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61-589: SDK's products serve a wide array of fields ranging from heavy industry to the electronic and computer industries. The company is divided in five business sectors: petrochemicals ( olefins , organic chemicals , plastic products ), aluminum (aluminum cans, sheets, ingots, foils), electronics ( semiconductors , ceramic materials, hard disk drive platters), chemicals ( industrial gases , ammonia , agrochemicals ), and inorganic materials (ceramics, graphite electrodes ). Showa Denko has more than 180 subsidiaries and affiliates. The company has vast overseas operations and

122-509: A refractory material owing to its high melting point. Corundum is the most common naturally occurring crystalline form of aluminium oxide. Rubies and sapphires are gem-quality forms of corundum, which owe their characteristic colours to trace impurities. Rubies are given their characteristic deep red colour and their laser qualities by traces of chromium . Sapphires come in different colours given by various other impurities, such as iron and titanium. An extremely rare δ form occurs as

183-456: A coating on aluminium by anodizing or by plasma electrolytic oxidation (see the "Properties" above). Both the hardness and abrasion-resistant characteristics of the coating originate from the high strength of aluminium oxide, yet the porous coating layer produced with conventional direct current anodizing procedures is within a 60–70 Rockwell hardness C range which is comparable only to hardened carbon steel alloys, but considerably inferior to

244-711: A consolidation their hard disk (HD) media operations by establishing a joint venture with Hoya corporation in January 2009. The joint venture was to be owned about 75% by SDK and about 25% by HOYA . However, this joint venture ended in March 2009 due to the rapid deterioration of the global economy in the Hard Disk Sector. The Inorganics Sector consists of the Ceramics Division, Carbons Division and Fine Carbon Department. SDK's Ceramics products are used in

305-456: A joint venture with Netherlands -based Montell and Nippon Petrochemicals to make and market polypropylenes . In March 2001, SDK merged with Showa Denko Aluminum Corporation to strengthen the high- value-added fabricated aluminum products operations, and is today developing next-generation optical communications-use wafers . Showa Denko is a member of the Mizuho keiretsu . Showa Denko

366-457: A manual dermal abrasive used according to manufacturer directions. Aluminium oxide flakes are used in paint for reflective decorative effects, such as in the automotive or cosmetic industries. Aluminium oxide is a representative of bioinert ceramics. Due to its excellent biocompatibility, high strength, and wear resistance, alumina ceramics are used in medical applications to manufacture artificial bones and joints. In this case, aluminium oxide

427-405: A material in hip replacements and birth control pills . It is used as a scintillator and dosimeter for radiation protection and therapy applications for its optically stimulated luminescence properties. Insulation for high-temperature furnaces is often manufactured from aluminium oxide. Sometimes the insulation has varying percentages of silica depending on the temperature rating of

488-562: A proportion of aluminium in the alloy to enhance corrosion resistance. The aluminium oxide generated by anodising is typically amorphous , but discharge-assisted oxidation processes such as plasma electrolytic oxidation result in a significant proportion of crystalline aluminium oxide in the coating, enhancing its hardness . Aluminium oxide was taken off the United States Environmental Protection Agency 's chemicals lists in 1988. Aluminium oxide

549-412: A relatively high thermal conductivity ( 30 Wm K ) for a ceramic material. Aluminium oxide is insoluble in water. In its most commonly occurring crystalline form, called corundum or α-aluminium oxide, its hardness makes it suitable for use as an abrasive and as a component in cutting tools . Aluminium oxide is responsible for the resistance of metallic aluminium to weathering . Metallic aluminium

610-467: A research field of interest. Some body armors utilize alumina ceramic plates, usually in combination with aramid or UHMWPE backing to achieve effectiveness against most rifle threats. Alumina ceramic armor is readily available to most civilians in jurisdictions where it is legal, but is not considered military grade. It is also used to produce bullet-proof alumina glass capable to withstand impact of .50 BMG calibre rounds. Aluminium oxide can be grown as

