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122-603: Its purpose is to promote cultural development of the Iraqi Shia community and manage heritage belonging to it including mosques, shrines, libraries, schools, and other real estate. The Office was created through the Resolution No. 29 of 30 August 2003, which stated the dissolution of the Ministry of Awqaf and religious Affairs ( Wizarat al-Awqaf ) and the creation of three new Endowments offices ( Diwan al-Waqf ) for

244-651: A fatwa "declaring that service in the British administration was unlawful". The revolt materialized in June 1920 and rapidly spread from Baghdad to the South, notably the town of Al-Rumaitha , where the Zawalim sheikh Shaalan Abu al-Jun was arrested and subsequently freed by his tribesmen. More Shia ulama, including Mirza Mahdi al-Shirazi , Mehdi Al-Khalissi and Muhammad Hasan Abi al-Mahasin displayed their support for

366-528: A Committee was formed, including both Shiite and Sunni scholars, to determine the founders and donors of each endowment, through the State records of the former Ministry, thus definitely separating the formerly neutral Islamic endowments, who became matter of sectarian contention. In December 2005 the so-called Atabat law conceded to the Shiite endowment the administration of the five major Iraqi Shrines of Shia, but

488-604: A Hashemite ruler of Iraq from 1933 to 1939, was driven, amongst other things, by anti-Shia ambitions. This ultimately led to the 1935–1936 Iraqi Shia revolts , mostly in the towns of Al-Rumaitha and al-Diwaniyah , led by Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Kashif al-Ghita' and various Shia tribal sheikhs. For many, the 1935–1936 revolt uncovered a lack of community interest within the Iraqi Shia society and absence of strong Shia political leadership, to present their interests in Baghdad,

610-587: A Kufan-born dā'ī who later helped convert the Kutama in Ifriqiya and opened the way to the establishment of the Fatimid Caliphate . The Hamdanid dynasty of Banu Taghlib was among the first Twelver Shia dynasties formed in northern Iraq. The Hamdanids first emerged as governors of Mardin in 890 and Mosul in 905, and by 950 had expanded into most of Syria and western Iraq, informally forming

732-643: A brief siege in July 634 ( see Battle of Bosra ), effectively ending the dynasty of the Ghassanids . From Bosra, Khalid sent orders to the other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where, according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000) was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the Battle of Ajnadayn . It

854-500: A caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon merit . Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam, were among ten who were explicitly promised paradise , were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within

976-674: A coalition of military officers and others led by the Arab nationalist and socialist Ba'ath Party seized power in a coup . At that point, 53 percent of its membership was Shia. In the years following the Shia were shunted aside, and by 1968, only six percent of the Ba'ath party were Shia. Abdul Salam Arif , president from the 1963 coup until his death in 1966, used derogatory terms in leadership meetings to describe Iraqi Shia and opposed his predecessor Abd al-Karim Qasim 's policy of bringing all citizens into

1098-586: A few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history . Abu Bakr began with Iraq , the richest province of the Sasanian Empire . He sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanian Empire in 633. He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of Syria , but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq,

1220-470: A fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen. Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the Battle of Hazir and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against Aleppo , with Khalid, as usual, commanding

1342-431: A governor ( amir ) and a financial officer called an amil . These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire. With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the companions of Muhammad were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar

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1464-495: A history going back to the times of Ali ibn Abi Talib , the first imam of Shia Islam and fourth caliph of Sunni Islam who moved the capital of the early caliphate from Medina to Kufa (or Najaf ) two decades after the death of Muhammad . In 2015, Shia Muslims made up around 64% of the Iraqi population. Iraq is the location of the holy cities of Najaf and Karbala , pilgrimage sites for millions of Shia Muslims. Najaf

1586-402: A man following them, holding an order to execute them, at which point, the protesters returned to Uthman's home, bearing the order. Uthman swore that he did not write the order and to talk the protesters down. The protesters responded by demanding he step down as caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room, whereupon the protesters broke into Uthman's house from the back and killed him while he

1708-599: A member of the Banu Hashim clan, who transferred the capital to Kufa . Ali presided over the civil war called the First Fitna as his suzerainty was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan ( r.  661–680 ), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally, a third faction known as Kharijites , who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept

1830-532: A model ( sunnah ) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. This term is not used by Shia Muslims , who reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate. After Muhammad 's death in 632 CE (11 AH ), his Medinan companions debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar and Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr , with

1952-639: A new force, which made a stand at the Battle of Nihawānd , some forty miles south of Hamadan in modern Iran . The Rashidun army, under the command of Umar's appointed general Nu'man ibn Muqarrin al-Muzani, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh), as it marked the End of the Sasanians , shattering the last strongest Sasanian army. Yazdegerd

2074-625: A parallel authority to the one in Baghdad . During the 930s and 940s, the Hamdanids and the Buyids were in contest with another Shia, Abu Abdallah al-Baridi , an Iraqi tax-official who used the enormous wealth gained from tax farming to vie for control of the rump Abbasid Caliphate , temporarily holding Baghdad with brother twice. The Hamdanids were succeeded in Mosul by another Shia dynasty,

2196-549: A perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north-western Syria. The border forts of Sawa , Arak , Tadmur , Sukhnah , al-Qaryatayn and Hawarin were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to Bosra via the Damascus road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, upon which, per Abu Bakr's orders, Khalid assumed overall command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra, caught unprepared, surrendered after

2318-510: A predicament shared by their correligonists in Lebanon . Scholars such as Fanar Haddad have argued that the governments of the new Iraqi state tended to adopt the symbols of Sunni identity while suppressing Shia identity. For example, figures such as Saladin , Harun al-Rashid or Omar ibn al-Khattab who were venerated by Arab nationalists are viewed with suspicion in Shia folklore. This contributes to disaffection among Iraqi Shia, while at

2440-589: Is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; like the Arabian calendar, it is lunar , but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra when Muhammad emigrated to Medina. While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz . He appointed Suhayb ibn Sinan to lead the prayers. Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on

2562-688: Is characterized by a 25-year period of rapid military expansion followed by a five-year period of internal strife . The Rashidun Army numbered more than 100,000 men at its peak. By the 650s, in addition to the Arabian Peninsula , the caliphate had subjugated the Levant to the Transcaucasus in the north; North Africa from Egypt to present-day Tunisia in the west; and the Iranian Plateau to parts of Central and South Asia in

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2684-625: Is known as the Battle of the Iron Bridge . The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and Antioch surrendered on 30 October 637 CE. Later during the year, Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of Jazira , most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia, Edessa and the area up to the Ararat plain . Other columns were sent to Anatolia as far west as

2806-663: Is the site of Ali's tomb, and Karbala is the site of the tomb of Muhammad's grandson, third Shia imam Husayn ibn Ali . Najaf is also a center of Shia learning and seminaries. Two other holy sites for Twelver Shia in Iraq are the Al-Kadhimiya Mosque in Baghdad , which contains the tombs of the seventh and ninth Shia Imams ( Mūsā al-Kādhim and Muhammad al-Jawad ) and the Al-Askari Mosque in Sāmarrā , which contains

2928-460: The Alid revolt of 762–763 by Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya 's brother Ibrahim, who was said to have amassed a force as large as 100,000. The 7th Twelver Imam Musa al-Kazim was repeatedly imprisoned in Baghdad and Basra at the orders of Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur , al-Hadi , al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid . During Al-Ma'mun 's reign, in a sudden departure of anti-Shia policy, Imam Ali al-Rida

3050-572: The Battle of Muzieh , then the Battle of Sanni , and finally the Battle of Zumail . These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the Sasanian Persians , Byzantines and Christian Arabs in the Battle of Firaz . This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. Khalid then left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against

3172-469: The Battle of River , fought in the third week of April 633; the Battle of Walaja , fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a pincer movement ), and the Battle of Ullais , fought in mid-May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the Battle of Hira . After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards Anbar , which resisted and

3294-628: The Battle of the Bridge in which Abu Ubayd was killed. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the Levant at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās against

3416-651: The Byzantine Empire and nearly the entire Sasanian Empire . Umar was assassinated in November 644 and was succeeded by Uthman, a member of the Banu Umayya clan, who was elected by a six-person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman, the caliphate concluded its conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories. Uthman was assassinated in June 656, and succeeded by Ali,

3538-584: The Byzantine Empire to recover. The first Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire, launched by Caliph Abu Bakr in 633, was a swift conquest, taking only four months. Abu Bakr sent his general, Khalid ibn al-Walid, to conquer Mesopotamia after the Ridda wars . After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the Battle of Chains , fought in April 633;

