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86-518: Shillong ( English: / ʃ ɪ ˈ l ɒ ŋ / , Khasi: [ʃɨlːɔːŋ] ) is a hill station and the capital of Meghalaya , a state in northeastern India . It is the headquarters of the East Khasi Hills district . Shillong is the 330th most populous city in India with a population of 143,229 according to the 2011 census. It is said that the rolling hills around the town reminded

172-1042: A British military base, it was taken over by No. 58 Gorkha Regiment of the Indian Army post Independence in 1947. The Regiment was redeployed after the Sino-Indian War of 1962, making way for the IAF to step in. Only helicopters can operate from HQ, EAC, using a 12.7 hectare (31.3 acre) helipad. EAC controls air operations in the eastern sector which include West Bengal, Assam, Mizoram and the other eastern states bordering Bangladesh, Burma, and Tibet. EAC comprises permanent airbases at Chabua, Gauhati, Bagdogra, Barrackpore, Hashimara, Jorhat, Kalaikunda and Tezpur with forward airbases at Agartala, Culcutta, Panagarh and Shillong. Historic neighbourhoods of Shillong include Mawkhar, Jaiaw, Riatsamthiah, Umsohsun, Wahingdoh, Khyndailad (Police Bazar), Mawlai, Laitumkhrah, Laban, Malki, Nongthymmai and Polo. Hill station A hill station

258-416: A body-wave magnitude scale ( mB ) by Gutenberg and Richter in 1956, and a number of variants – to overcome the deficiencies of the M L   scale, but all are subject to saturation. A particular problem was that the M s   scale (which in the 1970s was the preferred magnitude scale) saturates around M s  8.0 and therefore underestimates the energy release of "great" earthquakes such as

344-504: A constant term ( W 0 / M o  = 5 × 10 ) in Eq. (A) and estimated M s and denoted as M w (dyn.cm). The energy Eq. (A) is derived by substituting m  = 2.5 + 0.63 M in the energy equation Log E  = 5.8 + 2.4 m (Richter 1958), where m is the Gutenberg unified magnitude and M is a least squares approximation to the magnitude determined from surface wave magnitudes. After replacing

430-403: A distance of approximately 100 to 600 km (62 to 373 mi), conditions where the surface waves are predominant. At greater depths, distances, or magnitudes the surface waves are greatly reduced, and the local magnitude scale underestimates the magnitude, a problem called saturation . Additional scales were developed – a surface-wave magnitude scale ( M s ) by Beno Gutenberg in 1945,

516-500: A double couple, but not from a single couple. This was confirmed as better and more plentiful data coming from the World-Wide Standard Seismograph Network (WWSSN) permitted closer analysis of seismic waves. Notably, in 1966 Keiiti Aki showed that the seismic moment of the 1964 Niigata earthquake as calculated from the seismic waves on the basis of a double couple was in reasonable agreement with

602-418: A general solution in 1964 by Burridge and Knopoff, which established the relationship between double couples and the theory of elastic rebound, and provided the basis for relating an earthquake's physical features to seismic moment. Seismic moment – symbol M 0   – is a measure of the fault slip and area involved in the earthquake. Its value is the torque of each of the two force couples that form

688-462: A hill town transformed by contemporaneous tourism practices as a hill station. Most hill stations, listed by region: Hundreds of hill stations are located in India. The most popular hill stations in India include: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa   Punjab Sindh Balochistan Gilgit Baltistan Moment magnitude scale Moment magnitude (M w  ) is considered the authoritative magnitude scale for ranking earthquakes by size. It

774-402: A number of private and government-owned FM channels being introduced. State-owned Doordarshan transmits terrestrial television channels. Apart from these few weekly news channels like Peitngor Cable News (PCN), Ri Khasi Channel, Batesi and T7 are broadcast weekly on the local cable networks. Fixed telephone lines are available. Internet services are available both wired and wireless broadband. It

860-499: A pervasive fascination for archery remains. Shillong teer is an authorised game that is subject to regulations established by the Meghalaya Amusement and Betting Tax Act. The Khasi Hills Archery Sports Association is in charge of managing this lottery event. Binningstar Lyngkhoi from Shillong is a national marathon runner and represented India in the last 2010 Commonwealth Games. He is the fastest marathoner in India with

