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69-482: Shotokai ( 松濤會 , Shōtōkai ) is the organisation formed originally in 1930 by master Gichin Funakoshi to teach and spread the art of karate -Do. Nowadays, the name also designates a formal practice method. Shotokai is not an official style of karate . Shotokai is the name of the association launched by Gichin Funakoshi originally in 1930. The original name was Dai Nihon Karate-do Kenkyukai . The association

138-404: A Ryūkyūan Pechin . Funakoshi was born prematurely . His father's name was Gisu. He was of samurai lineage, from a family which in former times had been vassals of Ryukyu Dynasty nobles. After entering primary school he became close friends with the son of Ankō Asato , a karate and Jigen-ryū master who would soon become his first karate teacher. Funakoshi's family was stiffly opposed to

207-444: A century of warfare. The political structure, established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and solidified under his two immediate successors, his son Tokugawa Hidetada (who ruled from 1616 to 1623) and grandson Tokugawa Iemitsu (1623–51), bound all daimyōs to the shogunate and limited any individual daimyō from acquiring too much land or power. The Tokugawa shogunate came to its official end on 9   November 1867, when Tokugawa Yoshinobu ,

276-599: A document containing his philosophies of karate training now referred to as the niju kun , or "twenty principles". These rules are the premise of training for all Shotokan practitioners and are published in a work titled The Twenty Guiding Principles of Karate . Within this book, Funakoshi lays out 20 rules by which students of karate are urged to abide in an effort to "become better human beings". Funakoshi's Karate-Do Kyohan "The Master Text" remains his most detailed publication, containing sections on history, basics, kata , and kumite . The famous Shotokan Tiger by Hoan adorns

345-473: A formal declaration of the restoration of his power: The Emperor of Japan announces to the sovereigns of all foreign countries and to their subjects that permission has been granted to the Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu to return the governing power in accordance with his own request. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country. Consequently,

414-464: A loss of their cultural heritage. In the case of Hikone Castle , even though the government ordered its dismantling, it was saved by orders from the emperor himself. Nagoya Castle and Nijo Castle , due to their historical and cultural importance and sheer size and strategic locations, both became official imperial detached palaces, before they were turned over to the local authorities in the 1930s. Others such as Himeji Castle survived by luck. During

483-617: A national system of public schools. These free schools taught students reading, writing, and mathematics. Students also attended courses in "moral training" which reinforced their duty to the Emperor and to the Japanese state. By the end of the Meiji period, attendance in public schools was widespread, increasing the availability of skilled workers and contributing to the industrial growth of Japan . The opening up of Japan not only consisted of

552-478: A new way of practising. Shotokai refrains from competition because its founding master Gichin Funakoshi, who was also a Confucianist philosopher and a teacher, used to say that there are no contests in Karate. Master Egami wrote: "First of all, we must practise Karate like a combat technique and then, with time and experience, we will be able to understand a certain state of soul and will be able to open ourselves to

621-511: A philosophical evaluation of the use of "empty" seemed to fit as it implied a way which was not tethered to any other physical object. Funakoshi's re-interpretation of the character kara in karate to mean "empty" ( 空 ) rather than "Chinese" ( 唐 ) caused some tension with traditionalists back in Okinawa, prompting Funakoshi to remain in Tokyo indefinitely. In 1949 Funakoshi's students created

690-701: A political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji . Although there were ruling emperors before the Meiji Restoration, the events restored practical abilities and consolidated the political system under the Emperor of Japan . The goals of the restored government were expressed by the new emperor in the Charter Oath . The Restoration led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure and spanned both

759-464: A professional teacher of karate-do. He devoted his entire life to the development of karate-do. He lived out his eighty-eight years of life and left this world on April 26, 1957. Reinterpreting to-te jutsu, the Sensei promulgated karate-do while not losing its original philosophy. Like bugei (classical martial arts), so too is the pinnacle of karate “mu” (enlightenment): to purify and make one empty through

