Principlist groups
122-512: Monarchist groups Monarchists Defunct Shia Islamism is the usage of Shia Islam in politics. Most study and reporting on Islamism has been focused on Sunni Islamist movements. Shia Islamism, a previously very small ideology, was boosted after the Iranian Revolution led by Ruhollah Khomeini , whose Shia Islamist policies became known as Khomeinism . Though a minority of the world Muslim community, Twelver Shias form
244-546: A messianic figure , the hidden and last Imam known as "the Mahdi ", that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice. According to the doctrine of Twelver Shīʿīsm , the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish an Islamic state and to apply Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad. The Quran does not contain verses on the Imamate, which is the basic doctrine of Shīʿa Islam. Some Shīʿa subsects , such as
366-409: A "political system". Some definitions, descriptions of Islamism include: Ideologies dubbed Islamist may advocate a " revolutionary " strategy of Islamizing society through exercise of state power, or alternately a " reformist " strategy to re-Islamizing society through grassroots social and political activism . Islamists may emphasize the implementation of sharia , pan-Islamic political unity,
488-712: A Sultan, in Ottoman territory he was most often referred to as Padishah and several used the title Shah in their tughras . Their male offspring received the title of Şehzade , or prince (literally, "offspring of the Shah", from Persian shahzadeh ). The full title of the Achaemenid rulers was Xšāyaθiya Xšāyaθiyānām , literally "King of Kings" in Old Persian, corresponding to Middle Persian Šâhân Šâh , and Modern Persian شاهنشاه ( Šâhanšâh ). In Greek , this phrase
610-687: A bomb destroyed the shrine of Al-Askari Mosque. ( See : Anti-Shi'ism ). Shia orthodoxy, particularly in Twelver Shi'ism , has considered non-Muslims as agents of impurity ( Najāsat) . This categorization sometimes extends to kitābῑ , individuals belonging to the People of the Book , with Jews explicitly labeled as impure by certain Shia religious scholars. Armenians in Iran , who have historically played
732-544: A conservative quietist faith" into "a militant political ideology that challenged both the imperial powers and the country's upper class". Khomeini himself followed traditional Shi'i Islamic attitudes in his writings during the 1940, 50s and 60s, only changing during the late 1960s. Some major tenants of Twelver Shīʿa Muslim belief are Traditionally, the term Shahid in Shi'ism referred to "the famous Shi'i saints who in obeying God's will, had gone to their deaths", such as
854-492: A constitution and parliament. Prior to 1970 Khomeini "emphasized that no cleric had ever claimed the right to rule; that many, including Majlisi , had supported their rulers, participated in government, and encouraged the faithful to pay taxes and cooperate with state authorities. If on rare occasions they had criticized their rulers, it was because they opposed specific monarchs, not the 'whole foundation of monarchy.' He also reminded his readers that Imam Ali had accepted 'even
976-546: A crucial role in the Iranian economy , received relatively more lenient treatment. Shi'ite theologians and mujtahids (jurists), such as Muḥammad Bāqir al-Majlisῑ , held that Jews' impurity extended to the point where they were advised to stay at home on rainy or snowy days to prevent contaminating their Shia neighbors. Ayatollah Khomeini , Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989, asserted that every part of an unbeliever's body, including hair, nails, and bodily secretions,
1098-466: A leader of Sunni fundamentalism, but Khomeini saw monarchy as unislamic and the House of Saud as "unpopular and corrupt"—dependent on American protection, and ripe for overthrow, just as the shah had been. Saudi's took this threat seriously because its oil fields lay in the eastern part of its large land mass, where the Shia lived and who traditionally made up the workforce there. Iran was close by, across
1220-485: A norm." The explanation for why these laws have not been in effect in recent Muslim history is that "in order to make the Muslims, especially the intellectuals and the younger generation, deviate from the path of Islam, foreign agents have constantly insinuated that Islam has nothing to offer, that Islam consists of a few ordinances concerning menstruation and parturition ..." Observers (such as Morten Valbjørn) have noted
1342-593: A number of changes in the Muslim world : With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Iran—including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges ( qāḍī )—became much weaker. This gave the sharīʿa courts of mujtahid an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ulama to assert their judicial authority. The Usuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time. Shia Islam
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#17327807603501464-470: A political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaydī) Shīʿīsm. According to Shīʿa Muslim theologians , infallibility is considered a rational, necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures, they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility
1586-565: A product of the belief of Khomeini and his followers that Islam was first and foremost about Islamic law , and that the revolution itself was of "equal significance" to Battle of Karbala where the Imam Husayn was martyred. (For example, in May 2005, President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's stated that "the Iranian revolution was of the same `essence` as Imam Husayn's movement.") Khomeini's evolution
1708-424: A relatively large number for Israel, a small country, and which "did much to help force Israel out" of Lebanon. This "rare victory" over Israel "lionized" the group among Arabs in the region and added to "the aura of Shia power still glimmering amid the afterglow of the Iranian revolution." Hezbollah suicide attacks also drove Western peacekeepers out of Lebanon, killing 243 U.S. Marines and 58 French troops; blew up
1830-490: A ruling Islamic jurist being necessary for the preservation of Islam, a theory embraced only by Shia Islamists (followers of Khomeini), not by any Sunni. Financial and geographic independence ( Najaf and Karbala were outside the borders of the Iranian Empire); the right to interpretation, even to innovation on all questions; delegitimization of the state ... ; strong hierarchy and structure; all operated to make
