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106-565: Since 1991, the hospital has remained the top ranked rehabilitation hospital in America as ranked by U.S. News & World Report . Applied research focuses in the areas of neuroscience , bionic medicine, musculoskeletal medicine and technology transfer. Upon opening in March 2017, its 1.2-million-square-foot facility became the first “translational” research hospital in which clinicians, scientists, innovators and technologists work together in

212-506: A "wet" lab, it is equipped to research living human tissue, allowing scientists to study movement impairments at the cellular level. This setup enables the exploration of mechanisms underlying injury and recovery and supports the development of novel therapeutic strategies, such as advanced biomaterials and nerve stimulators. Led by a diverse team of Principal Investigators (PIs), the lab integrates expertise in tissue engineering, neurophysiology, biomechanics, and regenerative medicine, fostering

318-408: A 10% stake held by Hans Georg Näder was included as part of the planned transaction. In December 2023, Näder Holding declared its intention to repurchase all of its shares. This buyback was completed in March 2024, with Näder securing €1.1 billion in credit funds for the transaction. Prior to the buyback, Hans Georg Näder sold his company Sycor, which had acquired Näder Ventures GmbH from Ottobock at

424-479: A 1950 book called The Cerebral Cortex of Man . Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the cortical homunculus . The understanding of neurons and of nervous system function became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for

530-706: A collaborative environment that bridges basic science and clinical applications. The collective goal is to leverage current scientific knowledge and innovative ideas to significantly advance patient outcomes and the field of rehabilitation. This lab develops and executes both industry-sponsored and investigator-initiated research in prosthetsesics, orthosestics, rehabilitation robotics, as well as other assistive and adaptive technologies. Scientists have worked with more than two dozen industrial wearable robotics collaborators, including Ottobock , Honda, Össur , Ekso Bionics , ReWalk Robotics, Parker Hannifin, Hocoma, B-Temia Inc and Samsung to create pathways and practice guidelines for

636-545: A damage of €78.1 million to Ottobock. The shares of Freedom Innovations were subsequently acquired by the French prosthesis manufacturer Proteor. In December 2019, the European Investment Bank (EIB) announced that it will provide up to €100 million to Ottobock to support the company's development of new products. In 2018, Ottobock's new generation of orthoses incorporated sensor technology to regulate

742-547: A direct sale of its shares. In May 2020, an Ottobock subsidiary based in Russia was fined by Russian anti-monopoly authorities for suspected cartel collusion which gave Ottobock and its co-conspirators a monopoly over state tenders for prosthetics, worth 168.1 million Russian Roubles. In June 2023, it was announced that EQT, with the assistance of JP Morgan , had initiated the sale of its 20% stake in Ottobock. Additionally,

848-553: A global leader in the field of exo-prosthetics. Another focus area is orthotics, specifically designing devices that help individuals with partial leg paralysis regain mobility. Ottobock's NeuroMobility division focuses on neuro-orthotics solutions alongside its rehabilitation and wheelchair business segments. Since 2018, the development of high-tech wheelchairs has been undertaken at the company's facility in Berlin. Before production begins, these wheelchairs undergo rigorous testing on

954-558: A group surrounding a manufacturer named Otto Bock, who hailed from Krefeld , its objective was to supply prostheses and orthopedic products to the many thousands of war invalids of World War I . Bock acted as production manager during this phase. In 1920, production operations were relocated to Königsee in Thuringia , where at times, a workforce of up to 600 people was employed. Faced with high demand that could not be met with traditional handicraft or artisanal methods, Otto Bock began

1060-492: A medical rehabilitation hospital for American citizens. With modest philanthropic means, he then purchased a vacant printing building at 401 E. Ohio Street in Chicago, Ill., and a new organization was formally incorporated as the not-for-profit Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago (RIC). By the spring of 1953, the building was converted into a small rehabilitation hospital and began serving a limited number of outpatients. In 1958,

1166-439: A model of care through five Innovation Centers focused on areas of biomedical science: Central to applying research during care are working labs in which interdisciplinary teams develop new research and insights to help patients gain more function and achieve better outcomes. These include: The organization's research budget is US$ 139 million. The research division has been granted $ 50 million in external funding. The hospital

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1272-486: A new business division focusing on biomechanics, specifically through its Ottobock Bionic Exoskeletons unit. This division specialises in developing and marketing exoskeletons designed for use in industrial work settings to support people in physically demanding work, such as the automotive sector and smartphone manufacturing. The exoskeletons relieve strain on muscles and joints, for example during overhead work or heavy lifting activities. In October 2021, Ottobock completed

1378-495: A reductionist stance looking for the neurobiological basis of cognitive phenomena, recent research shows that there is an interplay between neuroscientific findings and conceptual research, soliciting and integrating both perspectives. For example, neuroscience research on empathy solicited an interdisciplinary debate involving philosophy, psychology and psychopathology. Moreover, the neuroscientific identification of multiple memory systems related to different brain areas has challenged

1484-499: A significant restructuring by Hans Georg Näder, who ousted three of the four previous managing directors from the company over a period of three days following the intervention by Hans Georg Näder, who opposed with the plan to take the company public in 2022. These were namely Philipp Schulte-Noelle, Kathrin Dahnke, and Andreas Goppelt. Philipp Schulte-Noelle is a former senior executive of German healthcare public company Fresenius , who

1590-451: A single method pipeline called patch-sequencing in which all three methods are simultaneously applied using miniature tools. The efficiency of this method and the large amounts of data that is generated has allowed researchers to make some general conclusions about cell types; for example that the human and mouse brain have different versions of fundamentally the same cell types. Basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include

1696-551: A specialised test track and in an integrated workshop to ensure quality and functionalist. The production of the wheelchairs takes place in Königsee, Thuringia, where Ottobock maintains its manufacturing operations. Ottobock operates more than 340 care centres worldwide. Additionally, the company continuously optimises processes within its orthopaedic workshops to enhance the quality and effectiveness of its treatments, orthotics and prosethic products. In 2018, Ottobock established

1802-572: A technical team on-site during the games and establishes workshops near the Paralympic village, and at key training and competition venues. The team performs repairs and maintenance on equipment, servicing athletes' regardless of nationality or the brand of aids used. Advertising partners in this area include paralympians Johannes Floors , Léon Schäfer, Anna Schaffelhuber and Heinrich Popow . The 2016 Paralympic Games in Rio de Janeiro marked

1908-480: Is 100 seconds in the machine simulation) that of their biological counterparts. Recent advances in neuromorphic microchip technology have led a group of scientists to create an artificial neuron that can replace real neurons in diseases. United States Ottobock Ottobock SE & Co. KGaA , formerly Otto Bock , is an international company based in Duderstadt Germany, that operates in

2014-528: Is Näder Holding GmbH & Co. KG, which is headquartered in Duderstadt. It is 100 percent owned by the owner family Näder, the direct descendants of the company founder Otto Bock. A further 20 percent is held by the Swedish financial investor EQT . Hans Georg Näder has publicly stated that he intends to float Ottobock via an initial public offering (IPO) scheduled for 2022, despite previously announcing

2120-649: Is also home to a number of other research groups. The Center for Bionic Medicine at the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab is the largest bionic research group in the world. Discoveries and innovations include: The Biologics Research Lab at Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, founded by Dr. Richard L. Lieber , Chief Scientific Officer and Senior Vice President of Research, focuses on developing biological approaches to treat various neuromuscular diseases, including spinal cord injuries, peripheral nerve injuries, muscle disorders, and conditions like cerebral palsy and cancer. As

2226-860: Is an official global partner to the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) since 2005, and has been providing technical services at the Paralympic Games since the Summer Games in Seoul, 1988. As an official technical service partner at the Paralympic Games, Ottobock provides support to athletes by offering services free of charge. Many athletes rely heavily on technical aids that undergo extreme stresses, especially wheelchairs in contact sports, which often suffer damage. To address this, Ottobock deploys

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2332-472: Is concerned with the development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes, on the cellular level (Computational Neurogenetic Modeling (CNGM) can also be used to model neural systems). Systems neuroscience research centers on the structural and functional architecture of the developing human brain, and the functions of large-scale brain networks , or functionally-connected systems within

2438-753: Is the Society for Neuroscience (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries. Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily: as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 countries. Annual meetings, held each year in a different American city, draw attendance from researchers, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and undergraduates, as well as educational institutions, funding agencies, publishers, and hundreds of businesses that supply products used in research. Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include