946-573: A population of 354,759, 12% of which being under six years of age. The literacy rate in the metro region was 91%. Tourist sites in and around the city include: Shillong is one of the capital cities in Northeast India to produce three football clubs that participate in the I-League , namely, Rangdajied United FC , Royal Wahingdoh FC and Shillong Lajong FC . All three have their home stadium at Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium . Royal Wahingdoh FC

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1032-402: A portion Δ W {\displaystyle \Delta W} of this stored energy is transformed into The potential energy drop caused by an earthquake is related approximately to its seismic moment by where σ ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {\sigma }}} is the average of the absolute shear stresses on the fault before and after

1118-737: A range of financial services to the city's residents and businesses. Newspapers are published for Shillong both in Khasi and English. Prominent English dailies published here include Shillong Times , Meghalaya Guardian , Highland Post , Meghalaya Times and The Sentinel . Khasi dailies like U Mawphor , U Nongsaiñ Hima Peitngor , Kynjat Shai among others are published here. Weekly newspaper are "Salonsar" and "Dongmusa". There are magazines like "Iing Khristan" (100 years of publication), "Pateng Mynta" in Khasi and "Youth Today" and "Eastern Panorama" in English. The radio industry has expanded with

1204-532: A reference point and the ten-fold (exponential) scaling of each degree of magnitude, and in 1935 published what he called the "magnitude scale", now called the local magnitude scale , labeled M L  . (This scale is also known as the Richter scale , but news media sometimes use that term indiscriminately to refer to other similar scales.) The local magnitude scale was developed on the basis of shallow (~15 km (9 mi) deep), moderate-sized earthquakes at

1290-449: A single couple model. In principle these models could be distinguished by differences in the radiation patterns of their S-waves , but the quality of the observational data was inadequate for that. The debate ended when Maruyama (1963), Haskell (1964), and Burridge and Knopoff (1964) showed that if earthquake ruptures are modeled as dislocations the pattern of seismic radiation can always be matched with an equivalent pattern derived from

1376-611: A summer retreat. Hill stations in British India were established for a variety of reasons. One of the first reasons in the early 1800s, was for the place to act as a sanitorium for the ailing family members of British officials. After the rebellion of 1857 , the British "sought further distance from what they saw as a disease-ridden land by [escaping] to the Himalayas in the north". Other factors included anxieties about

1462-439: A three-decade-long controversy over the best way to model the seismic source: as a single couple, or a double couple. While Japanese seismologists favored the double couple, most seismologists favored the single couple. Although the single couple model had some shortcomings, it seemed more intuitive, and there was a belief – mistaken, as it turned out – that the elastic rebound theory for explaining why earthquakes happen required

1548-540: A timing of 2:18 hours. Local media in Shillong is strong. There are a number of theatres, newspapers, magazines, local radio and television stations. Shillong is also often called as "India's Rock Capital" due to its inhabitants' great passion for music, hosting concerts featuring a number of western artists. Cinemas in Shillong include Bijou Cinema Hall, Gold Cinema and Anjalee Cinema Hall (also called Galleria Anjalee Cinema). Several banks operate in Shillong, providing

1634-452: Is a measure of the work (more precisely, the torque ) that results in inelastic (permanent) displacement or distortion of the Earth's crust. It is related to the total energy released by an earthquake. However, the power or potential destructiveness of an earthquake depends (among other factors) on how much of the total energy is converted into seismic waves. This is typically 10% or less of

1720-507: Is a town located at a higher elevation than the nearby plain or valley. The English term was originally used mostly in colonial Asia , but also in Africa (albeit rarely), for towns founded by European colonialists as refuges from the summer heat and, as Dale Kennedy observes about the Indian context, "the hill station (...) was seen as an exclusive British preserve: here it was possible to render

1806-754: Is a two lane road which stretches across 47.06 kilometres (29.2 miles) connecting Umiam (NH-40) to Jorabat (NH-44) which then leads to other northeastern Indian states of Mizoram and Tripura . The project was estimated to have cost around ₹ 220 crore (US$ 26 million) and was completed in a span of two years (2011–2013). Shillong is served by the Shillong Airport , which is located about 30 km away at Umroi. The airport has daily flights to and from Kolkata . It also have flights to and from Lilabari , Delhi , Silchar , Agartala , Imphal , Dimapur , Dibrugarh and Guwahati . Presently Indigo, Alliance Air and SpiceJet are operating regular services from