671-488: A result of heavy industry when those heavy metals sink into the ground contaminating the crops that reside among it. Heavy metal concentrations resulting from water and/or soil pollution can become deadly once they pass certain thresholds, which lead to plant poisoning. Heavy metals can further affect many levels of the ecosystem through bioaccumulation , because humans and many other animals rely on these plant species as sources of food. Plants can pick up these metals from

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732-479: A tailored product. The type of phases present affects, for example, the solubility and pore structure of the aluminium oxide product which, in turn, affects the cost of aluminium production and pollution control. The Sintering Process is a high-temperature method primarily used when the Bayer Process is not suitable, especially for ores with high silica content or when a more controlled product morphology

793-540: A wide range of fields, including chemical products, refractory products, ceramics, paper manufacture, plastics and electronics. Key products include alumina hydroxide , alumina , and high-purity alumina. SDK also produces fused alumina abrasive grains, silicon carbide and boron nitride . SDK produces artificial graphite electrodes, an indispensable material for the recycling of steel. Other products include fine carburizing agents for iron casting . In addition to VGCF carbon nanofibers and fuel battery materials already on

854-466: Is a favored filler for plastics. Aluminium oxide is a common ingredient in sunscreen and is often also present in cosmetics such as blush, lipstick, and nail polish. Many formulations of glass have aluminium oxide as an ingredient. Aluminosilicate glass is a commonly used type of glass that often contains 5% to 10% alumina. Aluminium oxide catalyses a variety of reactions that are useful industrially. In its largest scale application, aluminium oxide

915-734: Is an industry that involves one or more characteristics such as large and heavy products; large and heavy equipment and facilities (such as heavy equipment , large machine tools , huge buildings and large-scale infrastructure ); or complex or numerous processes . Because of those factors, heavy industry involves higher capital intensity than light industry does, and is also often more heavily cyclical in investment and employment . Though important to economic development and industrialization of economies , heavy industry can also have significant negative side effects: both local communities and workers frequently encounter health risks, heavy industries tend to produce byproducts that both pollute

976-399: Is commonly called alumina and may also be called aloxide , aloxite , or alundum in various forms and applications. It occurs naturally in its crystalline polymorphic phase α-Al 2 O 3 as the mineral corundum , varieties of which form the precious gemstones ruby and sapphire . Al 2 O 3 is used to produce aluminium metal, as an abrasive owing to its hardness , and as

1037-566: Is derived, are used in the manufacture of zeolites , coating titania pigments, and as a fire retardant/smoke suppressant. Over 90% of aluminium oxide, termed smelter grade alumina (SGA), is consumed for the production of aluminium, usually by the Hall–Héroult process . The remainder, termed specialty alumina , is used in a wide variety of applications which take advantage of its inertness, temperature resistance and electrical resistance. Being fairly chemically inert and white, aluminium oxide

1098-455: Is inherently related to the main production process via reduction of iron with coal. In order to reduce these carbon dioxide emissions, carbon capture and utilization and carbon capture and storage technology is looked at. Heavy industry has the advantage of being a point source which is less energy-intensive to apply the latter technologies and results in a cheaper carbon capture compared to direct air capture . Industrial activities such as

1159-497: Is now known as Resonac. Hard Disc Media Petrochemicals Chemicals Inorganics Aluminum Electronics, other The Petrochemicals Sector supports the growth of Showa Denko's basic business through the manufacture and sales of organic chemicals, olefins and specialty polymers. SDK is the leader of the Asian ethyl acetate market. The Oita Plant, the main manufacturing base, supplies SDK and other chemical companies with

1220-458: Is on the EPA's Toxics Release Inventory list if it is a fibrous form. Aluminium oxide is an amphoteric substance, meaning it can react with both acids and bases , such as hydrofluoric acid and sodium hydroxide , acting as an acid with a base and a base with an acid, neutralising the other and producing a salt. The most common form of crystalline aluminium oxide is known as corundum , which