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828-640: A sign above the entrance of the hall at which Funakoshi taught. In addition to being a karate master, Funakoshi was an avid poet and philosopher who would reportedly go for long walks in the forest where he would meditate and write his poetry. By the late 1910s, Funakoshi had many students, of which a few were deemed capable of passing on their master's teachings. Continuing his effort to garner widespread interest in Okinawan karate, Funakoshi ventured to mainland Japan in 1917, and again in 1922. In 1922 Funakoshi (aged 53) and Makoto Gima (aged 26) were invited to

897-400: A strong centralized state defining its national identity, the government established a dominant national dialect, called "standard language" ( 標準語 , hyōjungo ) , that replaced local and regional dialects and was based on the patterns of Tokyo's samurai classes. This dialect eventually became the norm in the realms of education, media, government, and business. The Meiji Restoration, and

966-599: A sword or weapon to show their status. This led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the major riots was the one led by Saigō Takamori, the Satsuma Rebellion , which eventually turned into a civil war. This rebellion was, however, put down swiftly by the newly formed Imperial Japanese Army , trained in Western tactics and weapons, even though the core of the new army was the Tokyo police force, which

1035-574: Is a copy of the poem he wrote on his way to Japan in 1922. A second stone features an inscription by Nobuhide Ohama and reads: Funakoshi Gichin Sensei, of karate-do, was born on November 10, 1868 in Shuri Okinawa. From about eleven years old he began to study to-te jutsu under Azato Anko and Itosu Anko . He practiced diligently and in 1912 became the president of the Okinawan Shobukai. In May 1922, he relocated to Tokyo and became

1104-426: Is equally true that the majority of samurai were content despite having their status abolished. Many found employment in the government bureaucracy, which resembled an elite class in its own right. The samurai, being better educated than most of the population, became teachers, gun makers, government officials, and/or military officers. While the formal title of samurai was abolished, the elitist spirit that characterized

1173-592: Is known in Japan as Dai Nihon Karate-do Shotokai since 1936. Shotokan is the name of its Honbu Dojo (main practicing hall). Gichin Funakoshi's karate style is also known as Shotokan ryu . After Master Funakoshi died 26 April 1957 in Tokyo, according to the wishes of Master Funakoshi's oldest son, Giei, the Shotokai (seniors were Genshin Hironishi and Shigeru Egami) was to conduct the funeral. The JKA / Kyokai led by Masatoshi Nakayama protested that they should be

1242-483: Is known today as Shotokai , and is the official keeper of Funakoshi's karate heritage. In 1936, Funakoshi built the first Shōtōkan dojo (training hall) in Tokyo. While on the Japanese mainland, he changed the written characters of karate to mean "empty hand" (空手) instead of "China hand" (唐手) (literally Tang dynasty ) to downplay its connection to Chinese boxing . Karate had borrowed many aspects from Chinese boxing. Funakoshi also argued in his autobiography that

1311-415: Is tightly controlled in terms of who is attacking and defending, and the attacks that can be performed in order to reduce the chance of injury. The essence of Shoto-Kai karate is found in the tactic of "sen no sen" - "irimi". This is the ability to predict an opponent's intent and entering into his attack, anticipating it; thus catching the opponent very early. A seasoned practitioner should be able to predict

1380-624: The Battle of Hakodate in Hokkaidō. The defeat of the armies of the former shōgun (led by Enomoto Takeaki and Hijikata Toshizō ) marked the final end of the Tokugawa shogunate, with the Emperor's power fully restored. Finally, by 1872, the daimyōs , past and present, were summoned before the Emperor, where it was declared that all domains were now to be returned to the Emperor . The roughly 280 domains were turned into 72 prefectures, each under

1449-478: The Blood tax riots , the Meiji government put down revolts by Japanese samurai angry that the traditional untouchable status of burakumin was legally revoked. Under the Meiji Restoration, the practices of the samurai classes, deemed feudal and unsuitable for modern times following the end of sakoku in 1853, resulted in a number of edicts intended to 'modernise' the appearance of upper class Japanese men. With