1952-457: A speech at Ghadir Khumm . The point of contention between different Muslim sects arises when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as his mawla , has ʿAlī as his mawla ". Some versions add the additional sentence "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy". Sunnis maintain that Muhammad emphasized the deserving friendship and respect for ʿAlī. In contrast, Shia Muslims assert that
2074-763: Is a royal title that was historically used by the leading figures of Iranian monarchies . It was also used by a variety of Persianate societies , such as the Ottoman Empire , the Kazakh Khanate , the Khanate of Bukhara , the Emirate of Bukhara , the Mughal Empire , the Bengal Sultanate , historical Afghan dynasties , and among Gurkhas . Rather than regarding himself as simply a king of
2196-437: Is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world. God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation, but also God blames them for such actions. In other words, humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect, a faculty bestowed on us by God. Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shia Muslims, even evaluating
2318-461: Is already on Earth in Occultation, and will return at the end of time . Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs and Fatimid/Bohra/ Dawoodi Bohra believe the same but for their 21st Ṭayyib, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim , and also believe that a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") maintains contact with him. Sunnī Muslims believe that the future Mahdi has not yet arrived on Earth. Shīʿa Muslims believe that
2440-572: Is based on the Shīʿīte interpretation of the verse of purification . Thus, they are the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness. It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin , but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God, they refrain from doing anything that is a sin. They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by
2562-597: Is commemorated on the Day of Ashura , occurring on the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. Later, most denominations of Shia Islam, including Twelvers and Ismāʿīlīs , became Imamis . Imami Shīʿītes believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad . Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret
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#17327807603502684-730: Is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as " the Twelve Imams ". Twelver Shia are otherwise known as Imami or Jaʿfari ; the latter term derives from Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam , who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence. Twelver Shia constitute the majority of the population in Iran (90%), Azerbaijan (85%), Bahrain (70%), Iraq (65%), and Lebanon (65% of Muslims). Shah Shah ( / ʃ ɑː / ; Persian : شاه , Šāh [ʃɒːh] , lit. ' king ' )
2806-468: Is derived. Most recently, the form xšāyaθiya has been analyzed as a genuine, inherited Persian formation with the meaning 'pertaining to reigning, ruling'. This formation with the "origin" suffix -iya is derived from a deverbal abstract noun * xšāy-aθa- 'rule, ruling, Herrschaft ' , from the (Old Persian) verb xšāy- 'to rule, reign'. The full, Old Persian title of the Achaemenid rulers of
2928-427: Is impure. However, the current leader of Iran, ʿAlī Khameneʾī , stated in a fatwa that Jews and other Peoples of the Book are not inherently impure, and touching the moisture on their hands does not convey impurity. The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī, and Shia theology was formulated after the hijra (8th century CE). The first Shia governments and societies were established by
3050-517: Is no god except God, Muhammad is the messenger of God'), but in addition to this declaration of faith Shīʿa Muslims add the phrase Ali-un-Waliullah ( Arabic : علي ولي الله , lit. 'Ali is the guardian of God'). The basis for the Shīʿīte belief in ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the Wali of God is derived from the Qur'anic verse 5:55 . This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies
3172-588: Is reported to have said: "Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus." (An Arab clan in Yemen , to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunnī Muslims, ʿAlī
3294-469: Is the second largest branch of Islam . It is estimated that either 10–20% or 10–13% of the global Muslim population are Shias. They may number up to 200 million as of 2009. As of 1985, Shia Muslims are estimated to be 21% of the Muslim population in South Asia , although the total number is difficult to estimate. Shia Muslims form a distinct majority of the population in three countries of
3416-531: Is the concept of infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam. Muslims believe that Muhammad, along with the other prophets and messengers , possessed ismah . Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Fāṭimah , daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the Zaydī Shīʿas , who do not attribute ismah to the Imams. Though initially beginning as
3538-660: Is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims. With him is the similar object that angels brought. Al-Ṣādiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving the Imamat (leadership), similar to how the Ark of Covenant in the house of the Israelites signaled prophethood. Imam Ali al-Ridha narrates that wherever
3660-455: Is the second-largest branch of Islam . It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE) as his successor ( Arabic : خليفة , romanized : khalīfa ) as Imam ( امام , 'spiritual and political leader'), most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm , but that after Muhammad's death, Ali was prevented from succeeding as leader of
3782-463: Is unclear as he did not footnote his work or admit to drawing ideas from others, or for that matter even admit he had changed his views. In his 1970 lectures, Khomeini claimed Muslims "have the sacred duty to oppose all monarchies. ... that monarchy was a 'pagan' institution that the 'despotic' Umayyads had adopted from the Roman and Sassanid empires ". Khomeini saw Islam as a political system that until
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3904-542: The khoms contributions to worthy widows, orphans, seminary students, and indigent male descendants of the Prophet." Even the revivalist Shi'i cleric Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri —celebrated in the Islamic Republic for defending Islam and sharia against democracy, and martyred by "agents" of foreign powers because of it—argued against democracy not because it was clerics that Iranians should obey, but because they should obey their monarch and not limit his power with