1281-456: Is required. Firstly, Bauxite is mixed with additives like limestone and soda ash, then heating the mixture at high temperatures (1200 °C to 1500 °C) to form sodium aluminate and calcium silicate . After sintering, the material is leached with water to dissolve the sodium aluminate , leaving behind impurities. Sodium aluminate is then precipitated from the solution and calcined at around 1000 °C to produce alumina. This method

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1342-487: Is the catalyst in the Claus process for converting hydrogen sulfide waste gases into elemental sulfur in refineries. It is also useful for dehydration of alcohols to alkenes . Aluminium oxide serves as a catalyst support for many industrial catalysts, such as those used in hydrodesulfurization and some Ziegler–Natta polymerizations. Aluminium oxide is widely used to remove water from gas streams. Aluminium oxide

1403-407: Is the production of large systems, such as the construction of skyscrapers and large dams during the post– World War II era, and the manufacture/deployment of large rockets and giant wind turbines through the 21st century. Many East Asian countries relied on heavy industry as key parts of their development strategies, and many still do for economic growth. This reliance on heavy industry

1464-574: Is the thermodynamically stable form. The oxygen ions form a nearly hexagonal close-packed structure with the aluminium ions filling two-thirds of the octahedral interstices. Each Al center is octahedral . In terms of its crystallography , corundum adopts a trigonal Bravais lattice with a space group of R 3 c (number 167 in the International Tables). The primitive cell contains two formula units of aluminium oxide. Aluminium oxide also exists in other metastable phases, including

1525-463: Is typically a matter of government economic policy. Among Japanese and Korean firms with "heavy industry" in their names, many are also manufacturers of aerospace products and defense contractors to their respective countries' governments such as Japan's Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Fuji Heavy Industries , and Korea's Hyundai Rotem , a joint project of Hyundai Heavy Industries and Daewoo Heavy Industries . In 20th-century communist states ,

1586-538: Is used as an insulating barrier in capacitors . In lighting, translucent aluminium oxide is used in some sodium vapor lamps . Aluminium oxide is also used in preparation of coating suspensions in compact fluorescent lamps . In chemistry laboratories, aluminium oxide is a medium for chromatography , available in basic (pH 9.5), acidic (pH 4.5 when in water) and neutral formulations. Additionally, small pieces of aluminium oxide are often used as boiling chips . Health and medical applications include it as

1647-499: Is used for its hardness and strength. Its naturally occurring form, corundum , is a 9 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness (just below diamond). It is widely used as an abrasive , including as a much less expensive substitute for industrial diamond . Many types of sandpaper use aluminium oxide crystals. In addition, its low heat retention and low specific heat make it widely used in grinding operations, particularly cutoff tools. As

1708-409: Is used to coat the surfaces of medical implants to give biocompatibility and corrosion resistance. It is also used for manufacturing dental implants, joint replacements, and other medical devices. Aluminium oxide has been used in a few experimental and commercial fiber materials for high-performance applications (e.g., Fiber FP, Nextel 610, Nextel 720). Alumina nanofibers in particular have become

1769-420: Is used to manufacture tiles which are attached inside pulverized fuel lines and flue gas ducting on coal fired power stations to protect high wear areas. They are not suitable for areas with high impact forces as these tiles are brittle and susceptible to breakage. Aluminium oxide is an electrical insulator used as a substrate ( silicon on sapphire ) for integrated circuits , but also as a tunnel barrier for

1830-600: Is useful for the production of complex shapes and can be used to create porous or dense materials. Known as alpha alumina in materials science , and as alundum (in fused form) or aloxite in mining and ceramic communities, aluminium oxide finds wide use. Annual global production of aluminium oxide in 2015 was approximately 115 million tonnes , over 90% of which was used in the manufacture of aluminium metal. The major uses of speciality aluminium oxides are in refractories, ceramics, polishing and abrasive applications. Large tonnages of aluminium hydroxide, from which alumina