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1518-533: The Japan Karate Association (JKA), with Funakoshi as the honorary head of the organization. However, in practise this organization was led by Masatoshi Nakayama . The JKA began formalizing Funakoshi's teachings. Funakoshi developed osteoarthritis in 1948, and died on April 26, 1957. Cause of death is colon cancer. Funakoshi published several books on karate including his autobiography, Karate-Do: My Way of Life . His legacy, however, rests in

1587-488: The Kodokan by Judo Master Jigoro Kano to perform a karate demonstration. It was this demonstration that inevitably made karate popular in the mainland. In 1930, Funakoshi established an association named Dai-Nihon Karate-do Kenkyukai to promote communication and information exchange among people who study karate-dō. In 1936, Dai-Nippon Karate-do Kenkyukai changed its name to Dai-Nippon Karate-do Shoto-kai. The association

1656-434: The 15th Tokugawa shōgun , "put his prerogatives at the Emperor's disposal" and resigned 10 days later. This was effectively the "restoration" ( Taisei Hōkan ) of imperial rule – although Yoshinobu still had significant influence and it was not until January   3, the following year, with the young Emperor's edict, that the restoration fully occurred. On 3 January 1868, the Emperor stripped Yoshinobu of all power and made

1725-499: The 1860s, principally by Westerners in the international settlements of Yokohama and Kobe, and some local lords, but these had relatively small impacts. It was only in the 1870s that imported technologies began to play a significant role, and only in the 1880s did they produce more than a small output volume. In Meiji Japan, raw silk was the most important export commodity, and raw silks exports experienced enormous growth during this period, overtaking China. Revenue from silk exports funded

1794-492: The Asato family residence to receive karate instruction from Ankō Asato. Funakoshi had trained in both of the popular styles of Okinawan karate of the time: Shōrei-ryū and Shōrin-ryū . Shotokan is named after Funakoshi's pen name, Shōtō ( 松 涛 ), which means "waving pines". Kan means training hall or house, thus Shōtōkan (松涛館) referred to the "house of Shōtō". This name was coined by Funakoshi's students when they posted

1863-616: The Dampatsurei Edict of 1871 issued by Emperor Meiji during the early Meiji Era , men of the samurai classes were forced to cut their hair short, effectively abandoning the chonmage ( chonmage ) hairstyle. During the Meiji Restoration, the practice of cremation and Buddhism were condemned and the Japanese government tried to ban cremation but were unsuccessful, then tried to limit it in urban areas. The Japanese government reversed its ban on cremation and pro-cremation Japanese adopted western European arguments on how cremation

1932-502: The Emperor to power. After Kōmei's death on 30 January 1867, Meiji ascended the throne on February   3. This period also saw Japan change from being a feudal society to having a centralized nation and left the Japanese with a lingering influence of modernity . In the same year, the koban was discontinued as a form of currency. The Tokugawa government had been founded in the 17th century and initially focused on reestablishing order in social, political and international affairs after

2001-675: The French Minister-Resident Léon Roches were the first European envoys ever to receive a personal audience with Meiji in Edo (Tokyo). This audience laid the foundation for (modern) Dutch diplomacy in Japan. Subsequently, De Graeff van Polsbroek assisted the emperor and the government in their negotiations with representatives of the major European powers. In 1869, the daimyōs of the Tosa , Hizen , Satsuma and Chōshū Domains , who were pushing most fiercely against

2070-491: The Japanese purchase of industrial equipment and raw materials. Although the highest quality silk remained produced in China, and Japan's adoption of modern machines in the silk industry was slow, Japan was able to capture the global silk market due to standardized production of silk. Standardization, especially in silkworm egg cultivation, yielded more consistency in quality, particularly important for mechanized silk weaving. Since

2139-550: The Meiji Restoration was the 1866 Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance between Saigō Takamori and Kido Takayoshi , leaders of the reformist elements in the Satsuma and Chōshū Domains at the southwestern end of the Japanese archipelago. These two leaders supported the Emperor Kōmei (Emperor Meiji's father) and were brought together by Sakamoto Ryōma for the purpose of challenging the ruling Tokugawa shogunate ( bakufu ) and restoring