3660-796: The Iranian Revolution intensified unrest and repression. In June 1979, Ayatollah Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr was arrested and placed under house arrest. Less than a year later, due to encouraging the 1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq , Sadr and his sister Bint al-Huda were both executed in April 1980. In 1982, the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq was formed in Iran by Iraqi cleric Mohammad Baqir al-Hakim as an umbrella group to overthrow Iraq's Sunni-dominated regime. In Iran, Hakim attempted to unite and co-ordinate

3782-616: The Kaysanite sect, who traced the line of Imamate to Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya . The Kaysanites had a significant role in the Abbasid Revolution after they managed to rally Shia support in Iraq for the uprising against the Umayyads. However, after the revolution, most Kaysanites soon joined Ja'far al-Sadiq or Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, and eventually Ja'far al-Sadiq after the demise of Muhammad. Another extinct sect are

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3904-654: The Qarmatians , a sect of Isma'ili Shias founded by the Iraqi-born Hamdan Qarmat . Hamdan assumed the leadership of Isma'ili missionary activity in the rural environs ( sawād ) of Kufa and southern Iraq, and Qarmatian creed soon flourished in southern Iraq. Among the Iraqi dā'ī s trained and sent to missions by Hamdan and Abu Muhammad were Ibn Hawshab (to the Yemen ), and Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i ,

4026-498: The Taurus Mountains , the important city of Marash , and Malatya , which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638 CE. During Uthman's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many forts in the region and on Uthman's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647 Muawiyah , the governor of Syria, sent an expedition against Anatolia, invading Cappadocia and sacking Caesarea Mazaca . In 648

4148-651: The Uqaylids who ruled roughly the same territory as the Hamdanids from 990 to 1096. In northern Syria, they incorporated the Shia Mirdasids into their service, who later rebelled against the Fatimids under Salih ibn Mirdas and established themselves as the emirs of most of present-day Syria, western Iraq and Lebanon , ruling from Aleppo . In central Iraq, the Mazyadids ruled an autonomous emirate in

4270-477: The civil war , some disputes concerning ancient mosques in Baghdad with vestiges of both Islamic confessions, and thus not clearly recognized as belonging to only one of them, had been finally resolved in favor of Shiite Waqf. After the fall of Mosul , also ancient mosques of this town have become matter of contention. Shia Islam in Iraq Shia Islam in Iraq ( Arabic : الشيعة في العراق ) has

4392-521: The first Sunni insurgency , many Sunni Imams were driven out by force from the mosques they had received by the Baath administration, and thus these mosques were added to the Shia endowment. A second legal Committee was created in 2008 in order to resolve the disputes concerning the sites claimed by both the confessions, but it stalled when the Shiite endowment office contested the validity of the documents dating back to Saddam Hussein. In recent times, during

4514-694: The succession to his leadership . Muhammad's close companion Abu Bakr, of the Banu Taym clan, was elected the first caliph in Medina and he began the conquest of the Arabian Peninsula . His brief reign ended in August 634 when he died and was succeeded by Umar, his appointed successor from the Banu Adi clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling more than two-thirds of

4636-528: The 12th–15th centuries. When the Safavid dynasty declared Shia Islam the official religion of Iran in 1501, Shia scholars from southern Iraq contributed to the conversion movement. The Safavids also invited many Shi'i Arab tribes to Khuzestan to act as a bulwark against the Ottoman Empire, earning Khuzestan the name of Arabestan. Between the 15th and 19th centuries, many of the tribes living on

4758-772: The 20th century, as the British noted in 1917. Many Iraqi Shia are relatively-recent converts. The following tribes were converted during this period: some of the Zubaid, Banu Lam , Albu-Muhammad, many of the Rabiah (including al-Dafaf'a, Bani Amir and al-Jaghayfa), Banu Tamim (including the Bani Sa’d, their largest group in Iraq), the Shammar Toga , some of the Dulaim , the Zafir,

4880-408: The Ansar and the Quraysh soon following suit. Abu Bakr adopted the title of Khalīfaṫ Rasūl Allāh ( خَلِيفةُ رَسُولِ اللهِ , "Successor of the Messenger of God") or simply caliph. Abu Bakr embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes, which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As

5002-477: The Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence. However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty. Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening

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5124-404: The Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain Mesopotamia, while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the Arabian desert to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi . This army was defeated by the Sasanian army at