4026-683: The Battle of Karbala as an example of "standing up against injustice even if it required martyrdom". Arguably the first prominent Islamist, Rashid Rida , published a series of articles in Al-Manar titled " The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate " during 1922–1923. In this highly influential treatise, Rida advocated for the restoration of the Caliphate ruled by Muslim jurists and proposed Islamic Salafiyya movement revival measures across
4148-543: The Battle of Siffin in 657 turned the tide against ʿAlī, who lost due to arbitration issues with Muawiyah , the governor of Damascus. ʿAlī withdrew to Kufa, overcoming the Kharijis , a faction that had transformed from supporters to bitter rivals, at Nahrawan in 658. In 661, ʿAlī was assassinated by a Khariji assassin in Kufa while in the act of prostration during prayer ( sujud ). Subsequently, Muawiyah asserted his claim to
4270-1203: The Kadhimiya Mosque in Kadhimiya , Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra , the Sahla Mosque , the Great Mosque of Kufa , the Jamkaran Mosque in Qom, and the Tomb of Daniel in Susa . Most of the Shīʿa sacred places and heritage sites in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the Al Saud - Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan , the most notable being the tombs of the Imams located in the Al-Baqi' cemetery in 1925. In 2006,
4392-405: The Muslim community . Later events such as Husayn's martyrdom in the Battle of Karbala (680 CE) further influenced the development of Shia Islam, contributing to the formation of a distinct religious sect with its own rituals and shared collective memory. Shia Islam is followed by 10–15% of all Muslims. Although there are many Shia subsects in the Muslim world, Twelver Shi'ism is by far
4514-626: The Muslim world : Iran , Iraq , and Azerbaijan . Shia Muslims constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of the Middle East . Estimates have placed the proportion of Shia Muslims in Lebanon between 27% and 45% of the population, 30–35% of the citizen population in Kuwait (no figures exist for the non-citizen population), over 20% in Turkey , 5–20% of
4636-418: The Zaydī Shīʿas and Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs , do not believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return. Twelver Shīʿa Muslims believe that the prophesied Mahdi and 12th Shīʿīte Imam , Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi ,
4758-435: The angels ( Arabic : ملائِكة , romanized : malāʾikah ) to the prophets ( Arabic : أنبياء , romanized : anbiyāʼ ) and the messengers ( Arabic : رُسل , romanized : rusul ). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. Thus, they are believed to act without fault in religious matters. Shi'a Muslims regard ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the successor of Muhammad not only ruling over
4880-580: The " Five Martyrs ". Prior to the 1970s, this was also the way Khomeini used the term—and not rank and file fighters who "had died for the cause". Rituals such as the Day of Ashura , lamentation of the death of Hussein, visiting shrines like the Imam Reza shrine in Mashad , were important part of popular Shia piety. Iranian shahs and the Awadh's nawabs often presided over any Ashura observances. Prior to
5002-495: The "Golden Age" of Muhammad and Imam Ali 's rule. Khomeini showed little interest in the rituals of Shia Islam such as the Day of Ashura , never presided over any Ashura observances, nor visited the enormously popular Imam Reza shrine . Foreign Shia hosts in Pakistan and elsewhere were often surprised by the disdain shown for Shia shrines by officials visiting from the Islamic Republic. At least one observer has explained it as
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5124-422: The 1979 Islamist Revolution in Iran , "the general consensus" among religious historians was that "Sunni Islam(ism) was more activist, political, and revolutionary than the allegedly quietist and apolitical Shia Islam", who shunned politics while waiting for the 12th Imam to reappear . After the Iranian revolution there was a reversal, and with a new consensus that Shia Islam was a "religion of protest", looking to
5246-923: The American embassy in 1983, killing the Middle East experts in the CIA, and then several months later blew up the annex the survivors of the US embassy had retreated to. Hamas used suicide attacks as a model for in its fight in the Palestinian Territories. Not as successful was Tehran's post-revolutionary "money and organizational help" in other countries, first to create Shia militias and revolutionary groups to spread Islamic revolution, and following that to encourage "armed conflicts, street protests and rebellion, and acts of terrorism" against secular and pro-American regimes such as Egypt and Pakistan. Prior to
5368-615: The Brotherhood jihadist theorist, Sayyid Qutb . Other Sunni Islamists/revivalists who were translated into Persian include Sayyid's brother, Muhammad Qutb , and South Asian Islamic revivalist writer Abul A'la Maududi along with other Pakistani and Indian Islamists. "These books became the main source of nourishment for Iranian militant clerics’ sermons and writings during the pre-revolution era." Some ideas shared by both Qutb in his manifesto ( Milestones ) and Khomeini in his ( Islamic Government ), are an extremely high regard for
5490-593: The First Persian Empire was Xšāyaθiya Xšāyaθiyānām or (Middle Persian) Šâhân Šâh , "King of Kings" or "Emperor". This title has ancient Near Eastern or Mesopotamian precedents. The earliest attestation of such a title dates back to the Middle Assyrian period as šar šarrāni , in reference to the Assyrian ruler Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243–1207 BC). Šāh , or Šāhanšāh ( King of Kings ) to use
5612-657: The Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind. In the century following the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population. A major turning point in the history of Shia Islam was the dominion of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) in Persia . This caused
5734-456: The Messenger of Allah. It is not disputable." Further, he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God, his coat of arms, his Lamam (pennon) and his helmet. In addition, he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God, the victorious. With him is the Staff of Moses , the ring of Solomon , son of David , and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings. With him
5856-514: The Muslim community. ʿAlī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah. This difference between following either the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr has shaped the Shia–Sunnī divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses, hadith literature (accounts of
5978-524: The Muslim world were unaware of. Describing the Islamic system of Khomeini, the Islamic Revolution or the Islamic Republic and how it differed from traditional non-Islamist Shi'ism, is complicated by the fact that it evolved through several stages, especially before and after taking power. Historian Ervand Abrahamian argues that Khomeini and his Islamist movement not only created a new form of Shiism, but converted traditional Shi'ism "from
6100-425: The Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid , and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance ( bay'ah ) to him. ʿAlī's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAlī's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance. There
6222-483: The Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions ( صحابة , ṣaḥāba ) at Saqifah . This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam , whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abu Bakr , who was appointed caliph by a group of Muhammad's other companions at Saqifah, to be the first Rashidun ('rightful') caliph after Muhammad (632–634 CE). Shia Muslims' belief that Ali
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#17327807603506344-432: The Persian Empire (later the Empire of Iran ). The European opinion changed in the Napoleonic era, when Persia was an ally of the Western powers eager to make the Ottoman Sultan release his hold on various (mainly Christian) European parts of the Ottoman Empire , and western (Christian) emperors had obtained the Ottoman acknowledgement that their western imperial styles were to be rendered in Turkish as padishah . In
6466-429: The Persian Gulf. In 1979–80 the area was the scene of "riots and disturbances". But conservative Sunni fundamentalists were not only closer to the Sunni Saudis theologically, they were very often beneficiaries of Saudi funding of "petro-Islam", and didn't hesitate to take Saudis side against Khomeini. An incident that closed the door on any alliance between Khomeini's Islamic Republic and the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood
6588-403: The Quranic verses 3:33 and 3:34 show: "Indeed, Allah chose Adam , Noah , the family of Abraham , and the family of ’Imrân above all people. They are descendants of one another. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing." Shīʿa Islam encompasses various denominations and subgroups , all bound by the belief that the leader of the Muslim community ( Ummah ) should hail from Ahl al-Bayt ,
6710-552: The Shīʿīte emphasis on the inheritance of authority through Muhammad's family and lineage . The three clauses of the Shīʿīte version of the Shahada thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs of Tawḥīd ( Arabic : تَوْحِيد , lit. 'oneness of God'), Nubuwwah ( Arabic : نبوة , lit. 'prophethood'), and Imamah ( Arabic : إمامة , lit. 'Imamate or leadership'). Ismah ( Arabic : عِصْمَة , romanized : 'Iṣmah or 'Isma , lit. 'protection')
6832-531: The US invasion of Iraq, and sectarianism generated by Arab regimes defending themselves against the mass uprisings of the Arab Spring (2010–2012). Olivier Roy notes that unlike Sunni Islam, where clergy were largely if not entirely opponents of Islamism, in Shi'ism, clergy were often the leaders—not only Ruhollah Khomeini, but Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and Mahmoud Taleghani . Roy also posits several features of Shi'i Islam that made it amendable to Khomeini's theory of Islamist theocracy , specifically his theory of
6954-430: The armaments among us would go, knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge ( Imamat ). According to Muhammad Rida al-Muzaffar , God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there
7076-555: The caliphate. Upon the death of ʿAlī, his elder son Ḥasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa. After a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Ḥasan ibn Ali agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims upon certain conditions : The enforced public cursing of ʿAlī , e.g. during prayers, should be abandoned; Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs; There should be peace, and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights; Muawiyah will never adopt
7198-442: The claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect. Shia religious practices, such as prayers, differ only slightly from the Sunnīs. While all Muslims pray five times daily, Shia Muslims have the option of combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha' , as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran . The Sunnīs tend to combine only under certain circumstances. Shia Muslims celebrate
7320-524: The clergy a political force. At least the Khomeini Islamist movement in its early years in power before Khomeini died, " third world solidarity took precedence over Muslim fraternity in an utter departure from all other Islamic movements". The Sandinistas , African National Congress , and Irish Republican Army , were promoted over neighboring Sunni Muslims in Afghanistan, who though fighting invading atheist Russians, were politically conservative. Shia Islam Shia Islam ( / ˈ ʃ iː ə / )
7442-501: The colonial period, such as the Khoja . Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report, Mapping the Global Muslim Population . The Shia community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are the Twelvers , followed by the Zaydīs and the Ismāʿīlīs . Each subsect of Shīʿīsm follows its own line of Imamate. All mainstream Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims follow
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#17327807603507564-455: The community." Khomeini's form of Islamism was unique in the world for not only for being a powerful political movement, not only for having come to power, but for having completely swept away the old regime, created a new one with a new constitution, new institutions and a new concept of governance (the velayat-e-faqih ). An historical event, it changed militant Islam from a topic of limited impact and interest, to one that few inside or outside
7686-546: The concurrent dynasty (i.e. European-style monarchies ), each Iranian ruler regarded himself as the Shahanshah ( شاهنشاه , Šâhanšâh , lit. ' King of Kings ' ) or Padishah ( پادشاه , Pâdešâh , lit. ' Master King ' ) in the sense of a continuation of the original Persian Empire . The word descends from Old Persian xšāyaθiya "king", as it was compared to Avestan xšaθra- , "power" and "command", corresponding to Sanskrit kṣatra- (same meaning), from which kṣatriya - , "warrior",
7808-433: The creation of Islamic states , and/or the outright removal of non-Muslim influences—particularly of Western or universal economic, military, political, social, or cultural nature—in the Muslim world . In the 21st century, some analysts such as Graham E. Fuller describe it as a form of identity politics , involving "support for (Muslim) identity, authenticity, broader regionalism , revivalism, (and) revitalization of
7930-418: The divine guide, is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam, and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance. In Shia Islam, Imam Mahdi is regarded as the prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine, or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the Day of Judgment and will rid
8052-415: The divine law and its esoteric meaning . The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree ( nass ) through Muhammad. According to this view peculiar to Shia Islam, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in
8174-709: The element "šah," meaning "king" in Middle Persian and New Persian . These names can be found in both masculine and feminine forms and may include native Armenian or foreign components. The element "šah" can appear as either the first or second component and is sometimes part of doublet forms with the components reversed. For example, masculine names include Šah-amir and Amir-šah, Šah-paron and Paron-šah, and Vahram-šah; feminine names include Šah-xat‘un and Xat‘un-šah, and Šah-tikin. Some examples of these compound names include masculine Šah-aziz and feminine Aziz-šah, masculine Sult‘an-šah and feminine Šah-sult‘an, and masculine Melik‘-šah and feminine Šah-melē/ik‘. These names, particularly
8296-408: The end of the 9th century CE. The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies Louis Massignon as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam". The Shia, originally known as the "partisans" of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib , Muhammad's cousin and Fatima 's husband, first emerged as a distinct movement during the First Fitna from 656 to 661 CE. Shia doctrine holds that ʿAlī
8418-401: The entire Muslim community in justice, but also in interpreting the Islamic faith, practices, and its esoteric meaning. ʿAlī is regarded as a " perfect man " ( Arabic : الإنسان الكامل , romanized : al-insan al-kamil ) similar to Muhammad, according to the Shīʿīte perspective. The Occultation is an eschatological belief held in various denominations of Shīʿa Islam concerning
8540-642: The family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . It embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world . Shīʿa Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib to be Muhammad's successor and the first caliph ( Arabic : خليفة , romanized : khalifa ) of Islam. Shīʿa Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command on several instances, but most notably at Eid Al Ghadir . Additionally, ʿAlī
8662-428: The feminine forms, sometimes vary in gender depending on the source. The name Artamšin, for instance, is based on *Artam from Old Iranian *R̥tāma-, interpreted as "having power of/from R̥ta." The auslaut of the Armenian name suggests a connection to the Iranian word for "king," šāh, found in various languages including Middle Persian and New Persian. In another example, the name Šaštʻi is interpreted as "Šah-Lady," with
8784-649: The following annual holidays: After Mecca and Medina , the two holiest cities of Islam , the cities of Najaf , Karbala , Mashhad and Qom are the most revered by Shīʿa Muslims. The Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī in Najaf, the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, The Sanctuary of Imam Reza in Mashhad and the Shrine of Fāṭimah al-Maʿṣūmah in Qom are very essential for Shīʿa Muslims. Other venerated pilgrimage sites include
8906-649: The full-length term, was the title of the Persian emperors . It includes rulers of the first Persian Empire, the Achaemenid dynasty , who unified Persia in the sixth century BC, and created a vast intercontinental empire, as well as rulers of succeeding dynasties throughout history until the 20th century and the Imperial House of Pahlavi . While in Western sources the Ottoman monarch is most often referred to as
9028-400: The globe to reform education and purify Islam. Ayatullah Khomeini's manifesto Islamic Government , Guardianship of the jurist , was greatly influenced by Rida's book ( Persian : اسلام ناب ) and by his analysis of the post-colonial Muslim world. Before the Islamic Revolution, Ali Khamenei , the man who is today's Supreme Leader of Iran , was an early champion and translator of the works of
9150-670: The government, which is part of the absolute deputyship of the Prophet, is one of the primary injunctions of Islam and has priority over all other secondary injunctions, even prayers, fasting and hajj." Vali Nasr notes the success of Hezbollah suicide attacks as part of the "cult of martyrdom" that had started with suicidal human wave attacks by the Islamic Republic of Iran against Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War . Hezbollah's "martyrdom operations" killed approximately 600 Israeli soldiers in Southern Lebanon between 1982 and 1984,
9272-448: The guidance of mankind"; Khomeini preached that Western unbelievers want "to keep us backward, to keep us in our present miserable state so they can exploit our riches ..." Qutb considered Sharia a branch of "that universal law which governs the entire universe ... as accurate and true as any of the laws known as the `laws of nature`", physics, biology, etc. Better than that, applying Sharia law would bring "harmony between human life and
9394-514: The hadith attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt and close associates, and most have their own separate hadith canon . Shīʿa Muslims believe that the armaments and sacred items of all of the Abrahamic prophets , including Muhammad , were handed down in succession to the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt . Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam , in Kitab al-Kafi mentions that "with me are the arms of
9516-592: The largest and most influential, comprising about 85% of all Shia Muslims. Others include the Isma'ili , Zaydi , Alevi and Alawi . Shia Muslims form a majority of the population in four countries across the Muslim world : Iran , Iraq , Azerbaijan , and Bahrain . Significant Shia communities are also found in Lebanon , Kuwait , Turkey , Yemen , Saudi Arabia , Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent . Iran stands as
9638-460: The leaders of Medina and elected Abū Bakr as the first rāshidūn caliph. Abū Bakr served from 632 to 634, and was followed by Umar (634–644) and ʿUthmān (644–656). With the murder of ʿUthmān in 657 CE, the Muslims of Medina invited ʿAlī to become the fourth caliph as the last source, and he established his capital in Kufa . ʿAlī's rule over the early Islamic empire , between 656 CE to 661 CE,
9760-595: The majority of the population in the countries of Iran , Iraq , Bahrain , Azerbaijan , half the Muslims in Lebanon , and substantial minorities in Afghanistan , India , Kuwait , Pakistan , Qatar , Syria , Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates . Islamism in general has been defined as a religious revivalist movement for a return to the original texts and the inspiration of the original believers of Islam, but one which requires Islam to be
9882-508: The overthrow of the shah even after he was deported from Iran by him. Khomeini also accepted the traditional Shi'i view of society described in Imam Ali 's Nahj al-Balagha . Hierarchy in society was natural, "the poor should accept their lot and not envy the rich; and the rich should thank God, avoid conspicuous consumption, and give generously to the poor." The "Golden Age of Islam" to be looked back on "longingly" according to tradition,
10004-489: The playing of ' sensuous music ', forcing men to wear Western style hats, establishing coeducational schools , and banning women's chador hijab , "thereby 'forcing women to naked into the streets'"; but "explicitly disavowed" advocating the overthrow of the shah and "repeatedly reaffirmed his allegiance to monarchies in general and to 'good monarchs' in particular, for 'bad order was better than no order at all.'" As "the most vocal antiregime cleric", Khomeini did not call for
10126-718: The population in Pakistan , and 10–19% of Afghanistan 's population, and 45% in Bahrain . Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shia communities, including the Twelver Baharna in the Eastern Province and Nakhawila of Medina, and the Ismāʿīlī Sulaymani and Zaydī Shias of Najran . Estimations put the number of Shīʿīte citizens at roughly 15% of the local population. Approximately 40% of
10248-803: The population of Yemen are Shia Muslims. Significant Shia communities also exist in the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia (see Tabuik ). The Shia presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly Shāfiʿī Sunnīs. A significant Shia minority is present in Nigeria , made up of modern-era converts to a Shīʿīte movement centered around Kano and Sokoto states. Several African countries like Kenya , South Africa , Somalia , etc. hold small minority populations of various Shia subsects, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during
10370-468: The powers of Sharia law, and a belief that Non-Muslims are involved in an aggressive, unprovoked undermining of Islam and Muslims (sometimes called the " War on Islam "). Qutb preached that the West has a centuries-long "enmity toward Islam" and a "well-thought-out scheme ... to demolish the structure of Muslim society", but at the same time knows its "civilization is unable to present any healthy values for
10492-502: The realm of a shah (or a loftier derived ruler style), a prince or princess of the royal blood was logically called shahzada as the term is derived from shah using the Persian patronymic suffix -zâde or -zâdeh, "born from" or "descendant of". However the precise full styles can differ in the court traditions of each shah's kingdom. This title was given to the princes of the Ottoman Empire ( Şehzade , Ottoman Turkish : شهزاده) and
10614-608: The return of the Twelfth Imam , presides over an Islamist state or works for its creation. Following "in the footsteps" of Ali Shariati , the Tudeh Party , Mojahedin , Hojjat al-Islam Nimatollah Salahi-Najafabadi , by the 1970s Khomeini began to embrace the idea that martyrdom was "not a saintly act, but a revolutionary sacrifice to overthrow a despotic political order". Some other differences between traditional Shi'i doctrine and that of Ruhollah Khomeini and his followers
10736-604: The same school of thought, the Jaʽfari jurisprudence , named after Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam . Shīʿīte clergymen and jurists usually carry the title of mujtahid (i.e., someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shia Islam). Twelver Shīʿīsm or Ithnāʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shia Islam, and the terms Shia Muslim and Shia often refer to the Twelvers by default. The designation Twelver
10858-695: The sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam . For instance, the hadith collections venerated by Shia Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the Ahl al-Bayt and their supporters, while some hadith transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the Ahl al-Bayt are not included. Those of Abu Hurairah , for example, Ibn Asakir in his Taʿrikh Kabir , and Muttaqi in his Kanzuʿl-Umma report that ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrate ḥadīth from Muhammad. ʿUmar
10980-544: The second component reflecting the Arabic term sittī, meaning "My lady, lady." This name is found in a colophon from the Kołbay monastery as the name of a sister of Dawitʻ and priest Vardan. Overall, Armenian compound names containing the element "šah" provide insight into the linguistic and cultural interactions between Armenian and Iranian languages and cultures. Shahzade ( Persian : شاهزاده , transliterated as Šâhzâde ). In
11102-593: The similarities between Sunni and Shia Islamist movements, such as the Sunni Hamas and Shia Hezbollah "Islamist national resistance" groups, and how Ruhollah Khomeini was "a voice of Pan-Islamism rather than of a distinct kind of Shia-Islamism" during his time in power. Vali Nasr argues that as the Muslim world decolonialised, Arab nationalism waned and Islam underwent a religious revival. As religion became important, so did differences in Islamic doctrine, not least between Sunnism and Shi'ism. Conflicts between
11224-409: The sovereign shah bahadur (see above) were by birth-right styled "Shahzada [personal title] Mirza [personal name] Bahadur", though this style could also be extended to individual grandsons and even further relatives. Other male descendants of the sovereign in the male line were merely styled "Mirza [personal name]" or "[personal name] Mirza". This could even apply to non-Muslim dynasties. For example,
11346-603: The spread of Khomeini's book Islamic Government after 1970, it was agreed that only the rule of an Imam, i.e. the Twelfth Imam for the contemporary world), was legitimate or "fully legitimate". While waiting for his return and rule, Shia jurists have tended to stick to one of three approaches to the state, according to at least two historians ( Moojan Momen , Ervand Abrahamian ): cooperated with it, trying to influence policies by becoming active in politics, or most commonly, remaining aloof from it. For many centuries prior to
11468-483: The spread of Khomeini's book, "no Shii writer ever explicitly contended that monarchies per se were illegitimate or that the senior clergy had the authority to control the state." Clergy were to study the law based on the Quran, the Prophet's traditions, and the teachings of the Twelve Imams. They were also to use reason to update these laws; issue pronouncements on new problems; adjudicate in legal disputes; and distribute
11590-496: The statement unequivocally designates ʿAlī as Muhammad's appointed successor. Shia sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAlī and acclaimed him as Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"). When Muhammad died in 632 CE, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abū Bakr , ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb , and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with
11712-625: The status of ʿAlī is supported by numerous ḥadīth reports , including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm , Hadith of the two weighty things , Hadith of the pen and paper , Hadith of the invitation of the close families , and Hadith of the Twelve Successors . In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards ʿAlī and his family by both Sunnī and Shia scholars. Shia Muslims prefer to study and read
11834-450: The term Shia refers to those who believe that ʿAlī is designated as the heir , Imam, and caliph by Muhammad and that ʿAlī's authority is maintained through his descendants. For the adherents of Shia Islam, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and the history of Islam . Shia Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the Abrahamic prophets as
11956-434: The title of Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"); Muawiyah will not nominate any successor. Ḥasan then retired to Medina , where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife Ja'da bint al-Ash'ath , after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son Yazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle. Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī , ʿAlī's younger son and brother to Ḥasan, initially resisted calls to lead
12078-449: The twentieth century, the Shah of Persia , Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , officially adopted the title شاهنشاه Šâhanšâh and, in western languages, the rendering Emperor . He also styled his wife شهبانو Shahbânū ("Empress"). Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was the last Shah, as the Iranian monarchy was abolished after the 1979 Iranian Revolution . Armenian compound personal names often contain
12200-471: The two movements, spelled out in the teachings of scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyah , intensified. Whatever early cooperation there had been between Sunni and Shi'i Islamism ended, as did an era of tolerance in general between the Sunni and Shi'i schools. Where Iranians saw their revolution as righting of injustice, Sunnis saw mostly "Shia mischief" and a challenge to Sunni political and cultural dominance. There
12322-538: The universe", with results approaching those otherwise "postponed for the next life", i.e. heaven. Khomeini doesn't compare Sharia to heaven but does say "God, Exalted and Almighty, by means of the Most Noble Messenger (peace and blessing be upon him), sent laws that astound us with their magnitude. He instituted laws and practices for all human affairs ... There is not a single topic in human life for which Islam has not provided instruction and established
12444-536: The world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus (ʿĪsā), who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal (literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered the Masih (" Messiah ") in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade east of Damascus , dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join
12566-564: The world's only country where Shia Islam forms the foundation of both its laws and governance system . The word Shia (or Shīʿa) ( / ˈ ʃ iː ə / ) ( Arabic : شيعيّ , romanized : shīʿī, pl. shīʿiyyūn ) is derived from شيعة علي , shīʿat ʿAlī , 'followers of Ali'. Shia Islam is also referred to in English as Shiism (or Shīʿism) ( / ˈ ʃ iː ɪ z ( ə ) m / ), and Shia Muslims as Shiites (or Shīʿites) ( / ˈ ʃ iː aɪ t / ). The term Shia
12688-484: The worst of the early caliphs'". In his first political tract, Kashf al-Asrar (1943), written before his embrace of political Islam, Khomeini denounced the first Pahlavi shah , Reza Shah (the father of the shah he overthrew), for many offenses against traditional Islam—"closing down seminaries, expropriating religious endowments ( Waqf ), propagating anticlerical sentiments, replacing religious courts with state ones", permitting consumption of alcoholic beverages and
12810-511: The younger sons of the ruling Sikh maharaja of Punjab were styled "Shahzada [personal name] Singh Bahadur". The borrowing shahajada , "Shah's son", taken from the Mughal title Shahzada, was the usual princely title borne by the grandsons and male descendants of a Nepalese sovereign in the male line of the Shah dynasty until its abolition in 2008. For the heir to a "Persian-style" shah's royal throne, more specific titles were used, containing
12932-778: Was Khomeini's refusal to support the Brotherhood when it rose up against the Baathist Arab Nationalist regime in Hama, Syria a few years after the revolution. As secular and nationalists, the Baathists were in theory ideological enemies, while the Muslim Brotherhood were putatively comrade Islamists, but the Brotherhood were Sunni and the Syrian rulers a (not-very-close) relative of Twelver Shi'i ( Alawites ), and Iran's ally against Saddam Hussein's Iraq. This
13054-598: Was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter, Fāṭimah . The Shīʿīte version of the Shahada ( Arabic : الشهادة ), the Islamic profession of faith, differs from that of the Sunnīs . The Sunnī version of the Shahada states La ilaha illallah, Muhammadun rasulullah ( Arabic : لَا إِلٰهَ إِلَّا الله مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ الله , lit. 'There
