisted of 40 Barracuda dive-bombers carrying 500-pound (230 kg), 600-pound (270 kg) and 1,600-pound (730 kg) armour-piercing bombs and 40 escorting fighters in two waves, scoring fifteen direct hits and two near misses. The aircraft achieved surprise, and only one

15748-418: Was significantly improved. A large sandbank was constructed under and around the ship to prevent her from capsizing, and anti-torpedo nets were installed. Tirpitz retained a one-degree list to port from earlier damage, and this was not corrected by counter-flooding to retain as much reserve buoyancy as possible. The ship was also prepared for her role as a floating artillery platform: fuel was limited to what

15875-447: Was sunk but Larsen and the crew, many of them wounded, rowed for several days until they reached the coast of Norway, near Ålesund, but Nils Vika died of his wounds. The other crew were: Andreas Færøy, Johannes Kalvø, Finn Clausen, Gunnar Clausen, Odd Hansen and William Enoksen. After hiding in different places, they were rescued on 14 April by a Motor Torpedo Boat (MTB 626) from Lerwick with Lieut. Bogeberg in command. In October 1943,

16002-409: Was the second Norwegian buried at Lunna Kirk. The first was an unknown sailor buried on 5 February 1940. He was probably from the cargo ship Hop , that had left Bergen on 2 February 1940 and was torpedoed and sunk by a German submarine. The third man was buried 9 June 1942. He was found drifting in the sea by a local crofter, John Johnson from Lunna. The "Shetland–Norwegian Friendship Society" has set up

16129-455: Was very monotonous. Frequent fuel shortages curtailed training and kept the battleship and her escorts moored behind their protective netting. The crew was primarily occupied with maintaining the ship and continuously manning anti-aircraft defences. Sports activities were organised to keep the crew occupied and physically fit. Several factors hindered Tirpitz ' s freedom of operation in Norway. The most pressing were shortages of fuel and

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