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2208-491: The Meiji government considerable leeway to invest in new initiatives. During the Meiji period, powers such as Europe and the United States helped transform Japan and made them realize a change needed to take place. Some leaders went out to foreign lands and used the knowledge and government writings to help shape and form a more influential government within their walls that allowed for things such as production. Despite

2277-450: The Meiji government's abolition of the Japanese topknot , and this meant that he would be ineligible to pursue his goal of attending medical school (where topknots were banned), despite having passed the entrance examination. Being trained in both classical Chinese and Japanese philosophies and teachings, Funakoshi became an assistant teacher in Okinawa. During this time, his relations with the Asato family grew and he began nightly travels to

2346-590: The Meiji restoration's Shinbutsu bunri , tens of thousands of Japanese Buddhist religious idols and temples were smashed and destroyed. Japan then closed and shut down tens of thousands of traditional old Shinto shrines in the Shrine Consolidation Policy and the Meiji government built the new modern 15 shrines of the Kenmu restoration as a political move to link the Meiji restoration to the Kenmu restoration for their new State Shinto cult. In

2415-595: The Shotokai and erected this monument at the Enkakuji. “Kenzen ichi” (“The fist and Zen are one”). Meiji Restoration The Meiji Restoration ( Japanese : 明治維新 , romanized :  Meiji Ishin ), referred to at the time as the Honorable Restoration ( 御維新 , Goishin ) , and also known as the Meiji Renovation , Revolution , Regeneration , Reform , or Renewal , was

2484-540: The clearly defined class system which the bakufu had envisaged, partly leading to their eventual downfall. The military of Japan, strengthened by nationwide conscription and emboldened by military success in both the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War , began to view themselves as a growing world power. Besides drastic changes to the social structure of Japan, in an attempt to create

2553-399: The control of a state-appointed governor. If the daimyōs peacefully complied, they were given a prominent voice in the new Meiji government. Later, their debts and payments of samurai stipends were either taxed heavily or turned into bonds which resulted in a large loss of wealth among former samurai. Emperor Meiji announced in his 1868 Charter Oath that "Knowledge shall be sought all over

2622-502: The ex- shōgun ' s army. All Tokugawa lands were seized and placed under "imperial control", thus placing them under the prerogative of the new Meiji government . With Fuhanken sanchisei , the areas were split into three types: urban prefectures ( 府 , fu ) , rural prefectures ( 県 , ken ) and the already existing domains. On March 23 the Dutch Minister-Resident Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek and

2691-481: The hardback cover. A memorial to Gichin Funakoshi was erected by the Shotokai at Engaku-ji , a temple in Kamakura , on December 1, 1968. Designed by Kenji Ogata the monument features calligraphy by Funakoshi and Sōgen Asahina (1891–1979), chief priest of the temple which reads Karate ni sente nashi (There is no first attack in karate), the second of Funakoshi's Twenty Precepts. To the right of Funakoshi's precept

2760-412: The help Japan received from other powers, one of the key factors in Japan's industrializing success was its relative lack of resources, which made it unattractive to Western imperialism. The farmer and the samurai classification were the base and soon the problem of why there was a limit of growth within the nation's industrial work. The government sent officials such as the samurai to monitor the work that

2829-758: The horizons of 'jita-ittai' (the union of one with the other) which lay beyond fighting. This is the principle of coexistence which enables us to live together in prosperity." Shotokai is the keeper of Gichin Funakoshi's Karate heritage, and has for example republished his books for many years. It has also kept the art of Shotokan Karate weaponry (primarily the traditional weapon of okinawan bojutsu , or Bō /kon in Japanese) within practice schedule. Shotokai Karate differs much from other Shotokan karate branches (JKA, SKI, ITKF, SKA, etc.) in that it emphasizes spiritual practice over competitive tournaments. The traditional 15 forms or kata proposed by G. Funakoshi are practiced in