1891-436: Is very reactive with atmospheric oxygen, and a thin passivation layer of aluminium oxide (4 nm thickness) forms on any exposed aluminium surface in a matter of hundreds of picoseconds. This layer protects the metal from further oxidation. The thickness and properties of this oxide layer can be enhanced using a process called anodising . A number of alloys , such as aluminium bronzes , exploit this property by including

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1952-693: The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the Japanese National Institute of Hygienic Sciences to determine if any contaminants were associated with EMS. Showa Denko reportedly destroyed the GM bacterial stocks after the EMS cases began to emerge. In 2017, the last of the 6 contaminant associated with the 1989 EMS disease outbreak, labelled Peak AAA , has been identified using high-resolution mass spectroscopy. Heavy industry Heavy industry

2013-553: The air and water , and the industrial supply chain is often involved in other environmental justice issues from mining and transportation . Because of their intensity, heavy industries are also significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate change , and certain parts of the industries, especially high-heat processes used in metal working and cement production, are hard to decarbonize . Industrial activities such as mining also results in pollution consisting of heavy metals. Heavy metals are very damaging to

2074-430: The largest famine in human history , killing up to 50 million people, whilst simultaneously severely depleting the production of agricultural products and not increasing the output of usable-quality industrial goods. Heavy industry is also sometimes a special designation in local zoning laws, allowing placement of industries with heavy impacts (on environment, infrastructure, and employment) with planning. For example,

2135-440: The planning of the economy often focused on heavy industry as an area for large investments (at the expense of investing in the greater production of in-demand consumer goods ), even to the extent of painful opportunity costs on the production–possibility frontier (classically, "lots of guns and not enough butter"). This was motivated by fears of failing to maintain military parity with foreign capitalist powers . For example,

2196-462: The 1989 EMS outbreak is that large doses of tryptophan produce metabolites which inhibit the normal degradation of histamine and excess histamine in turn has been proposed to cause EMS. Once the link between EMS and Showa Denko's tryptophan had been established, chemical analyses of the tryptophan was performed by researchers at the Mayo Clinic , the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA),

2257-465: The Al are surrounded by 4 oxygen neighbors), and 1/3 5-coordinated, with very little (<5%) octahedral Al-O present. Around 80% of the oxygen atoms are shared among three or more Al-O polyhedra, and the majority of inter-polyhedral connections are corner-sharing, with the remaining 10–20% being edge-sharing. The breakdown of octahedra upon melting is accompanied by a relatively large volume increase (~33%),

2318-573: The Soviet Union's industrialization in the 1930s , with heavy industry as the favored emphasis, sought to bring its ability to produce trucks, tanks, artillery, aircraft, and warships up to a level that would make the country a great power . China under Mao Zedong pursued a similar strategy, eventually culminating in the Great Leap Forward of 1958–1960; an unsuccessful attempt to rapidly industrialize and collectivize , that led to

2379-460: The basic materials for making acetyl derivatives, synthetic resin, synthetic rubber , and styrene monomers. Innovative products include a new heat-resistant, transparent sheet and film that can be used in flexible displays such as electronic paper and organic EL displays. Originally focused on general-purpose industrial gases, medical gases, and industrial chemicals, SDK now provides a variety of products including high-purity gases and chemicals for

2440-503: The basic mixture, Fe 2 O 3 is removed. When the Bayer liquor is cooled, Al(OH) 3 precipitates, leaving the silicates in solution. The solid Al(OH) 3 Gibbsite is then calcined (heated to over 1100 °C) to give aluminium oxide: The product aluminium oxide tends to be multi-phase, i.e., consisting of several phases of aluminium oxide rather than solely corundum . The production process can therefore be optimized to produce

2501-429: The chemical exchange between trimethylaluminium (Al(CH 3 ) 3 ) and H 2 O: H 2 O in the above reaction can be replaced by ozone (O 3 ) as the active oxidant and the following reaction then takes place: The Al 2 O 3 films prepared using O 3 show 10–100 times lower leakage current density compared with those prepared by H 2 O. Aluminium oxide, being a dielectric with relatively large band gap ,

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2562-488: The crystal growth process, providing a wide range of products including Ultrabright LED Chips as well as blue LED Chips. The solid aluminum capacitor business relies on conductive polymers, a combination of inorganic aluminum materials with organic polymers. The products offer with high heat resistance and high capacitance. The electronics sector also produces aluminum-based and glass-based hard disks as well as aluminum substrates for hard disks. In September 2008 SDK announced

2623-427: The cubic γ and η phases, the monoclinic θ phase, the hexagonal χ phase, the orthorhombic κ phase and the δ phase that can be tetragonal or orthorhombic. Each has a unique crystal structure and properties. Cubic γ-Al 2 O 3 has important technical applications. The so-called β-Al 2 O 3 proved to be NaAl 11 O 17 . Molten aluminium oxide near the melting temperature is roughly 2/3 tetrahedral (i.e. 2/3 of

2684-405: The density of the liquid close to its melting point is 2.93 g/cm . The structure of molten alumina is temperature dependent and the fraction of 5- and 6-fold aluminium increases during cooling (and supercooling), at the expense of tetrahedral AlO 4 units, approaching the local structural arrangements found in amorphous alumina. Aluminium hydroxide minerals are the main component of bauxite ,

2745-444: The environment because they cannot be chemically degraded. Transportation and construction along with their upstream manufacturing supply businesses have been the bulk of heavy industry throughout the industrial age, along with some capital-intensive manufacturing. Traditional examples from the mid-19th century through the early 20th included steelmaking , artillery production, locomotive manufacturing, machine tool building , and

2806-403: The fabrication of superconducting devices such as single-electron transistors , superconducting quantum interference devices ( SQUIDs ) and superconducting qubits . For its application as an electrical insulator in integrated circuits, where the conformal growth of a thin film is a prerequisite and the preferred growth mode is atomic layer deposition , Al 2 O 3 films can be prepared by

2867-438: The hardness of natural and synthetic corundum. Instead, with plasma electrolytic oxidation , the coating is porous only on the surface oxide layer while the lower oxide layers are much more compact than with standard DC anodizing procedures and present a higher crystallinity due to the oxide layers being remelted and densified to obtain α-Al2O3 clusters with much higher coating hardness values circa 2000 Vickers hardness. Alumina

2928-476: The heavier types of mining . From the late 19th century through the mid-20th, as the chemical industry and electrical industry developed, they involved components of both heavy industry and light industry, which was soon also true for the automotive industry and the aircraft industry . Modern shipbuilding (since steel replaced wood) and large components such as ship turbochargers are also characteristic of heavy industry. A typical heavy industry activity

2989-495: The human body, with the latter two being carcinogens . As a result of pollution, the toxic chemicals released into the atmosphere also contributes to global warming due to the increase of radiation absorbed. Alumina Aluminium oxide (or aluminium(III) oxide ) is a chemical compound of aluminium and oxygen with the chemical formula Al 2 O 3 . It is the most commonly occurring of several aluminium oxides , and specifically identified as aluminium oxide . It

3050-636: The improper disposal of radioactive material , burning coal and fossil fuels , and releasing liquid waste into the environment contribute to the pollution of water, soil, air, and wildlife. In regards to water pollution, when waste is disposed of in the environment, it affects the quality of the available water supply which has a negative impact on the ecosystem along with water supply used by farms for irrigation which in turn affects crops. Heavy metals have also been shown to pollute soil , deteriorating arable land quality and adversely impacting food safety (such as vegetables or grain ). This occurs as

3111-594: The market, SDK is focusing R&D efforts on high-functionality carbon products, including battery materials, electronics materials, and materials for alternative energy solutions. SDK produces heat exchangers, beverage cans, and other high value-added fabricated products from aluminum materials (including rolled, extruded and forged products). The company is known for causing the second outbreak of Minamata disease (a type of severe mercury poisoning ) in Kanose , currently part of Aga-machi , Niigata Prefecture , through

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3172-499: The material. The insulation can be made in blanket, board, brick and loose fiber forms for various application requirements. It is also used to make spark plug insulators . Using a plasma spray process and mixed with titania , it is coated onto the braking surface of some bicycle rims to provide abrasion and wear resistance. Most ceramic eyes on fishing rods are circular rings made from aluminium oxide. In its finest powdered (white) form, called Diamantine, aluminium oxide

3233-400: The mineral deltalumite. The field of aluminium oxide ceramics has a long history. Aluminium salts were widely used in ancient and medieval alchemy . Several older textbooks cover the history of the field. A 2019 textbook by Andrew Ruys contains a detailed timeline on the history of aluminium oxide from ancient times to the 21st century. Al 2 O 3 is an electrical insulator but has

3294-408: The powdery abrasive mineral aloxite , it is a major component, along with silica , of the cue tip "chalk" used in billiards . Aluminium oxide powder is used in some CD / DVD polishing and scratch-repair kits. Its polishing qualities are also behind its use in toothpaste. It is also used in microdermabrasion , both in the machine process available through dermatologists and estheticians, and as

3355-493: The principal ore of aluminium . A mixture of the minerals comprise bauxite ore, including gibbsite (Al(OH) 3 ), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)), and diaspore (α-AlO(OH)), along with impurities of iron oxides and hydroxides, quartz and clay minerals . Bauxites are found in laterites . Bauxite is typically purified using the Bayer process : Except for SiO 2 , the other components of bauxite do not dissolve in base. Upon filtering

3416-564: The release of organomercury compounds into the Agano River . In the 1980s Showa Denko applied genetic engineering to the bacteria it used in the fermentation through which it manufactured tryptophan so that the bacteria would be more efficient. At the same time, they also changed the technique used to purify the tryptophan. Multiple epidemiological studies traced an outbreak of eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome (EMS) to L-tryptophan supplied by Showa Denko, which resulted in 37 deaths. It

3477-763: The semiconductor industry. As the semiconductor industry shifted to other Asian locations, SDK established overseas specialty gases production sites in Shanghai and Singapore. The company also offers an array of technologies and products covering various fields, including food additives, feed additives, cosmetic ingredients, medical and agricultural intermediates, optical-function materials, information-recording materials, functional polymeric materials, differentiated composite material, and liquid chromatography equipment ( Shodex ). SDK recently launched an environmental initiative to reduce waste and encourage chemical recycling. In 2016 Showa Denko acquired GMM Nonstick Coatings, one of

3538-513: The soil and begin the metal transfer to higher levels of the food chain, and eventually reaching humans. Regarding air pollution: long-term or short-term exposure of children to industry-based air pollution can cause several adverse effects, such as cardiovascular diseases , respiratory diseases and even death . Children are also more susceptible to air pollution detriments than adults. Heavy metals such as lead , chromium , cadmium , and arsenic form dust fall particles and are harmful to

3599-508: The world's largest nonstick coatings companies founded in 2007 by Ravin Gandhi . Clients included companies in the American housewares industry including KitchenAid and Calphalon , in addition to foreign markets. The Electronics Sector includes compound semiconductors, rare-earth magnetic alloys, solid aluminum capacitors, and hard disks. The compound semiconductors business deals with

3660-422: The zoning restrictions for landfills usually take into account the heavy truck traffic that will exert expensive wear on the roads leading to the landfill. As of 2019 , heavy industry emits about 22% of global greenhouse gas emissions : high temperature heat for heavy industry being about 10% of global emissions. The steel industry alone was responsible for 7 to 9% of the global carbon dioxide emissions which

3721-524: Was further hypothesized that one or more trace impurities produced during the manufacture of tryptophan may have been responsible for the EMS outbreak. The fact that the Showa Denko facility used genetically engineered bacteria to produce L-tryptophan gave rise to speculation that genetic engineering was responsible for such impurities. However, the methodology used in the initial epidemiological studies has been criticized. An alternative explanation for

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