2544-408: Is the scientific study of the nervous system (the brain , spinal cord , and peripheral nervous system ), its functions, and its disorders. It is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology , anatomy , molecular biology , developmental biology , cytology , psychology , physics , computer science , chemistry , medicine , statistics , and mathematical modeling to understand

2650-792: Is the global market leader in technical orthopedics/prosthetics, with sales and service locations in more than 50 countries. At the end of 2022, Ottobock employed over 9,000 people worldwide. The company's corporate headquarters are located in Duderstadt, Germany, with additional German locations in Königsee , Hanover , Traunstein , and Berlin . A competence center and research and development workshop are situated in Göttingen . Ottobock maintains research and development facilities in other locations, including Duderstadt, Salt Lake City, and Vienna. Since its inception, Ottobock has concentrated on developing prosthetic devices, and it has emerged as

2756-783: The International Brain Research Organization (IBRO), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies (FENS), which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years. FENS comprises a set of 32 national-level organizations, including the British Neuroscience Association , the German Neuroscience Society ( Neurowissenschaftliche Gesellschaft ), and

2862-456: The Morris–Lecar model . Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous biological neuron models and models of neural computation . As a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists during the 20th century. For example, the International Brain Research Organization

2968-689: The NSDAP . During the 1930s he became a supporting member of the SS. He paid a monthly contribution of six Reichmarks, according to his own account, until 1938. At the end of 1933, Bock had Orthopädische Industrie GmbH liquidated and paid out the remaining shareholders. The company was renamed Orthopedic Industry Otto Bock in Königsee . Max Näder , after completing his secondary education in 1935, commenced his professional journey by undertaking training as an orthopedic mechanic and industrial clerk at Otto Bock. During his later studies in Berlin, he became part of

3074-571: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. In parallel with this research, in 1815 Jean Pierre Flourens induced localized lesions of the brain in living animals to observe their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. Work with brain-damaged patients by Marc Dax in 1836 and Paul Broca in 1865 suggested that certain regions of

3180-410: The microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s. The procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons . His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine , the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron. Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared

3286-479: The peripheral nervous system . In many species—including all vertebrates—the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of

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3392-520: The promotion of awareness and knowledge about the nervous system among the general public and government officials. Such promotions have been done by both individual neuroscientists and large organizations. For example, individual neuroscientists have promoted neuroscience education among young students by organizing the International Brain Bee , which is an academic competition for high school or secondary school students worldwide. In

3498-789: The 13th games at which Ottobock provided technical services. This involved shipping 18 tonnes (18 long tons; 20 short tons) of equipment, including 15,000 spare parts, 1,100 wheelchair tyres, 70 running blades and 300 prosthetic feet, 300 kilometres (190 mi) from Duderstadt to the port at Bremerhaven , 10,100 kilometres (6,300 mi) by sea to Santos , and then 500 kilometres (310 mi) by road to Rio de Janeiro. At Seoul in 1988, four Ottobock technicians carried out 350 repairs; in Rio de Janeiro in 2016, 100 technicians from 29 countries speaking 26 languages carried out 3,361 repairs for 1,162 athletes, including 2,745 repairs to wheelchairs, 438 to prosthetics, and 178 to orthotics. In Rio on 10 September,

3604-673: The Canadian Institutes of Health Research's (CIHR) Canadian National Brain Bee is held annually at McMaster University . Neuroscience educators formed a Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN) in 1992 to share best practices and provide travel awards for undergraduates presenting at Society for Neuroscience meetings. Neuroscientists have also collaborated with other education experts to study and refine educational techniques to optimize learning among students, an emerging field called educational neuroscience . Federal agencies in

3710-1036: The French Société des Neurosciences . The first National Honor Society in Neuroscience, Nu Rho Psi , was founded in 2006. Numerous youth neuroscience societies which support undergraduates, graduates and early career researchers also exist, such as Simply Neuroscience and Project Encephalon. In 2013, the BRAIN Initiative was announced in the US. The International Brain Initiative was created in 2017, currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (US, Europe , Allen Institute , Japan , China , Australia, Canada, Korea, and Israel ) spanning four continents. In addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in

3816-513: The HealthCare division. At the end of 2011, the old logo with the original signature of Otto Bock was replaced by a new international logo. Advancements in electronic knee joint components and mechatronic prosthetic feet, led to enhanced individual fitting and personalised care for recipients. In 2011, these technological improvements enabled prosthetic users to walk backwards safely, overcome obstacles, or climb stairs in alternating steps for

3922-520: The Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In Renaissance Europe , Vesalius (1514–1564), René Descartes (1596–1650), Thomas Willis (1621–1675) and Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680) also made several contributions to neuroscience. Luigi Galvani 's pioneering work in the late 1700s set the stage for studying the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons. In 1843 Emil du Bois-Reymond demonstrated

4028-766: The National Socialist German Student Association (NSDStB). During the African campaign, Näder was awarded the Iron Cross II Class. In 1943, during a period of wartime reprieve, he entered into matrimony with Marie Bock, the younger sister of Otto Bock. During the tumult of World War II , the company resorted to the utilisation of forced laborers to sustain its operational endeavors. A company chronicle quotes former employees as saying that from 1942 onwards, around 100 Russian women aged between 18 and 22 were employed in

4134-538: The Science Center at Potsdamer Platz, marking a return to the city where the company was originally founded in Kreuzberg in 1919. The Science Center served as Ottobock's representative office and showroom in the capital for nine years. During its operation, it attracted over one million visitors from around the globe to its interactive exhibition, "Begreifen, was uns bewegt" ("Understanding What Moves Us"). In

4240-679: The United States, large organizations such as the Society for Neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called Brain Facts, collaborating with public school teachers to develop Neuroscience Core Concepts for K-12 teachers and students, and cosponsoring a campaign with the Dana Foundation called Brain Awareness Week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research. In Canada,

4346-572: The United States, such as the National Institute of Health (NIH) and National Science Foundation (NSF), have also funded research that pertains to best practices in teaching and learning of neuroscience concepts. Neuromorphic engineering is a branch of neuroscience that deals with creating functional physical models of neurons for the purposes of useful computation. The emergent computational properties of neuromorphic computers are fundamentally different from conventional computers in

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4452-719: The academic home of Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation (PM&R) Department. The organization was among the first rehabilitation hospitals to offer a medical residency program in this specialty, and remains one of the largest. It is a four-year program. Shirley Ryan AbilityLab also has six fellowship programs: Pediatrics, Pain, Parkinson’s Disease and Movement Disorders, Sports Medicine, Traumatic Brain Injury and Spinal Cord Injury. 41°53′37.8″N 87°37′6.2″W  /  41.893833°N 87.618389°W  / 41.893833; -87.618389 Neuroscience Neuroscience

4558-557: The acquisition of the US company SuitX. SuitX is a spin-off from the Robotics and Human Engineering Lab at the University of California, Berkeley, and focuses on the research and development of exoskeletons for both professional and medical applications. The acquisition aims to enhance Ottobock's development and distribution efforts in the exoskeleton technology space. In 2009, Ottobock reestablished its presence in Berlin by opening

4664-404: The approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain. Due to the high degree of plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life. Making sense of the nervous system's dynamic complexity is a formidable research challenge. Ultimately, neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of

4770-498: The availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods. Improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress. Developments in electron microscopy , computer science , electronics , functional neuroimaging , and genetics and genomics have all been major drivers of progress. Advances in the classification of brain cells have been enabled by electrophysiological recording, single-cell genetic sequencing , and high-quality microscopy, which have combined into

4876-515: The bandage, sewing and timber departments. Letters from Marie Bock also suggest that the entrepreneurial family used forced labourers not only in the company but also in the private household. After World War II, when all the family's private assets as well as the factory in Königsee had been confiscated by the Soviet occupiers, the company settled in Duderstadt in southern Lower Saxony in 1946. In 1950, plastics were introduced into production for

4982-463: The basic guidelines and strategic direction of the company. It consists of four non-executive directors and currently two of the four executive directors (CEO/CSO and CFO). The Chairman of the Board of Directors is Hans Georg Näder. The company's Supervisory Board is European co-determined and consists of six shareholder representatives and four employee representatives. It monitors the activities of

5088-496: The beginning of 2021. In March 2023, Ottobock expanded its operations by acquiring the Brillinger chain of medical supply stores. That same month, Cranial Technologies filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Ottobock and Active Life, alleging that the companies used a patented process for 3D printing certain components of infant cranial helmets without authorisation. The largest shareholder of Ottobock SE & Co. KGaA

5194-415: The beginning of the company's international sales structure. In 1965, Max Näder introduced myoelectric arm prostheses to the market. For the first time, light and fragile as well as heavy objects could be grasped with them. In myoelectrics, weak electrical voltages control the prosthesis. Another development was a fitting solution for modular leg prostheses. The pyramid adapter, patented in 1969, connects

5300-438: The behavior of single neurons as well as the dynamics of neural networks . Computational neuroscience is often referred to as theoretical neuroscience. Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine , neuropathology, neuroradiology , ophthalmology , otolaryngology , clinical neurophysiology , addiction medicine , and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address

5406-691: The board of directors. The supervisory board is chaired by Bernd Bohr, long-time head of the automotive division of the Bosch Group . Other members include Gesche Joost and Michael Kaschke. Since July 2022, the company has been managed operationally by four executive directors : Oliver Jakobi, chief executive officer (CEO) and chief revenue officer (CRO), Arne Kreitz, chief financial officer (CFO), Arne Jörn chief operating officer (COO) and chief technology officer (CTO) and Martin Böhm chief experience officer . This leadership transition followed

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5512-422: The body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other in neural circuits , and networks . The vertebrate nervous system can be split into two parts: the central nervous system (defined as the brain and spinal cord ), and

5618-427: The brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, these findings were seen as a confirmation of Franz Joseph Gall 's theory that language was localized and that certain psychological functions were localized in specific areas of the cerebral cortex . The localization of function hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson , who correctly inferred

5724-678: The brain with its environment. A study into consumer responses for example uses EEG to investigate neural correlates associated with narrative transportation into stories about energy efficiency . Questions in computational neuroscience can span a wide range of levels of traditional analysis, such as development , structure , and cognitive functions of the brain. Research in this field utilizes mathematical models , theoretical analysis, and computer simulation to describe and verify biologically plausible neurons and nervous systems. For example, biological neuron models are mathematical descriptions of spiking neurons which can be used to describe both

5830-540: The brain, and the effect it has on human sensation, movement, attention, inhibitory control, decision-making, reasoning, memory formation, reward, and emotion regulation. Specific areas of interest for the field include observations of how the structure of neural circuits effect skill acquisition, how specialized regions of the brain develop and change ( neuroplasticity ), and the development of brain atlases, or wiring diagrams of individual developing brains. The related fields of neuroethology and neuropsychology address

5936-565: The brain. The earliest study of the nervous system dates to ancient Egypt . Trepanation , the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull for the purpose of curing head injuries or mental disorders , or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during the Neolithic period. Manuscripts dating to 1700 BC indicate that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage . Early views on

6042-613: The brain. Alongside brain development, systems neuroscience also focuses on how the structure and function of the brain enables or restricts the processing of sensory information, using learned mental models of the world, to motivate behavior. Questions in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes , multisensory integration , motor coordination , circadian rhythms , emotional responses , learning , and memory . In other words, this area of research studies how connections are made and morphed in

6148-614: The brain. They are currently being researched for their potential to repair neural systems and restore certain cognitive functions. However, some ethical considerations have to be dealt with before they are accepted. Modern neuroscience education and research activities can be very roughly categorized into the following major branches, based on the subject and scale of the system in examination as well as distinct experimental or curricular approaches. Individual neuroscientists, however, often work on questions that span several distinct subfields. The largest professional neuroscience organization

6254-408: The brewery's historic brick and industrial architecture. The Future Lab serves as a hub where new products, technologies, and supply solutions are developed and tested by cross-functional teams. The site hosts a variety of digital start-ups and also houses employees from departments including IT , Human Resources, Marketing, Corporate Strategy, Corporate Communications, and Public Affairs. Ottobock

6360-432: The building was renovated, enabling the hospital to serve inpatients. In 1967, RIC formed an academic affiliation with Northwestern University , establishing a residency program in physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R), and soon thereafter appointed its first Chief Scientist. In 1974, it moved into a new location at 345 E. Superior Street in Chicago, Ill., and became the first free-standing rehabilitation hospital in

6466-525: The cell bodies of the neurons and contain the nucleus. Another major area of cellular neuroscience is the investigation of the development of the nervous system . Questions include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions , synapse formation and the implication of fractones in neural stem cells , differentiation of neurons and glia ( neurogenesis and gliogenesis ), and neuronal migration . Computational neurogenetic modeling