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2898-406: The international market. With this, industrial zones grew enormously, and there was a massive migration to industrializing centers from the countryside. Industrialization additionally went hand in hand with the development of a national railway system and modern communications. With industrialization came the demand for coal. There was dramatic rise in production, as shown in the table below. Coal

2967-523: The late Edo period (often called the Bakumatsu ) and the beginning of the Meiji era , during which time Japan rapidly industrialized and adopted Western ideas and production methods. In 1853, Commodore Matthew C. Perry arrived in Japan. A year later Perry returned in threatening large warships with the aspiration of concluding a treaty that would open up Japanese ports for trade. Perry concluded

3036-464: The military, the government instituted nationwide conscription in 1873, mandating that every male would serve for four years in the armed forces upon turning 21 years old, followed by three more years in the reserves. One of the primary differences between the samurai and peasant classes was the right to bear arms ; this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. Furthermore, samurai were no longer allowed to walk about town bearing

3105-442: The more traditional practice of imperial rule, whereby the Emperor of Japan serves solely as the spiritual authority of the nation and his ministers govern the nation in his name. The Meiji oligarchy that formed the government under the rule of the Emperor first introduced measures to consolidate their power against the remnants of the Edo period government, the shogunate, daimyōs , and the samurai class. Throughout Japan at

3174-489: The new sectors of the economy could not be heavily taxed, the costs of industrialisation and necessary investments in modernisation heavily fell on the peasant farmers, who paid extremely high land tax rates (about 30 percent of harvests) as compared to the rest of the world (double to seven times of European countries by net agricultural output). In contrast, land tax rates were about 2% in Qing China. The high taxation gave

3243-513: The new way of practising that he developed after having, in a number of tests, thought and concluded there was some inefficiency of the karate method developed by other schools until that time. After years of research, Egami found an efficient way of striking by executing the movement in a relaxed state of mind and body. This is the basis of Shotokai. It focuses on suppleness and relaxation, as opposed to tenseness that generates force. Elaborating this basic idea, he suggested new forms of techniques and

3312-416: The oligarchs to action. Whatever their true intentions, the oligarchs embarked on another slow and deliberate process to abolish the samurai class. First, in 1873, it was announced that the samurai stipends were to be taxed on a rolling basis. Later, in 1874, the samurai were given the option to convert their stipends into government bonds . Finally, in 1876, this commutation was made compulsory. To reform

3381-709: The ones to conduct the funeral. No agreement could be reached and JKA / Kyokai boycotted the funeral. This created a rift in Shotokan which continues to the present. The name derives from Shoto , the pen name which Funakoshi used to sign his poems, literally translated as "pine leaves". Kai means "group" or 'method'; therefore, Shotokai is translated as "Shoto's group" or "Shoto's method." Shotokai's most prominent masters are Gichin Funakoshi with his top students Giko (Yoshitaka) Funakoshi, Genshin (Motonobu) Hironishi, Tadao Okuyama and Shigeru Egami. At Funakoshi's death in 1957, his students split into several factions: on one side

3450-617: The opponent's intentions often before there is any visible movement, which is the ultimate fulfillment of Funakoshi's statement that stated: 'there is no first attack' in karate. The emphasis on "sen no sen" tactics is a profound and distinguishing element of Shoto Kai practice. Gichin Funakoshi Gichin Funakoshi was born on November 10, 1868, the year of the Meiji Restoration , in Shuri, Okinawa , to

3519-429: The ports being opened for trade, but also began the process of merging members of the different societies together. Examples of this include western teachers and advisors immigrating to Japan and also Japanese nationals moving to western countries for education purposes. All these things in turn played a part in expanding the people of Japan's knowledge on western customs, technology and institutions. Many people believed it

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3588-421: The resultant modernization of Japan, also influenced Japanese self-identity with respect to its Asian neighbours, as Japan became the first Asian state to modernize based on the Western model, replacing the traditional Confucian hierarchical order that had persisted previously under a dominant China with one based on modernity. Adopting enlightenment ideals of popular education, the Japanese government established