5246-419: The Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear, the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south. Thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation, and defeated and routed this garrison at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635, which proved to be the "Key to Palestine". After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards Emesa ; Yazid

5368-557: The Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a skirmish . Nothing further happened until the third week of August, during which the Battle of Yarmouk was fought. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. Outnumbered five-to-one, the Muslims nevertheless defeated the Byzantine army in October 636. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on future conquests, settling on Jerusalem . The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which

5490-402: The Dawwar, the Sawakin, the al-Muntafiq confederation, the Bani Hasan (of the Bani Malik ), the Bani Hukayyim, the Shibil of the Khazal, the al Fatla, the tribes along the Al-Hindiya canal, and the five tribes of Al Diwaniyah (Aqra’, Budayyir, Afak, Jubur and Jilaiha) which relied on the Daghara canal for water. During the start of the 20th century, the Shia opposed Mandatory Iraq and

5612-472: The Muslim cavalry, under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the battle of Maraj-al-Debaj . On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he restored Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah to the overall command of the Muslim armies. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while he relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, who he kept close at hand. The last large garrison of

5734-402: The Persian . Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by Zubayr , Talha and the widow of Muhammad, Aisha , set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached Basra and captured it, whereupon 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph's army met

5856-406: The Persian army. The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but, on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general Rostam Farrokhzād was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men. Following this Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward

5978-416: The Persian capital of Ctesiphon (also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a brief siege . After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counterattack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at Qasr-e Shirin , and Masabadhan. By

6100-413: The Persian government was, however, incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally, Umar pressed forward, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised

6222-414: The Rashidun army raided Phrygia . A major offensive into Cilicia and Isauria in 650–651 forced the Byzantine Emperor Constans II to enter into negotiations with Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of Armenia . In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack Constantinople , but this plan

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6344-588: The Shia Muslims population was estimated to make up around 55% of Iraq's population. The data on the religious affiliation of Iraq's population are uncertain. 95–99% of the population are Muslims. The CIA World Factbook reports a 2015 estimate according to which 29–34% are Sunni Muslims and 61–64% Shia Muslims. According to a 2011 survey by Pew Research , 51% of the Muslims identify as Shia and 42% as Sunni. Rashidun Caliphate The Rashidun Caliphate ( Arabic : ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ , romanized :  al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah ) consisted of

6466-431: The Shiite endowment administration, and later also many mosques formerly administrated by Sunnis. The President of each Office should be appointed by the Head of the Government, but the Atabat law of 2005 stated that the major decisions concerning the Shiite endowment, as the appointment of the President of the office, should be approved by the Great Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani as a representative of Shiites, while noting

6588-428: The Sunni monarchy. As a result of their neglect by Ottomans, and their poverty, the Shiites were increasingly dependent on their ulama , the religious clerics. In 1920, Iraqis, whether Sunni or Shia, had grown more discontent with British rule. Many Iraqis began to fear that Iraq would be incorporated into the British Empire . One of the eminent Shia mujtahideen, Ayatollah Mirza Muhammad Taqi al-Shirazi , then issued

6710-435: The Sunnis steadily escalated. By 2007, the United States' National Intelligence Estimate described the violence as a "civil war". During the 2006–2008 sectarian violence , tens to hundreds of thousands of people were killed (mainly Shia civilians) and at least 2.7 million were internally displaced. In ISIL-occupied Iraq (2014–2017) Shias faced some of the worst treatment, and thousands were killed for their faith. In 2003

6832-450: The Twelve Imams, including: Hisham ibn al-Hakam , Zurarah ibn A'yun , Burayd ibn Mu'awiya , Mu'min al-Taq , Aban ibn Taghlib , Abu Basir al-Asadi and Muhammad bin Muslim , all disciples of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (702–765 CE). It was in Kufa where Zayd ibn Ali , the principal figure of Zaydism , led an uprising against the Umayyad rule of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik which ended with Zayd's execution and burning, while Basra witnessed

6954-426: The Umayyads out of Kufa and defeated them in several battles, including the Battle of Khazir in 686, but were defeated shortly afterwards in 687, when Kufa was besieged by the governor of Basra Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr . In the early Islamic period, Kufa effectively became the "second capital" of Shiism after Medina , the residence of the Twelve Imams , and acted as a source of many Shiite scholars and disciples of

7076-485: The activities of al-Dawa party and other major Shia groups: Peykar (a guerilla organization similar to the Iranian Mujahideen ) and Jama'at al-'Ulama (groups of pro- Khomeini ulama). The Ba'ath Party's leadership made a determined effort to gain the support of Iraqi Shia during the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War , as 80% of the Iraqi army personnel had been Iraqi Shia, diverting resources to the Shia south and emphasizing Iraqi Arabness (in contrast to Iranian Persianness) and

7198-417: The administration of the religious endowments of Sunnis, Shiites and Other religions: As of 2003, the majority of the endowments of the former Ministry of Waqf passed to the Sunni Endowment Office , because in the former rule only Sunni Islam was protected by law and only Sunni endowments were administrated by the State, but with the so-called Atabat law of December 2005 the major Islamic Shrines passed to

7320-413: The arbitration in the Battle of Siffin . The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 by Mu'awiya. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and Imam after Muhammad, favouring his bloodline connection to Muhammad. The Rashidun Caliphate

7442-513: The area around Kūfa and Hīt between 961 and 1160 from their capital city of Hillah . They were originally in the service of the Buyid dynasty , another Twelver Shia dynasty which expanded into most of western Iran and Iraq, seizing Baghdad and making it as their capital. Later on, Hillah later became one of the central cities of Shia learning, where prominent Shia scholars and poets such as al-Allama al-Hilli , Muhaqqiq al-Hilli , Shahid Awwal and Safi al-Din al-Hilli lived and taught during

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7564-407: The banks of the Euphrates and Tigris , which were originally Sunni, converted to Shia Islam. During the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire instituted a policy of settling the semi-nomadic Sunni Arab tribes to create greater centralization in Iraq. The tribes adopted a sedentary agricultural life in the hinterlands of Najaf and Karbala , and frequently traded and interacted with the residents of

7686-399: The caliphate is considered to have been 'rightly guided' (the meaning of al-Rāshidūn ; الراشدون ), meaning that it constitutes a model ( sunna ) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. The caliphs are also known in Muslim history as the "orthodox" or "patriarchal" caliphs. The caliphate arose following Muhammad’s death in June 632 and the subsequent debate over

7808-416: The cavalry. After the Battle of Aleppo the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637. Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ibn al-Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards Anatolia taking the fort of Azaz to clear the flank and rear of Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle

7930-450: The city agreed to surrender, but only to Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr ibn Al As suggested that Khalid should be sent as Caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Caliph Umar. Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and Jerusalem surrendered in April 637. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without

8052-451: The city in March 636. The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius's plans to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly 200,000 strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news of the advancing Byzantine army, he gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should consolidate all of their forces present in

8174-471: The east. The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body – consisting of prominent members of the high-ranking companions of the Prophet – called shūrā ( شُورَى , lit.   ' consultation ' ). The Arabic word rāshidūn (singular: rāshid راشد ) means "rightly-guided". The reign of these four caliphs is considered in Sunni Islam to have been 'rightly-guided', meaning that it constitutes

8296-400: The eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina. After Abu Bakr unified Arabia under Islam, he began the incursions into the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire . Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just

8418-465: The first four successive caliphs (lit. 'successors') who led the Muslim community following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632 – Abu Bakr ( r.  632–634 ), Umar ( r.  634–644 ), Uthman ( r.  644–656 ), and Ali ( r.  656–661 ). During the Caliphate's existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in West Asia and Northeast Africa . In Sunni Islam ,

8540-503: The foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the Diwan , a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language, and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only

8662-420: The hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men. Abu Bakr

8784-635: The historic struggle between the Muslim Arabs and the Zoroastrian Persians in propaganda. Iraqi propaganda used symbolic keywords such as Qādisiyya (the battle in which Muslim Arab armies defeated the Persian Empire ), and Iranian propaganda used Shia keywords such as Karbala . The Baath government executed about 95 Shia ulama, many of them members of the al-Hakim family, in June 1984, and had executed 142–146 Shia rebels in

8906-839: The lack of a similar authority among the Iraqi Sunnis. Later, in October 2012, the Law No. 57 about the Shiite Waqf, confirmed that the president of the Shiite endowment office, before the appointment by the Iraqi Premier, should be approved by the Shiite Marja' , while the Law No. 56 about the Sunni Waqf gave a similar power to a Council of Sunni ulemas, the "Fiqh Council of the ulemas". During Saddam Hussein 's rule,

9028-486: The lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet Aswad Ansi arose and invaded South Arabia ; he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim. The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of al-Yamama was led by another supposed prophet, Musaylimah , who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of

9150-468: The long conflict between Byzantines and Persians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of Mesopotamia , Syria and Palestine under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and almost the entire Sassanian Empire by 643. While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid

9272-494: The majority were in the South, including one believed to hold as many as 10,000 victims. A short period of rest once again occurred during the 1999 Shia uprising in Iraq after the killing of Muhammad-Sadiq al-Sadr in the Shia neighborhoods of Baghdad , as well as southern majority Shiite cities of Karbala , Nasiriyah , Kufa , Najaf , and Basra . After the US-led 2003 invasion of Iraq , sectarian violence between Shia and

9394-461: The meeting became concerned about a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that any attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh , would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah , by

9516-750: The mid-7th century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of Khuzestan . It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the Zagros Mountains and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of

9638-721: The nascent Muslim community. These caliphs are collectively known in Sunni Islam as the Rashidun , or "Rightly Guided" caliphs ( الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ , al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn ). According to Sunni Muslims, the term Rashidun Caliphate is derived from a famous hadith of Muhammad, where he foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship (the Umayyad Caliphate

9760-731: The natives of Medina, took place in the Saqifah (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca ), though this has later become the subject of debate. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of

9882-526: The next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh. The committee narrowed down the choices to two: Uthman and Ali . Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraysh tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman

10004-488: The politics of the Ministry of Awqaf and religious Affairs was seen by Shiites as discriminatory towards them. So it was suppressed in August 2003 by the Iraqi governing council , in order to give religious freedom to the different religious components of Iraq. This created the problem to assign each religious site to a confession, causing rivalry among the different groups in order to gain the control of these sites. In 2004,

10126-484: The province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle. Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk. Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines. Khalid's mobile guard defeated

10248-418: The province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate, rather than to take revenge for Uthman's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces to a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin , and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with the arbiter, 'Amr ibn al-'As , pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the Battle of Nahrawan against

10370-428: The rebel army. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that those who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat, as they were afraid that negotiations between Ali and the opposing army would result in their capture and execution. The battle thus fought

10492-549: The rebellious Kharijites , a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire—such as Sicily , North Africa , the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in Anatolia —were also lost to outside empires. In 661, Ali

10614-551: The rebels in the Battle of Dawmat al-Jandal in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news that a large Persian army was assembling. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them piecemeal in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni, and Muzieh. In November 633, Khalid divided his army into three units, and attacked these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with

10736-538: The rebels were in the Najd , Eastern Arabia (known then as al-Bahrayn ) and South Arabia (known as al-Yaman and including the Mahra ). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an ummah ( أُمَّـة , community) of which he was the new head. The result of this situation

10858-580: The regime banned annual Marad al-ras processions during the Mourning of Muharram in the shrine cities, where mass discontent had been evident in 1974 and 1975. In 1977, tens of thousands of Dawa activists held the processions in defiance of the ban, leading to large-scale clashes known as the Safar Intifada that the regime quelled with the use of helicopter gunships. At least 16 were killed, eight executed and two died under torture. The success of

10980-508: The regime regardless of ethnicity or religion. Due to discrimination by the Sunni government, the Shia became increasingly disaffected during the last 1960s and 1970s. By 1968, Dawa could claim a mass following, and the Baath began to consider it a threat. In 1974, amid rising discontent due to casualties in the Kurdish insurgency , the regime executed five leading Dawa members. Subsequently,

11102-532: The regions which were not conquered during Umar's reign; hence, the Rashidun Caliphate's frontiers in the east extended to the lower river Indus and north to the Oxus River . After Khalid consolidated his control of Iraq, Abu Bakr sent four armies to Syria on the Byzantine front under four different commanders: Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (acting as their supreme commander), Amr ibn al-As , Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan and Shurhabil ibn Hasana . However, their advance

11224-582: The revolt, and encouraged the local population to take arms. At the peak of the revolt, around 131,000 Iraqis were active against the British. Under the Kingdom of Iraq , the Shia tribes of the mid- Euphrates region saw themselves increasingly under-represented in the Sunni-dominated Iraqi government, which further deteriorated with the exclusion of key Shia sheikhs from the Iraqi parliament in 1934 elections. In addition, King Ghazi of Iraq ,

11346-496: The revolution as well. Many exiled Iraqi dissidents, including thousands of Iran-based Badr Brigades militants of SCIRI, crossed the borders and joined the rebellion. By April 1991, most of the rebellion was crushed by the then-incumbent Baathist government. Many of the people killed were buried in mass graves . Of the 200 mass graves the Iraqi Human Rights Ministry had registered between 2003 and 2006,

11468-419: The same time Sunni Iraqi politicians have tended to cast Shia political mobilization as alien, in particular Iranian. For many years, Arab nationalism and party politics superseded Shia unity in Iraqi politics, and Shia ayatollahs were politically quiescent. The Shia were generally less well-off economically and socially, and as a result, they supported leftist parties , such as Iraqi Communist Party which

11590-489: The span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising Mesopotamia , the Levant , parts of Anatolia , and most of the Sasanian Empire . Unlike the Sasanian Persians , the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost Egypt to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for

11712-417: The strategic town of Chalcis made peace with the Muslims for one year in order to buy time for Heraclius to prepare his defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. However, as soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid siege to it and eventually captured

11834-610: The tombs of the tenth and eleventh Shia Imams ( Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-‘Askarī ). After the U.S.-led invasion in 2003, widespread sectarian violence erupted between Shias and Sunnis in Iraq, which led to the Iraqi civil war and the 2013–2017 war , which involved the Islamic State terror group. After being named caliph in 657, Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib established his capital at Kufa in present-day Iraq. The Battle of Karbala took place in 680, where Husayn ibn Ali

11956-459: The town of Dujail earlier in 1982. Unrest renewed with the 1991 Iraqi uprisings throughout Iraq, which took place in the Shiite and Kurdish areas of the country. In the south, the rebels seized the shrine as Ba'ath Party officials fled the city or were killed. The uprising spread within days to all of the largest Shia cities in southern Iraq: Amarah , Diwaniya , Hilla , Karbala , Kut , Nasiriyah and Samawah . Smaller cities were swept up in

12078-668: The town of Hoveyzeh in Khuzestan from 1435 to 1924. Another tribe, Banu Khaz'al, as well as the Banu Kaab converted during the mid-18th century. After the fall of the Emirate of Muhammara , an autonomous emirate of the Shia Banu Kaab between 1812 and 1925 in modern-day Khuzestan province , many Iranian Arabs fled to southern Iraq, further inflating the Shia population in the south. The conversions continued into

12200-651: The two cities. Some Sunni Arab tribes converted to protest their treatment by the Sunni Ottomans. Shia missionaries from Najaf and Karbala operated with relative freedom from the Ottoman Empire, and could proselytize with little official hindrance. The Bani Sallama, Tayy and al-Soudan in the Mesopotamian Marshes were converted by the Musha'sha'iyyah dynasty, a heretical Isma'ili Shia tribal confederation founded by Muhammad ibn Falah which ruled

12322-468: The two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic world choose the next leader. This treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he named his son Yazid I successor. Hasan was assassinated, and Mu'awiya founded the Umayyad Caliphate , supplanting the Rashidun Caliphate. The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within

12444-651: The unity and stability of the new community and state. Apostasy spread to every tribe in the Arabian Peninsula with the exception of the people in Mecca and Medina , the Banu Thaqif in Ta'if and the Bani Abdul Qais of Oman . In some cases, entire tribes apostatized. Others merely withheld zakat , the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during

12566-550: The wars of conquest started by Umar. The Rashidun army conquered North Africa from the Byzantines and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the Iberian Peninsula , as well as the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus . Coastal Sicily was raided in 652. The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the lower Indus River . Uthman's most lasting project

12688-602: Was a hereditary monarchy). Furthermore, according to other hadiths in Sunan Abu Dawood and Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal , towards the end times, the Rightly Guided Caliphate will be restored once again by God. Note that a caliph's succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year. After Muhammad's death in June 632, a gathering of the Ansar ( lit.   ' Helpers ' ),

12810-461: Was assassinated by Ibn Muljam as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As. Ali's son Hasan briefly assumed the caliphate for six months and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of

12932-580: Was contested by the president of Sunni Endowment Office al-Sumarrai, who claimed that they had been administrated until then by Sunni families, as in particular the Shrine of Samarra , thus opening a legal dispute which ended in 2012 confirming the assignment to the Shiite Waqf. Many mosques, especially those built during the Baath rule , had furthermore very profitable commercial endowments, thus determining also an economic competition for their parceling. During

13054-509: Was defeated , and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call for help from Dumat al-Jandal in Northern Arabia, where another Muslim general, Iyad ibn Ghanm , was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid diverted there and defeated

13176-507: Was designated heir apparent of al-Ma'mun, but was later poisoned by al-Ma'mun himself. Some Shia officials managed to gain influence in the Abbasid court, such as Ali ibn Yaqteen , a Kufan who became a minister of the Abbasid caliph with the approval of Imam Musa al-Kadhim to assist the Shia. Aside from mainstream Shia Islam, Iraq was also the home of many Shia sects which no longer exist. Kufan followers of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi later formed

13298-509: Was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle Malik ibn Nuwayrah and his forces between the Najd and al-Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al-Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama . The Campaign on the Apostasy was fought and completed during

13420-582: Was founded by Husain al-Rahhal in 1934, and the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in Iraq , which was also founded by a Shia, Fuad al-Rikabi . To counter the intellectual hold of the left, a group of clerics in Najaf created a movement that eventually evolved into the Dawa party . Its manifesto, written by Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr , probably in 1960, defined its ultimate goal as an Islamic polity. In 1963,

13542-689: Was from the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen. Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the Rashiduns , while in the latter half of his reign he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph. Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued

13664-483: Was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack Ctesiphon , to march from Iraq to Syria with half his army. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through Mesopotamia and the other through Daumat ul-Jandal. Khalid took an unconventional route through the Syrian Desert , and after

13786-622: Was martyred by Umayyad forces of Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad and Umar ibn Sa'd at the orders of Yazid ibn Mu'awiya . Many called for vengeance. Sulayman ibn Surad led the Tawwabin uprising in January 685, but was defeated and killed in Battle of Ayn al-Warda . After the failed uprising, Mukhtar al-Thaqafi once again called for the establishment of an Alid caliphate and for retaliation for Husayn's killing, and took over Kufa in October 685. Aided by Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar , they successfully drove

13908-494: Was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib , initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian Ibrahim al-Nakha'i stated that Ali also had support among

14030-668: Was reading the Qur'an . It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels did not, in fact, originate from Uthman, but was, rather, part of a conspiracy to overthrow him. Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin Ali ( r.  656–661 ) was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of Medina . He transferred the capital to Kufa , a garrison city in Iraq. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as Malik al-Ashtar and Salman

14152-487: Was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine. While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus, Emperor Heraclius sent an army to re-capture the city. This army, however, could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was destroyed in the battle of Maraj-al-Rome and the second battle of Damascus. Emesa and

14274-418: Was the Ridda wars . Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly. He divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps, and the primary force of the Muslims, was the corps of Khalid ibn al-Walid . This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr's plan

14396-472: Was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an. After a protest turned into a siege on his house, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims and preferred to negotiate a peaceful solution. After the negotiations, the protesters returned but found

14518-470: Was the first battle between Muslims and is known as the Battle of the Camel . Ali emerged victoriously and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Muhammad, Talha, and Zubayr, were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son Hasan ibn Ali to escort Aisha back to Medina. Thereafter, there rose another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman, this time by Mu'awiya , a kinsman of Uthman and governor of

14640-419: Was the first major pitched battle between the Muslims and Byzantines and cleared the way for the former to capture central Syria. Damascus , the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. The Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute. After the three days had passed,

14762-589: Was transferred to the Syrian front in 634. Before dying in August 634 from an illness, Abu Bakr appointed Umar ( r.  634–644 ) as his successor. Upon his accession, Umar adopted the title amir al-mu'minin , which later became the standard title of caliphs. The new caliph continued the war of conquests begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the Sassanian Empire , north into Byzantine territory, and went into Egypt . These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but

14884-520: Was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the remainder of the Persian Empire . The entirety of present-day Iran was conquered, followed by Greater Khorasan (which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern Afghanistan ), Transoxania , Balochistan and Makran (part of modern-day Pakistan), Azerbaijan , Dagestan (Russia), Armenia and Georgia ; these regions were later re-conquered during Uthman's reign with further expansion into

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