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6572-714: The classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Recently, the boundaries between various specialties have blurred, as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. For example, brain imaging enables objective biological insight into mental illnesses, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and improved monitoring of patient progress over time. Integrative neuroscience describes

6678-474: The company's generated profits. This financial practice led to a significant decline in Ottobock's equity ratio, which dropeed from 50% in 2011 to 16% by 2021. In late 2018, Ottobock's subsidiary, Sycor, planned a merger with the IT service provider Allgeier Enterprise Services . However, Ottobock cancelled the merger at the beginning of 2019. Following a series of acquisitions, Ottobock reported in 2019 that for

6784-421: The complex processes occurring within a single neuron . Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses , at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a long thin filament of axoplasm called an axon , which may extend to distant parts of

6890-426: The cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks. During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines. Eric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch , Francis O. Schmitt , and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field. Rioch originated

6996-521: The diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and stroke , and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on affective , behavioral, cognitive , and perceptual disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon

7102-425: The effort to combine models and information from multiple levels of research to develop a coherent model of the nervous system. For example, brain imaging coupled with physiological numerical models and theories of fundamental mechanisms may shed light on psychiatric disorders. Another important area of translational research is brain–computer interfaces (BCIs), or machines that are able to communicate and influence

7208-402: The electrical nature of the nerve signal, whose speed Hermann von Helmholtz proceeded to measure, and in 1875 Richard Caton found electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys. Adolf Beck published in 1890 similar observations of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs. Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of

7314-459: The end of 2021, Ottobock announced plans for an initial public offering (IPO) slated for 2022. However, this IPO was repeatedly postponed throughout the following year, accompanied by significant changes in the company's executive leadership. By the end of 2022, Handelsblatt reported that the IPO had been abandoned due to unfavourable market conditions and that the financial investor EQT was considering

7420-524: The field of orthopedic technology. It is considered the world market leader in the field of prosthetics and one of the leading suppliers in orthotics , wheelchairs and exoskeletons . Näder Holding GmbH & Co. KG is entirely owned by the Näder family, direct descendants of the company's founder, Otto Bock. Näder Holding controls 80% of the shares in Ottobock SE & Co. KGaA. The remaining 20% of

7526-434: The first time in its history the company's sales exceeded €1 billion. In November 2019, Ottobock was compelled to sell the U.S.-based prothesis manufacturer Freedom Innovations LLC and divest all assets acquired via its purchase of the industry competitor in 2017. This sale was mandated after the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) filed an anti-competitive complain against Ottobock for breaking competition laws, incurring

7632-469: The first time. In 2016, Ottobock was banned from operating in parts of Bosnia following an investigation by the Centre for Investigative Reporting that revealed the company was implicated in a scandal involving the misuse of public health funds in which prosthetic limb users were forced to buy Ottoboc's products. In February 2017, Ottobock purchased the myoelectric arm or hand prostheses developed under

7738-592: The first time. The invention of a braking knee joint with high stability, called the Jüpa knee, brought the economic breakthrough after 1949. Together with a newly developed balance device and two other apparatuses for prosthetic alignment, it was also in demand on the American market. In 1955, Ottobock exported the first 500 Jüpa knees to the U.S. The establishment of an American branch in Minneapolis in 1958 marked

7844-404: The function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In Egypt , from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for mummification . It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus , the first step of mummification was to "take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through

7950-617: The fundamental and emergent properties of neurons , glia and neural circuits . The understanding of the biological basis of learning , memory , behavior , perception , and consciousness has been described by Eric Kandel as the "epic challenge" of the biological sciences . The scope of neuroscience has broadened over time to include different approaches used to study the nervous system at different scales. The techniques used by neuroscientists have expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of individual neurons to imaging of sensory , motor and cognitive tasks in

8056-492: The future. The scientific study of the nervous system increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in molecular biology , electrophysiology , and computational neuroscience . This has allowed neuroscientists to study the nervous system in all its aspects: how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed. For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail,

8162-431: The idea of memory as a literal reproduction of the past, supporting a view of memory as a generative, constructive and dynamic process. Neuroscience is also allied with the social and behavioral sciences , as well as with nascent interdisciplinary fields. Examples of such alliances include neuroeconomics , decision theory , social neuroscience , and neuromarketing to address complex questions about interactions of

8268-675: The integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology)

8374-488: The intention to take Ottobock public in 2015. In February 2022, the company delayed the IPO to September 2022. According to Reuters , Ottobock announced in May 2022 that it would not pursue the IPO due to market conditions, while company insiders claimed the company is unlikely to reach the target valuation of five to six billion euros. The Board of Directors manages the business of Ottobock SE & Co. KGaA and determines

8480-538: The launch of the C-Leg. To mark the company's 90th anniversary, the newly built Science Center Medical Technology was inaugurated in Berlin in June 2009. Until 2019, this building near Potsdamer Platz served both as a venue for the public exhibition Begreifen, was uns bewegt , and as a venue for congresses and seminars . On January 1, 2009, the subsidiary Otto Bock Mobility Solutions GmbH based in Königsee emerged from

8586-419: The mass-production of prosthetic components, thus laying the foundation for the orthopedic industry. Bock moved into the management of the company in 1924 and finally took over as sole managing director in 1927. With the evolution of the industry, new materials began to be used in production, notably aluminum , which found early application in prosthetic construction during the 1930s. In May 1933, Bock joined

8692-509: The mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions. The morphology , molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest. Questions addressed in cellular neuroscience include

8798-488: The mechanisms of how neurons process signals physiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites and somas and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Neurites are thin extensions from a neuronal cell body , consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials ). Somas are

8904-407: The nation. In December 2009, RIC announced that it had purchased the site of the former Chicago CBS building site (355 E. Erie Street) on which to build a new hospital, expanding its capabilities and capacity. Groundbreaking took place on July 1, 2013. In 2016, principal philanthropists Pat and Shirley Ryan named the new research hospital, which would be called Shirley Ryan AbilityLab. Pathways.org,

9010-403: The nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired. Analysis of the nervous system is therefore performed at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. The specific topics that form the main focus of research change over time, driven by an ever-expanding base of knowledge and

9116-462: The nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs." The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates . He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain—but

9222-549: The old Ottobock site in Königsee. Today, manual wheelchairs, power wheelchairs, rehabilitation products for children and seat shell bases are produced at the former headquarters . After a five-year development period, the world's first microprocessor -controlled knee joint, the C-Leg, was presented at the World Prosthetics Congress in Nuremberg in 1997. The company's 90th anniversary was also marked by

9328-533: The organization founded by the Ryans 30 years prior, became part of Shirley Ryan AbilityLab in 2017. On March 25, 2017, RIC officially became known as the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab. Shirley Ryan AbilityLab serves adults and children with the severe, complex conditions – from traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injury to stroke , amputation -related and cancer-related functional impairment (i.e., physical/cognitive impairment or loss of function). They have introduced

9434-526: The organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research through neuroimaging techniques, still uses the Brodmann cerebral cytoarchitectonic map (referring to the study of cell structure ) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of

9540-583: The orthopaedic technology market, acquiring a 51 percent stake in Pohlig GmbH, a medium-sized orthopedic company based in Traunstein , Bavaria , and one of the most important orthopedic technology companies in Germany. In the same year, Pohlig GmbH became a wholly owned subsidiary of Ottobock. During the period from 2012 to 2018, Hans Georg Näder withdrew substantial sums from Ottobock, exceeding

9646-514: The product name BeBionic from the British medical technology company Steeper . Since May 2017, the prostheses have been part of Ottobock's product range. In April 2017, Ottobock acquired Boston-based BionX Medical Technologies that manufactured a prosthetic foot and ankle product that utilises robotics technology. In June 2017, Swedish venture capitalist , EQT , acquired a 20 percent stake in Ottobock. In 2018, Ottobock expanded its presence in

9752-401: The prosthetic foot, knee joint and stem and allows static corrections as well as the exchange of the modules. It remains an integrative element of innovative joints to this day. After reunification , Hans Georg Näder took over the management of the family company from his father Max Näder, the son-in-law of company founder Otto Bock, in 1990. In the same year, the company was able to reacquire

9858-420: The question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and human behaviors. Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine and immune systems, respectively. Despite many advancements, the way that networks of neurons perform complex cognitive processes and behaviors is still poorly understood. Cognitive neuroscience addresses

9964-529: The questions of how psychological functions are produced by neural circuitry . The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI , PET , SPECT ), EEG , MEG , electrophysiology , optogenetics and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates. Although many studies hold

10070-634: The same space. Rehabilitation is a relatively new medical specialty, becoming certified as such in 1947. Immediately following World War II , which had a significant impact on the specialty of rehabilitation, General Omar Bradley , the head the Veterans Administration , recruited Dr. Paul Magnuson, a U.S. Army orthopaedic surgeon, who created the infrastructure for the VA to provide rehabilitation for veterans. Magnuson served until 1951 and, shortly thereafter, declared his vision to establish

10176-671: The sense that they are complex systems , and that the computational components are interrelated with no central processor. One example of such a computer is the SpiNNaker supercomputer. Sensors can also be made smart with neuromorphic technology. An example of this is the Event Camera 's BrainScaleS (brain-inspired Multiscale Computation in Neuromorphic Hybrid Systems), a hybrid analog neuromorphic supercomputer located at Heidelberg University in Germany. It

10282-572: The shares were previously held by the Swedish financial investor EQT. However, in March 2024, it was announced that Näder Holding had repurchased these shares from EQT for EUR 1.1 billion. In 2022, the Ottobock Group as a whole generated sales of €1,3 billion. As of 2019 they had 8,367 employees worldwide. The company was founded on January 13, 1919 under the appellation Orthopädische Industrie GmbH, headquartered in Berlin . Initiated by

10388-531: The stance and swing phases of the leg throughout the gait cycle, enabling an almost natural walking pattern. Additionally, the company introduced an exoskeleton, the first product of the new Ottobock Bionic Exoskeletons business unit, designed to reduce strain during overhead work. Ottobock expanded its exoskeletons business after acquiring US-based exoskeleton startup SuitX, a spinoff from Berkeley Robotics and Human Engineering Laboratory , in November 2021. At

10494-714: The summer of 2018, Ottobock relocated to the renovated former Bötzow Brewery buildings, leading to the closure of the Science Center Berlin to the public. Ottobock established a digital think tank known as the Ottobock Future Lab at the Bötzow Brewery, once Berlin's largest private brewery. After acquiring the site in 2010, Ottobock initiated a revitalization project based on a master plan designed by architect David Chipperfield . This redevelopment blended modern working environments with

10600-807: The transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called " action potentials ", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the Hodgkin–Huxley model . In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh–Nagumo model . In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses . Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in Aplysia . In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in

10706-408: The use of technologies for individuals with conditions including stroke, spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis and cerebral palsy. It also conducts outcomes-based research using advanced wearable sensors in addition to traditional performance-based and patient-reported measures Shirley Ryan AbilityLab also serves as a clinical partner of Northwestern University's McCormick School of Engineering , and

10812-626: Was also the seat of intelligence. Plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul. Aristotle , however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart. This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician Galen , a follower of Hippocrates and physician to Roman gladiators , observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains. Abulcasis , Averroes , Avicenna , Avenzoar , and Maimonides , active in

10918-631: Was appointed as the CEO of Ottobock in 2019 amid the plan to take Ottobock public. Kathrin Dahnke was hired by Ottobock in July 2021 after she left her position as CFO at German electric lights manufacturer Osram . Kathrin Dahnke told reporters just days before her departure that Ottobock still intends to go public. By February 2022, the company had expanded its operations to a total of almost 52 sites distributed across North and South America , Europe , Asia , Africa and Australia . Ottobock SE & Co. KGaA

11024-597: Was developed as part of the Human Brain Project 's neuromorphic computing platform and is the complement to the SpiNNaker supercomputer, which is based on digital technology. The architecture used in BrainScaleS mimics biological neurons and their connections on a physical level; additionally, since the components are made of silicon, these model neurons operate on average 864 times (24 hours of real time

11130-666: Was founded in 1961, the International Society for Neurochemistry in 1963, the European Brain and Behaviour Society in 1968, and the Society for Neuroscience in 1969. Recently, the application of neuroscience research results has also given rise to applied disciplines as neuroeconomics , neuroeducation , neuroethics , and neurolaw . Over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on neural implants and brain simulation predicted to be important in

11236-460: Was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by James L. McGaugh . This was followed by the Department of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School , which was founded in 1966 by Stephen Kuffler. In the process of treating epilepsy , Wilder Penfield produced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain. He summarized his findings in

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