3657-401: The same way as in other forms of karate, although Shotokai often emphasizes smooth, flowing movements rather than the sharp, snappy, rigid movements of other styles, which does not mean that the style is gentle but rather it believes that an effective hand or foot strike resides in "decontraction". Sparring or Kumite in some Shotokai schools is often practiced with full strength attacks, and it

3726-403: The samurai class lived on. The oligarchs also embarked on a series of land reforms . In particular, they legitimized the tenancy system which had been going on during the Tokugawa period. Despite the bakufu 's best efforts to freeze the four classes of society in place, during their rule villagers had begun to lease land out to other farmers, becoming rich in the process. This greatly disrupted

3795-455: The shogunate, were persuaded to "return their domains to the Emperor". Other daimyō were subsequently persuaded to do so, thus creating a central government in Japan which exercised direct power through the entire "realm". Some shogunate forces escaped to Hokkaidō , where they attempted to set up a breakaway Republic of Ezo ; however, forces loyal to the Emperor ended this attempt in May 1869 with

3864-436: The threat of being colonized, bringing to an end the era known as sakoku . The word "Meiji" means "enlightened rule" and the goal was to combine "modern advances" with traditional "eastern" values ( 和魂洋才 , Wakonyosai ) . The main leaders of this were Itō Hirobumi , Matsukata Masayoshi , Kido Takayoshi , Itagaki Taisuke , Yamagata Aritomo , Mori Arinori , Ōkubo Toshimichi , and Yamaguchi Naoyoshi . The foundation of

3933-458: The time, the samurai numbered 1.9 million. For comparison, this was more than 10 times the size of the French privileged class before the 1789 French Revolution . Moreover, the samurai in Japan were not merely the lords, but also their higher retainers—people who actually worked. With each samurai being paid fixed stipends, their upkeep presented a tremendous financial burden, which may have prompted

4002-518: The title of Emperor must be substituted for that of Taikun , in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs. It is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement. Shortly thereafter in January 1868, the Boshin War started with the Battle of Toba–Fushimi in which Chōshū and Satsuma 's forces defeated

4071-431: The transformation from “jutsu” to “do”. Through his famous words "空手に先手なし" (karate ni sente nashi) meaning There is no first attack in Karate and 空手は君子の武芸 (karate wa kunshi no bugei) meaning Karate is the martial art of intelligent people , Sensei helped us to better understand the term “jutsu.” In an effort to commemorate his virtue and great contributions to modern karate-do as a pioneer, we, his loyal students, organised

4140-676: The treaty that would open up two Japanese ports (Shimoda and Hakodate) only for material support, such as firewood, water, food, and coal for U.S. ships. The Convention of Kanagawa was signed in 1854 and opened up trade between the United States and Japan. Later, Japan reluctantly expanded its trade deals to France, Britain, the Netherlands and Russia due to American pressure. These treaties signed with Western powers came to be known as Unequal Treaties as Japan lost control over its tariffs while Western powers took control over Japanese lands. In 1858, Townsend Harris , ambassador to Japan, concluded

4209-503: The treaty, opening Japanese ports to trade. Figures like Shimazu Nariakira concluded that "if we take the initiative, we can dominate; if we do not, we will be dominated", leading Japan to "throw open its doors to foreign technology." After the humiliation of the Unequal Treaties, the leaders of the Meiji Restoration (as this revolution came to be known), acted in the name of restoring imperial rule to strengthen Japan against

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4278-749: The world, and thereby the foundations of imperial rule shall be strengthened." Under the leadership of Mori Arinori , a group of prominent Japanese intellectuals went on to form the Meiji Six Society in 1873 to continue to "promote civilization and enlightenment" through modern ethics and ideas. However, during the restoration, political power simply moved from the Tokugawa shogunate to an oligarchy consisting of these leaders, mostly from Satsuma Province ( Ōkubo Toshimichi and Saigō Takamori ), and Chōshū Province ( