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41-830: The Shihuh are divided into two main sections, the Bani Hadiyah and Bani Shatair . The Bani Hadiyah splits into several subsections: the Bani Muhammad; Bani Ali; Bani Ham Mazyud and Khanazirah. The Bani Shatair splits into the Khanabil; Kumazarah ; Mahabib and Maqadilah. At the turn of the 20th century, the tribe numbered some 21,500 people and was mostly settled around the Rus Al Jibal mountains, as well as Sha'am , Ghalilah , Ghubb and Khor Khwair in Ras Al Khaimah . In total, some 14,500 Shihuh had settled

82-569: A fact which has been used to explain the predominance of Bint Amm (daughter of my uncle) marriages among the Shihuh (land forming part of the marriage dowry ). The lifestyle and distinctive dialect of the Shihuh is markedly different to that of the desert Bedouin of the UAE and these differences led to the Shihuh being dubbed as being of non-Arab descent – to the point where some traditions had them as of Portuguese extraction. Research has shown that

123-571: A network of representatives known as political agents , operating in Bahrain, Qatar, Dubai and Abu Dhabi. Additionally, political officers were retained for the remaining Trucial states, acting under the British Agency at Dubai. Foreign relations in Muscat were conducted by a Consul-General , who was also, administratively, answerable to the resident in Bahrain. Through his political agents

164-565: Is a compound of Arabic and Persian but it is distinct from them both, and is intelligible neither to the Arab nor to the Persian nor yet to the linguist of both." The unique axe of the Shihuh people, known as the Jerz , is long handled with a small head. Historically, the Shihuh were difficult to govern and their principal northern villages were often secessionist, depending on the inaccessibility of

205-467: Is the confluence of three borders: Sharjah and Fujairah in the UAE and Oman. The wali of Dibba in 1855 was killed by Shihuh tribesmen. Named Mashari, the man's brother was wali of Ras Al Khaimah. The pattern of rivalry between the townsfolk of Dibba and the Shihuh was established and by 1871 the depredations of the Shihuh were impacting the revenues of the town. The position of wali at Dibba being at times made almost untenable by this rivalry, in 1926

246-610: The East India Company ("the Company") was permitted to establish a trading post in the coastal city of Bandar 'Abbās , which became their principal port in the Persian Gulf. Empowered by the charter of Charles II in 1661, the Company was responsible for conducting British foreign policy in the Persian Gulf, as well as concluding various treaties, agreements and engagements with Persian Gulf states in its capacity as

287-583: The Preliminary Treaty of Friendship and Alliance with the Shah in 1809. Despite being modified during subsequent negotiations, this treaty provided the framework within which Anglo–Persian foreign relations operated for the next half century. Britain appointed Harford Jones as their first resident envoy to the Persian court in 1808. Until the appointment of Charles Alison as Minister in Tehran in 1860,

328-662: The United Arab Emirates (UAE) and in areas of Northern Oman . The Bani Hadiyah is one of two main sections of the Shihuh tribe. The other is the Bani Shatair . The Bani Hadiyah is also divided into sections, including the Bani Muhammad; Bani Ali; Bani Ham Mazyud and Khanazirah. Traditionally, the Shihuh changed domicile, taking work in Ras Al Khaimah, including the villages of Sha'am and Rams during

369-633: The wali signed a treaty with the Shihuh which however broke down on his death in 1932. The new wali lost no time in appealing to Muscat for protection, hoisting the Omani flag above his fort. This led the Ruler of Sharjah, Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi II , to protest to the British, who stated that Dibba was Sharjah territory. The result has been the creation of Dibba as a Sharjah town with Oman to

410-600: The British government". Even more restrictive was the ultimatum issued by the political resident in 1937 requiring Trucial states to do business exclusively with Petroleum Concessions Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary of the London-based Iraq Petroleum Company , which was itself partly owned by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). Instead of reflecting higher demand for oil (Britain then had adequate supply), this ultimatum

451-490: The British government-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company . From their new base in Bahrain, the British resident directed other political agents in Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and Oman until those regions became independent. On 1 April 1947, the British political residency came under the authority of the Foreign Office, 'graded' as an ambassador in the Persian Gulf. The political resident accomplished his obligations by using

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492-585: The British. This was partially a result of Britain shifting attention away from Iran , where Reza Shah 's nationalist assertion of power undercut their hegemony. It also reflected growing commercial and imperial communications interests, such as air route facilities. For example, according to agreements concluded in February 1922, the Trucial sheikhs pledged themselves not to allow the exploitation of oil resources in their territories except by "persons appointed by

533-782: The Crown's regional agent. In 1763, the British East India Company established a residency at Bushehr , on the Persian side of the Gulf: this was followed by another residency in Basra several years later. The arrival in Persia in 1807 of a large French mission under General Gardane galvanized the British, both in London and Calcutta . They responded by sending a mission under Sir Harford Jones , which resulted in establishing

574-668: The East India Company’s agency was transferred to the India Office , who assumed authority of British foreign policy with Persian Gulf states: this responsibility went to the Foreign Office on 1 April 1947. British activity in the Persian Gulf was primarily a commercial pursuit. Thus, the British Raj was slow to take action in protecting British and Indian shipping against raids from Qawasim pirates . By 1817,

615-587: The Persia coast. In 1822, the Bushehr and Basra residencies were combined, with Bushehr serving as headquarters for the new position of "British Resident for the Persian Gulf." A chief political resident was the chief executive officer of the political unit, and he was subordinate to the Governor of Bombay until 1873 and the Governor-General of India until 1947, when India became independent. In 1858,

656-534: The Persian Gulf originated in the sixteenth century and steadily increased as British India 's importance rose in the imperial system of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the beginning, the agenda was primarily of a commercial character. Realizing the region's significance, the English fleet supported the Persian emperor Shāh Abbās in expelling the Portuguese from Hormuz Island in 1622. In return,

697-557: The Persian Gulf was implemented in accordance with the British Foreign Jurisdiction Acts of 1890–1913, which empowered the Crown to establish courts and legislate for the categories of persons subject to jurisdiction by means of Orders in Council. Regarding the resident's role in concluding concession agreements between rulers and foreign oil companies, Hay says: 'The oil companies naturally bulk largely in

738-545: The Persian Gulf. Articles 6 and 10 authorized the British Residency in the Persian Gulf to act as maritime police to administer the treaty's conditions and resolve tribal disputes. Article 7 condemned piracy among Arab tribes and implied a British obligation to maintain peace. The trucial system took explicit form in 1835, when raids by Bani Yas tribesmen, rivals of the Qawasim, led to a British-imposed truce during

779-571: The Qawasim were spreading terror along the Indian coast to within 70 miles of Bombay. This threat generated a British military expedition in 1819, which crushed the Qawasim confederation and resulted in ratification of the General Maritime Treaty on 5 January 1820. Through extension and modification, this treaty formed the basis of British policy in the Persian Gulf for a century and half. The ruler of Bahrain as well as sheikhs along

820-477: The Shamailiyah, an area which represents the whole east coast of the present UAE (including newly independent Fujairah) and therefore reduce the clashes which were taking place between Shihuh and the local populations of the villages on the north-west coast. In the end the proposal came to nothing. Bani Hadiyah Bani Hadiyah ( Arabic : بني هدية ) is a tribal name, originating in Ras Al Khaimah , in

861-815: The Sheikhs of the Shihuh and the President of the Muscat Council's private secretary. This time, Muhammad bin Saleh and Sultan bin Salim were both sent into custody in Sharjah but broke out and returned to Rams with a force of Shihhu where fighting once again broke out. The final treaty, signed on 22 February 1922, broke the tie between the Shihuh and Muhammad bin Saleh and endured. The Shihuh and their historical influence over events shaped Dibba , an eastern town which

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902-480: The Shihuh and Abdelrahman's brother, Muhammad bin Saleh Al Tanaiji, the new wali . Abdelrahman himself was dead, murdered by his cousin, Salim. The new treaty agreed that Muhammad bin Saleh recognised the suzerainty of Sultan bin Salim and Sultan bin Salim agreed to punish the murderer of his brother. It did not last three days until the parties fell out again and a further treaty negotiation took place with

943-623: The Suzerainty of Muscat. However, their economic needs crossed borders and Shihuh often had property or other holdings subject to Ras Al Khaimah or Sharjah. The village of Sha'am is a good example of a territory that became economically and therefore politically dependent on Ras Al Khaimah, even though its Shihuh population originated in the Rus Al Jibal and would have been considered Omani. Sheikh Sultan bin Salim Al Qasimi took Ras Al Khaimah to full independence from Sharjah in 1921 and

984-478: The Trucial rulers from yielding territorial sovereignty without British consent. Britain, moreover, assumed responsibility for foreign relations and thus, by implication, their protection. This treaty marked Britain's shift from commercial to strategic priorities and formed the diplomatic pillar of British authority in the Trucial states. In the years following World War I , the Trucial sheikhs found their capacity to act independently being continuously curtailed by

1025-480: The clash, which was disrupting the pearling season (Sultan bin Salim had augmented his fighting force by bringing in all of the available pearl divers as additional troops). It was eventually the risk of loss to the Indian merchant community (British subjects) that led the British to take action to solve the dispute and, in July 1921, HMS Cyclamen arrived off Rams, where a four-month truce had already been agreed between

1066-408: The coast, while 7,000 inhabited the mountainous interior, although the members of the tribe would travel seasonally between both domains. The Bani Hadiyah are mostly to be found on the western coast of the UAE, including Khasab , Oman, which would be their principal village. The Bani Shatair are centered around Kumzar , also at the tip of the peninsula. In general, the Shihuh inhabited the mountains to

1107-732: The envoy and his staff were, with rare exceptions, almost exclusively recruited from the East India Company. In the absence of formal diplomatic relations, the political resident conducted all necessary negotiations with Persian authorities and was described by Sir George Curzon as "the Uncrowned King of the Persian Gulf." Whether Persia liked it or not, the political resident had at his disposal naval forces with which to suppress piracy, slave trading, and gun running, and to enforce quarantine regulations; he also could, and did, put landing parties and punitive expeditions ashore on

1148-434: The north and Fujairah to the south which has, as it has expanded, become a town with three Rulers. Likewise, the wali of Kalba was more or less dependent on Shihuh goodwill and influence and they played the role of 'king maker' on more than one occasion. British frustration with the wide-ranging conflicts between settled populations and the Shihuh led in 1926 to a proposal to rehouse them at Kalba - and give them control of

1189-408: The north of Wadi Bih , while the closely allied Habus tribe settled the wadis and farms to the south of the wadi. The Shihuh were essentially agricultural during the winter months, when they would form communities inhabiting the stone-built buildings in the mountains, channelling the available water run-off from the mountains (there are no wells in the mountains) to irrigate their stepped fields. In

1230-435: The northern coast of Oman pledged to maintain peace between their tribes and Britain and accepted clauses prohibiting slavery and cruel treatment of prisoners. The treaty further stipulated that the ships of maritime tribes would be freely admitted at British ports. While the treaty obviously served British interests, because it was sensibly magnanimous and aimed at securing all parties' interests, it effectively ended piracy in

1271-689: The pearling season and farming in the Ruus Al Jibal area of the Hajar Mountains during the winter. The relationship between the Shihhu and the Rulers of Ras Al Khaimah was often fractious, and both Rams and Sha'am seceded several times before, in 1921, becoming part of the recognised Trucial State of Ras Al Khaimah. Persian Gulf Residency The Persian Gulf Residency ( Arabic : المقيمية السياسية البريطانية في الخليج الفارسي )

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1312-448: The political resident's portfolio. He has to closely watch all negotiations for new agreements or the amendment of existing agreements and ensure that nothing is decided which will seriously affect the position or the rulers of the British government…' The same author also refers to what he terms political agreements , to which, he says, oil companies’ are all bound… with the British government… in addition to their concession agreements with

1353-862: The resident preserved close connections with Persian Gulf rulers – simultaneously protecting their political and economic interests and the British government's on the basis of established treaties and agreements. According to Rupert Hay, the sheikhs enjoyed control over internal affairs, with Britain "ordinarily only exercises control in matters involving negotiations or the possibility of complications with foreign powers, such as civil aviation , posts and telegraphs." However, Hay added that "constant advice and encouragement are… offered to various rulers regarding improvement of their administrations and development of their resources, mostly in an informal manner". The resident also administered British extraterritorial jurisdiction , which had been exercised in certain Persian Gulf territories since 1925. Extraterritorial jurisdiction

1394-457: The summer pearling season. The truce was made year-long in 1838 and renewed annually until 1843 when it was extended for ten years. The trucial system received formal permanency with the 1853 Perpetual Maritime Truce The British policy of non-involvement in the internal affairs of the Trucial sheikhs was abandoned with passage of the "Exclusive Agreement" in March 1892. This agreement prohibited

1435-605: The terrain they inhabited. They were frequently in conflict with the Sharqiyin of the east coast of the UAE, but would settle their differences to make common cause against the central authority represented by Sharjah when the Sharqiyin made one of their numerous attempts to shake off that yoke. The Shihuh were frequently in conflict with the Al Qasimi of both Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah and were generally more ready to accept

1476-541: The tribe incorporates elements of Iranian origin, the Kumazarah subsection speaking an Iranian language . The Arab element of the tribe's make-up, the majority, is thought to be linked to the wave of immigration from Yemen , which brought groups of Malik bin Fahm immigrants north in the second century. Bertram Thomas described the dialect of the Kumazarah as "...a strange tongue which has baffled and confused strangers. It

1517-466: The warmer months, they migrated mainly to work during the date season, typically to Khasab, Dibba and the Batinah coast of Oman. They also participated in the pearl fishing season. They maintained large herds of goats, the source of rare surplus for them to trade for other commodities. Because of the nature of their frequently hand-to-mouth existence in the mountains, arable land was particularly prized,

1558-596: Was a subdivision of the British Empire from 1822 until 1971, whereby the United Kingdom maintained varying degrees of political and economic control over several states in the Persian Gulf , including what is today known as the United Arab Emirates (formerly called the " Trucial States ") and at various times southern portions of Iran , Bahrain , Kuwait , Oman , and Qatar . British interest in

1599-612: Was ceded to Britain in the 19th century by virtue of informal agreements with various rulers. In Muscat it was based on formal agreements that were renewed periodically. Extraterritorial jurisdiction was originally applied to all resident classes in Persian Gulf states, but was later limited to British subjects, Commonwealth nationals and non-Muslim foreigners. Britain relinquished extraterritorial jurisdiction in Kuwait on 4 May 1961, transferring jurisdiction over all classes of foreigners to Kuwaiti courts. British extraterritorial jurisdiction in

1640-532: Was designed to block other parties out of the economic and political affairs of the Trucial States. In 1946, the Persian Gulf residency left its location in Bushehr and relocated to a new base in Bahrain. However, while Reza Shah succeeded in removing Britain from Iranian territory, his efforts to curtail their role in the Iranian oil industry backfired, and led to an extension of the concession operated by

1681-677: Was determined to maintain the integrity of the emirate, despite a number of secessionist influences. One such was keenly felt at Rams where the headman, Abdelrahman bin Saleh Al Tanaiji, concluded an alliance with the Shihuh. Sultan bin Salim made a complaint to the British Agent , which yielded no effective response, and in June 1921, fighting broke out. Sheikh Saeed bin Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum of Dubai tried to mediate in

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