13176-586: Was a coup attempt in Bahrain in 1981, terrorist plots in Kuwait in 1983 and 1984. "What followed was a Sunni-versus-Shia contest for dominance, and it grew intense." In part this was an issue of Sunni revivalism/fundamentalism being "rooted in conservative religious impulses and the bazaars, mixing mercantile interests with religious values", while Shia—"the longtime outsiders"—were "more drawn to radical dreaming and scheming", such as revolution. Saudi Arabia served as
13298-541: Was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam, so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa. En route to Kufa, Husayn was blocked by an army of Yazid's men, which included people from Kufa, near Karbala ; rather than surrendering, Husayn and his followers chose to fight. In the Battle of Karbala , Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed, and Husayn's head
13420-486: Was delivered to Yazid in Damascus. The Shi'a community regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as a martyr ( shahid ), and count him as an Imam from the Ahl al-Bayt . The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is often cited as the definitive separation between the Shia and Sunnī sects of Islam . Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAlī mutually recognized by all branches of Shia Islam. The martyrdom of Husayn and his followers
13542-482: Was first used during Muhammad's lifetime. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Muhammad belongs to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib , Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors. Nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAlī as the Imam and caliph . Al-Shahrastani expresses that
13664-463: Was meant to lead the community after Muhammad's death in 632. Historians dispute over the origins of Shia Islam , with many Western scholars positing that Shīʿīsm began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement. Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept. Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his heir during
13786-476: Was not just from traditionalist to revolutionary. There were several stages. accused him of widening the gap between rich and poor; favoring cronies, relatives ... wasting oil resources on the ever expanding army and bureaucracy ... condemning the working class to a life of poverty, misery, and drudgery ... neglecting low-income housing", dependency on the west, supporting the US and Israel, undermining Islam and Iran with "cultural imperialism", "I should state that
13908-584: Was often contested. Tensions eventually led to the First Fitna , the first major civil war between Muslims within the empire, which began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAlī. While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAlī's khilafāʾ (caliphate), they later turned against ʿAlī and fought him. Tensions escalated into the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali's forces emerged victorious against Aisha , Talhah , and al-Zubayr . However,
14030-480: Was on how to wait for the return the reemergence of the hidden Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi . Traditionally the approach was to wait patiently, as he would not return until "the world was overflowing with injustice and tyranny". Turning this belief inside out, Khomeini preached that it would not be injustice and suffering that would hasten his return, but the just rule of the Islamic State, this justice "surpassing"
14152-643: Was seen as a test where Khomeini had chosen "a nominal Shia ally" in the form of such as Bashar al-Assad , over the Islamist Brotherhood. With the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), Sunni–Shia strife saw a major upturn, particularly in Iraq and Pakistan, leading to thousands of deaths. Among the explanations for the increase are conspiracies by outside forces to divide Muslims, the recent Islamic revival and increased religious purity and consequent takfir , upheaval, destruction and loss of power of Sunni caused by
14274-597: Was the Mecca of Muhammad (a prophet) and the caliphate of Imam Ali (an Imam). Disorder in society (such as overthrowing monarchs) was wrong because (as Khomeini put it) "bad order was better than no order at all". The term mostazafin (oppressed), was used in the "Quranic sense" of "'humble' and passive 'meek' believers, especially orphans, widows, and the mentally impaired." Khomeini rarely spoke of them in his pre-1970 writings. In late 1969, Khomeini's view of society and politics changed dramatically. What prompted this change
14396-481: Was the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam's spiritual and political leader later developed into the concept of Imamah , the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad, the Ahl al-Bayt ( أَهْل البَيْت , 'People of the House';), are rightful rulers or Imams through the bloodline of Ali and his two sons Hasan and Husayn , whom Shia Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over
14518-446: Was the fourth successor to Abū Bakr, while Shia Muslims maintain that ʿAlī was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shia history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala of ʿAlī's son, Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī , and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph. It is believed in Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam that divine wisdom ( ʿaql )
14640-450: Was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams, which bestowed upon them esoteric knowledge ( ḥikmah ), and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees. Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation ( waḥy ), he had a close relationship with God , through which God guides him, and the Imam, in turn, guides the people. Imamate , or belief in
14762-440: Was translated as βασιλεὺς τῶν βασιλέων ( basileus tōn basiléōn ), "King of Kings", equivalent to "Emperor". Both terms were often shortened to their roots shah and basileus . In Western languages, Shah is often used as an imprecise rendering of Šāhanšāh . For a long time, Europeans thought of Shah as a particular royal title rather than an imperial one, although the monarchs of Persia regarded themselves as emperors of
14884-653: Was used by the princes of Islamic India ( Shahzāda , Urdu : شہزاده, Bengali : শাহজাদা , romanized : Shāhozāda ) such as in the Mughal Empire. The Mughals and the Sultans of Delhi were of Indian origin and Mongol-Turkic origin but were heavily influenced by Persian culture, a continuation of traditions and habits ever since Persian language was first introduced into the region by Persianised Turkic dynasties centuries earlier. Thus, in Oudh , only sons of
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