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1892-410: Is also well covered in mobile networks with all major cellular providers like Airtel , Vodafone Idea , BSNL and Jio are available here. HQ Eastern Air Command (HQ, EAC) was shifted to Shillong on 10 Jun 63 from Kolkata and housed in the old buildings located at Nonglyer village at Upper Shillong, some 10 km from (Lower) Shillong, but at a greater altitude of around 6,000 feet AMSL. Initially

1978-429: Is approximately related to seismic moment by where η R = E s / ( E s + E f ) {\displaystyle \eta _{R}=E_{s}/(E_{s}+E_{f})} is radiated efficiency and Δ σ s {\displaystyle \Delta \sigma _{s}} is the static stress drop, i.e., the difference between shear stresses on

2064-505: Is complete and ignores fracture energy), (where E is in Joules and M 0   is in N ⋅ {\displaystyle \cdot } m), Kanamori approximated M w   by The formula above made it much easier to estimate the energy-based magnitude M w  , but it changed the fundamental nature of the scale into a moment magnitude scale. USGS seismologist Thomas C. Hanks noted that Kanamori's M w   scale

2150-471: Is more directly related to the energy of an earthquake than other scales, and does not saturate – that is, it does not underestimate magnitudes as other scales do in certain conditions. It has become the standard scale used by seismological authorities like the U.S. Geological Survey for reporting large earthquakes (typically M > 4), replacing the local magnitude (M L  ) and surface-wave magnitude (M s  ) scales. Subtypes of

2236-426: Is only valid for (≤ 7.0). Seismic moment is not a direct measure of energy changes during an earthquake. The relations between seismic moment and the energies involved in an earthquake depend on parameters that have large uncertainties and that may vary between earthquakes. Potential energy is stored in the crust in the form of elastic energy due to built-up stress and gravitational energy . During an earthquake,

2322-463: Is technically difficult since it involves the integration of wave energy over the entire frequency band. To simplify this calculation, he noted that the lowest frequency parts of the spectrum can often be used to estimate the rest of the spectrum. The lowest frequency asymptote of a seismic spectrum is characterized by the seismic moment , M 0  . Using an approximate relation between radiated energy and seismic moment (which assumes stress drop

2408-711: Is that Shillong was named after a boy named “Aahlad” who was born to a virgin mother near Bisi. Shillong was the capital of composite Assam during the British regime and later until a separate State of Meghalaya was formed. David Scott, the British civil servant of the East India Company , was the Agent of the Governor-General North East Frontier. During the First Anglo-Burmese War the British authorities felt

2494-683: Is the biggest market in Shillong. The name "Shillong" was later adopted, as the location of the new town was below the Shillong Peak. In 1874, a separate Chief Commissionership was formed with Shillong as the seat of administration. The new administration included Sylhet , now a part of Bangladesh . Also included in the Chief Commissionership were the Naga Hills (present-day Nagaland ), Lushai Hills (present-day Mizoram ) as well as Khasi, Jaintia and Garo Hills. Shillong

2580-620: Is the same for all earthquakes, one can consider M w   as a measure of the energy E s radiated by earthquakes. Under these assumptions, the following formula, obtained by solving for M 0   the equation defining M w  , allows one to assess the ratio E 1 / E 2 {\displaystyle E_{1}/E_{2}} of energy release (potential or radiated) between two earthquakes of different moment magnitudes, m 1 {\displaystyle m_{1}} and m 2 {\displaystyle m_{2}} : As with

2666-420: Is thus poorly known. It could vary highly from one earthquake to another. Two earthquakes with identical M 0 {\displaystyle M_{0}} but different σ ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {\sigma }}} would have released different Δ W {\displaystyle \Delta W} . The radiated energy caused by an earthquake

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2752-404: The 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan earthquakes. These had M s   magnitudes of 8.5 and 8.4 respectively but were notably more powerful than other M 8 earthquakes; their moment magnitudes were closer to 9.6 and 9.3, respectively. The study of earthquakes is challenging as the source events cannot be observed directly, and it took many years to develop the mathematics for understanding what

2838-602: The Brahmaputra and Surma valleys and more so because the climate of Shillong was much cooler than tropical India. Shillong remained the capital of undivided Assam until the creation of the new state of Meghalaya on 21 January 1972, when Shillong became the capital of Meghalaya, and Assam moved its capital to Dispur in Guwahati . Shillong is named after the god of the Khasis, "U Blei Shyllong". The more widespread belief

2924-633: The British of Scotland . Hence, they would refer to it as the "Scotland of the East". Shillong has steadily grown in size since it was made the civil station of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in 1864 by the British . In 1874, on the formation of Assam as the Chief Commissioner's Province, Shillong was chosen as the headquarters of the new administration because of its convenient location between

3010-494: The Shillong Plateau , the only major uplifted structure in the northern Indian shield. The city lies in the centre of the plateau and is surrounded by hills, three of which are revered in Khasi tradition: Lum Sohpetbneng, Lum Diengiei, and Lum Shyllong. Shillong is just 100 km (62 mi) from Guwahati , which can be accessed by road along NH 40 , a journey of about 2 hours 30 minutes through lush green hills and

3096-776: The Umiam lake in between. Shillong has been selected as the 100th city to receive funding under the centre's flagship "Smart Cities Mission" Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). In January 2016, 20 cities were announced under the Smart Cities Mission, followed by 13 cities in May 2016, 27 cities in September 2016, 30 cities in June 2017, and 9 cities in January this year. The total proposed investment in

3182-467: The 1857 revolt." As noted by Indian historian Vinay Lal , hill stations in India also served "as spaces for the colonial structuring of a segregational and ontological divide between Indians and Europeans, and as institutional sites of imperial power." William Dalrymple wrote that "The viceroy was the spider at the heart of Simla's web: From his chambers in Viceregal Lodge, he pulled

3268-621: The 1970s, introducing a separate magnitude associated to radiated energy was warranted. Choy and Boatwright defined in 1995 the energy magnitude where E s {\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {s} }} is in J (N·m). Assuming the values of σ̄/μ are the same for all earthquakes, one can consider M w   as a measure of the potential energy change Δ W caused by earthquakes. Similarly, if one assumes η R Δ σ s / 2 μ {\displaystyle \eta _{R}\Delta \sigma _{s}/2\mu }

3354-460: The Indian into an outsider". The term is still used in present day, particularly in India, which has the largest number of hill stations, most are situated at an altitude of approximately 1,000 to 2,500 metres (3,300 to 8,200 ft). Nandi Hills is a 11th-century hill station that was developed by the Ganga dynasty in present-day Karnataka , India. Tipu Sultan (1751–1799) notably used it as

3440-530: The Japanese seismologist Kiyoo Wadati showed that the maximum amplitude of an earthquake's seismic waves diminished with distance at a certain rate. Charles F. Richter then worked out how to adjust for epicentral distance (and some other factors) so that the logarithm of the amplitude of the seismograph trace could be used as a measure of "magnitude" that was internally consistent and corresponded roughly with estimates of an earthquake's energy. He established

3526-542: The Khasi-Jaintia Hills. In early 1829, a Khasis confederation mounted a serious uprising against British occupation. But by January 1833, their leader Tirot Sing surrendered to David Scott and was detained to Dacca (present-day Dhaka ). A political agent was posted in Sohra, also known as Cherrapunjee . But the British did not like the climate and facilities of Sohra and they moved to Shillong. "Ïewduh"

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3612-514: The Municipality of Shillong was agreed to by Haiñ Manik Syiem of Mylliem under the agreement of 15 November 1878. But, there is no trace of Shillong in the British era maps dating back to 1878, up to 1900. The great earthquake of 12 June 1897 of moment magnitude 8.1 killed 27 from Shillong and destroyed much of the town. Shillong is at 25°34′N 91°53′E  /  25.57°N 91.88°E  / 25.57; 91.88 . It lies on

3698-457: The Richter scale, an increase of one step on the logarithmic scale of moment magnitude corresponds to a 10 ≈ 32 times increase in the amount of energy released, and an increase of two steps corresponds to a 10 = 1000 times increase in energy. Thus, an earthquake of M w   of 7.0 contains 1000 times as much energy as one of 5.0 and about 32 times that of 6.0. To make the significance of

3784-526: The airport. Teteliya-Byrnihat line, 22 km (14 mi) long, from Guwahati's suburb Tetelia to Byrnihat near Shillong in Meghalaya is likely to be completed by March 2026. From Byrnihat it will be extended further to Shillong in future. Languages spoken across Shillong city (2011) As of the 2011 Census of India , Shillong had a total population of 143,229, of which 70,135 were males and 73,094 were females. As per 2011 language census report, 67,154 of

3870-452: The city centre has only limited flights. Shillong is well connected by roads with all major northeastern states. Three major National Highways pass through: Private bus operators, as well as state transport buses from other states, come to and from Shillong daily. Taxi services are also available to destination like Guwahati , Agartala , Kohima , Dimapur , Aizawl and other North Eastern towns and cities. The Shillong Bypass (pictured)

3956-410: The city features a subtropical highland climate (Cwb). Its summers are cool and very rainy, while its winters are cool yet dry. Shillong is subject to vagaries of the monsoon . The monsoons arrive in June and it rains almost until the end of October. Although well connected by road, Shillong has neither rail connections nor a proper air connection. Umroi Airport located 30 kilometres (19 miles) from

4042-425: The city's population speak Khasi as their native language, 28,984 speak Bengali , 15,559 speak Hindi , 14,085 speak Nepali , 4,069 speak Assamese , 2,632 speak Punjabi , 3,580 speak Garo , 1,088 speak Urdu and 6,115 speak other languages. 14,317 were aged 0 to 6 years. The literacy rate was 83.5% or 119,642 people: 84.8% for males and 82.3% females. The effective literacy rate of people aged 7 years and older

4128-519: The city, practised by 46.49% of the population, followed by Hinduism at 41.95%, Islam 4.89%, and to a lesser degree, that is, 2.01% includes Sikhism , Buddhism and Jainism . An ancient indigenous religion of the Khasi and Jaintia tribes is still followed by 4.5% of the population. The Shillong metropolitan region, which includes the towns of Laitumkhrah , Lawsohtun , Madanrting , Mawlai , Mawpat, Nongkseh, Nongmynsong , Nongthymmai , Pynthorumkhrah , Shillong Cantonment , Umlyngka and Umpling, had

4214-547: The dangers of life in India, among them "fear of degeneration brought on by too long residence in a debilitating land". The hill stations were meant to reproduce the home country, illustrated in Lord Lytton 's statement about Ootacamund in the 1870s as having "such beautiful English rain, such delicious English mud." Shimla was officially made the "summer capital of India" in the 1860s and hill stations "served as vital centres of political and military power, especially after

4300-428: The earthquake (e.g., equation 3 of Venkataraman & Kanamori 2004 ) and μ {\displaystyle \mu } is the average of the shear moduli of the rocks that constitute the fault. Currently, there is no technology to measure absolute stresses at all depths of interest, nor method to estimate it accurately, and σ ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {\sigma }}}

4386-399: The earthquake's equivalent double-couple. (More precisely, it is the scalar magnitude of the second-order moment tensor that describes the force components of the double-couple. ) Seismic moment is measured in units of Newton meters (N·m) or Joules , or (in the older CGS system) dyne-centimeters (dyn-cm). The first calculation of an earthquake's seismic moment from its seismic waves

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4472-409: The energy released, and the stress drop (essentially how much of the potential energy was released). In particular, he derived an equation that relates an earthquake's seismic moment to its physical parameters: with μ being the rigidity (or resistance to moving) of a fault with a surface area of S over an average dislocation (distance) of ū . (Modern formulations replace ūS with

4558-487: The equivalent D̄A , known as the "geometric moment" or "potency". ) By this equation the moment determined from the double couple of the seismic waves can be related to the moment calculated from knowledge of the surface area of fault slippage and the amount of slip. In the case of the Niigata earthquake the dislocation estimated from the seismic moment reasonably approximated the observed dislocation. Seismic moment

4644-460: The fact that they only provided a comparison of the amplitude of waves produced at a standard distance and frequency band; it was difficult to relate these magnitudes to a physical property of the earthquake. Gutenberg and Richter suggested that radiated energy E s could be estimated as (in Joules). Unfortunately, the duration of many very large earthquakes was longer than 20 seconds, the period of

4730-1161: The fault before and after the earthquake (e.g., from equation 1 of Venkataraman & Kanamori 2004 ). These two quantities are far from being constants. For instance, η R {\displaystyle \eta _{R}} depends on rupture speed; it is close to 1 for regular earthquakes but much smaller for slower earthquakes such as tsunami earthquakes and slow earthquakes . Two earthquakes with identical M 0 {\displaystyle M_{0}} but different η R {\displaystyle \eta _{R}} or Δ σ s {\displaystyle \Delta \sigma _{s}} would have radiated different E s {\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {s} }} . Because E s {\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {s} }} and M 0 {\displaystyle M_{0}} are fundamentally independent properties of an earthquake source, and since E s {\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {s} }} can now be computed more directly and robustly than in

4816-446: The finally selected 100 cities under the Smart Cities Mission would be ₹ 2,050,180 million. Under the scheme, each city will get ₹ 5000 million from the centre for implementing various projects. Weather conditions in Shillong are typically pleasant, pollution-free. In the summer the temperature varies from 23 °C (73 °F). In the winter the temperature varies from 4 °C (39 °F). Under Köppen's climate classification

4902-447: The interactions of forces) this model is called a couple , also simple couple or single couple . If a second couple of equal and opposite magnitude is applied their torques cancel; this is called a double couple . A double couple can be viewed as "equivalent to a pressure and tension acting simultaneously at right angles". The single couple and double couple models are important in seismology because each can be used to derive how

4988-511: The local magnitude and the surface wave magnitude. Thus, a magnitude zero microearthquake has a seismic moment of approximately 1.1 × 10  N⋅m , while the Great Chilean earthquake of 1960, with an estimated moment magnitude of 9.4–9.6, had a seismic moment between 1.4 × 10  N⋅m and 2.8 × 10  N⋅m . Seismic moment magnitude ( M wg or Das Magnitude Scale ) and moment magnitude ( M w ) scales To understand

5074-416: The magnitude range 5.0 ≤  M s  ≤ 7.5 is not reliable due to the inconsistency of defined magnitude range (moderate to large earthquakes defined as M s  ≤ 7.0 and M s  = 7–7.5) and scarce data in lower magnitude range (≤ 7.0) which rarely represents the global seismicity (e.g., see Figs. 1A, B, 4 and Table 2 of Percaru and Berckhemer 1978). Furthermore, Equation (1) of Percaru and Berckhemer 1978)

5160-710: The magnitude scales based on M o detailed background of M wg and M w scales is given below. M w scale Hiroo Kanamori defined a magnitude scale (Log W 0  = 1.5 M w  + 11.8, where W 0 is the minimum strain energy) for great earthquakes using Gutenberg Richter Eq. (1). Log Es = 1.5 Ms + 11.8                                                                                     (A) Hiroo Kanamori used W 0 in place of E s (dyn.cm) and consider

5246-427: The magnitude value plausible, the seismic energy released during the earthquake is sometimes compared to the effect of the conventional chemical explosive TNT . The seismic energy E S {\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {S} }} results from the above-mentioned formula according to Gutenberg and Richter to or converted into Hiroshima bombs: For comparison of seismic energy (in joules) with

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5332-515: The main impetus being "places to rest and recuperate from the arduous life on the plains". In the second half of the 19th century, there was a period of consolidation with few new hill stations. In the final phase, "hill stations reached their zenith in the late nineteenth century. The political importance of the official stations was underscored by the inauguration of large and costly public-building projects." The concept of Hill Station has been used loosely in India (and more broadly South Asia) since

5418-514: The mid-20th century to qualify any town or settlement in mountainous areas, which attempt to expand its local economy toward tourism, or have been invested by recent mass tourism practices. Kullu and Manali in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh , are two example of that misuse of Hill Station or more accurately deviation of its meaning. These two historical settlements existed prior to the British, and haven't been specially frequented by them or even extensively modified or shaped by them. However,

5504-488: The moment magnitude scale (M ww  , etc.) reflect different ways of estimating the seismic moment. At the beginning of the twentieth century, very little was known about how earthquakes happen, how seismic waves are generated and propagate through the Earth's crust, and what information they carry about the earthquake rupture process; the first magnitude scales were therefore empirical . The initial step in determining earthquake magnitudes empirically came in 1931 when

5590-410: The moment magnitude scale is M w  , with the subscript "w" meaning mechanical work accomplished. The moment magnitude M w   is a dimensionless value defined by Hiroo Kanamori as where M 0   is the seismic moment in dyne ⋅cm (10  N⋅m). The constant values in the equation are chosen to achieve consistency with the magnitude values produced by earlier scales, such as

5676-549: The need for a road to connect Sylhet and Assam. The route was to traverse across the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. David Scott overcame the difficulties his administration faced from the opposition of the Khasi Syiems – their chiefs and people. Impressed by the favourable cool climate of Khasi Hills , they negotiated with the Syiem of Sohra in 1829 for a sanatorium for the British. Thus began the consolidation of British interests in

5762-663: The non-western world in general." The historian of Himalayan cultures Shekhar Pathak speaking about the development of Hill Stations like Mussoorie noted that "the needs of this (European) elite created colonies in Dehradun of Indians to cater to them." This "exclusive, clean, and secure social space – known as an enclave – for white Europeans ... evolved to become the seats of government and foci of elite social activity", and created racial distinctions which perpetuated British colonial power and oppression as Nandini Bhattacharya notes. Dale Kennedy observed that "the hill station, then,

5848-581: The ratio of seismic Energy ( E ) and Seismic Moment ( M o ), i.e., E / M o  = 5 × 10 , into the Gutenberg–Richter energy magnitude Eq. (A), Hanks and Kanamori provided Eq. (B): Log M0 = 1.5 Ms + 16.1                                                                                   (B) Note that Eq. (B)

5934-403: The rise of internal domestic tourism in India from the eighties and the subsequent reproduction of Hill Station practice by urban middle-class Indians contributed to the labelling of these two localities as Hill Stations . Munnar , a settlement in the state of Kerala whose economy is primarily based on tea cultivation and processing , as well as plantation agriculture, is another example of

6020-401: The same "line of action" but in opposite directions, will cancel; if they cancel (balance) exactly there will be no net translation, though the object will experience stress, either tension or compression. If the pair of forces are offset, acting along parallel but separate lines of action, the object experiences a rotational force, or torque . In mechanics (the branch of physics concerned with

6106-466: The seismic moment calculated from the observed physical dislocation. A double couple model suffices to explain an earthquake's far-field pattern of seismic radiation, but tells us very little about the nature of an earthquake's source mechanism or its physical features. While slippage along a fault was theorized as the cause of earthquakes (other theories included movement of magma, or sudden changes of volume due to phase changes ), observing this at depth

6192-409: The seismic waves from an earthquake can tell about the source event. An early step was to determine how different systems of forces might generate seismic waves equivalent to those observed from earthquakes. The simplest force system is a single force acting on an object. If it has sufficient strength to overcome any resistance it will cause the object to move ("translate"). A pair of forces, acting on

6278-430: The seismic waves generated by an earthquake event should appear in the "far field" (that is, at distance). Once that relation is understood it can be inverted to use the earthquake's observed seismic waves to determine its other characteristics, including fault geometry and seismic moment. In 1923 Hiroshi Nakano showed that certain aspects of seismic waves could be explained in terms of a double couple model. This led to

6364-584: The seismological parameter it is based on, is not measured routinely for smaller quakes. For example, the United States Geological Survey does not use this scale for earthquakes with a magnitude of less than 3.5, which includes the great majority of quakes. Popular press reports most often deal with significant earthquakes larger than M~ 4. For these events, the preferred magnitude is the moment magnitude M w  , not Richter's local magnitude M L  . The symbol for

6450-419: The strings of an empire that stretched from Rangoon in the east to Aden in the west." Meanwhile Judith T Kenny observed that "the hill station as a landscape type tied to nineteenth-century discourses of imperialism and climate. Both discourses serve as evidence of a belief in racial difference and, thereby, the imperial hill station reflected and reinforced a framework of meaning that influenced European views of

6536-459: The surface waves used in the measurement of M s  . This meant that giant earthquakes such as the 1960 Chilean earthquake (M 9.5) were only assigned an M s  8.2. Caltech seismologist Hiroo Kanamori recognized this deficiency and took the simple but important step of defining a magnitude based on estimates of radiated energy, M w  , where the "w" stood for work (energy): Kanamori recognized that measurement of radiated energy

6622-445: The total energy, the rest being expended in fracturing rock or overcoming friction (generating heat). Nonetheless, seismic moment is regarded as the fundamental measure of earthquake size, representing more directly than other parameters the physical size of an earthquake. As early as 1975 it was considered "one of the most reliably determined instrumental earthquake source parameters". Most earthquake magnitude scales suffered from

6708-481: Was 92.8%, 94.8% for males and 90.9% for females. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes population was 1,551 and 73,307, respectively. Shillong had 31,025 households in 2011. As per the 1971 census (before creation of Meghalaya state in 1972), non-tribals constituted 58.53% of the population of Shillong. Religions in Shillong City (2011) According to 2011 census, Christianity is the dominant religion in

6794-415: Was adjudged 2nd runners-up in the 2014–15 season of I-League . The Shillong Golf Course is one of the oldest golf course in the country and is surrounded by pine and rhododendron trees. Among people of the Khasi tribe of Meghalaya, archery has been both a sport, a form of defence for several centuries and gambling (teer). While modern customs have replaced many of traditional aspects of the culture here,

6880-400: Was already derived by Hiroo Kanamori and termed it as M w . Eq. (B) was based on large earthquakes; hence, in order to validate Eq. (B) for intermediate and smaller earthquakes, Hanks and Kanamori (1979) compared this Eq. (B) with Eq. (1) of Percaru and Berckhemer (1978) for the magnitude 5.0 ≤  M s  ≤ 7.5 (Hanks and Kanamori 1979). Note that Eq. (1) of Percaru and Berckhemer (1978) for

6966-451: Was by Keiiti Aki for the 1964 Niigata earthquake . He did this two ways. First, he used data from distant stations of the WWSSN to analyze long-period (200 second) seismic waves (wavelength of about 1,000 kilometers) to determine the magnitude of the earthquake's equivalent double couple. Second, he drew upon the work of Burridge and Knopoff on dislocation to determine the amount of slip,

7052-580: Was not possible, and understanding what could be learned about the source mechanism from the seismic waves requires an understanding of the source mechanism. Modeling the physical process by which an earthquake generates seismic waves required much theoretical development of dislocation theory , first formulated by the Italian Vito Volterra in 1907, with further developments by E. H. Love in 1927. More generally applied to problems of stress in materials, an extension by F. Nabarro in 1951

7138-593: Was recognized by the Russian geophysicist A. V. Vvedenskaya as applicable to earthquake faulting. In a series of papers starting in 1956 she and other colleagues used dislocation theory to determine part of an earthquake's focal mechanism, and to show that a dislocation – a rupture accompanied by slipping – was indeed equivalent to a double couple. In a pair of papers in 1958, J. A. Steketee worked out how to relate dislocation theory to geophysical features. Numerous other researchers worked out other details, culminating in

7224-467: Was seen as an exclusive British preserve: here it was possible to render the Indian into an outsider". Kennedy, following Monika Bührlein, identifies three stages in the evolution of hill stations in India: high refuge, high refuge to hill station, and hill station to town. The first settlements started in the 1820s, primarily as sanitoria. In the 1840s and 1850s, there was a wave of new hill stations, with

7310-608: Was the capital of composite Assam till 1969 when the autonomous state of Meghalaya was formed. In January 1972, Meghalaya was made a full-fledged state. The Shillong Municipal Board dates back to 1878, when a proclamation was issued constituting Shillong and its suburbs, including the villages of Mawkhar and Laban, into a station under the Bengal Municipal Act of 1876. Inclusion of the villages of Mawkhar (S.E. Mawkhar, Jaiaw and part of Jhalupara and Mawprem) and Laban (Lumparing, Madan laban, Kench's Trace and Rilbong) within

7396-521: Was very similar to a relationship between M L   and M 0   that was reported by Thatcher & Hanks (1973) Hanks & Kanamori (1979) combined their work to define a new magnitude scale based on estimates of seismic moment where M 0 {\displaystyle M_{0}} is defined in newton meters (N·m). Moment magnitude is now the most common measure of earthquake size for medium to large earthquake magnitudes, but in practice, seismic moment (M 0  ),

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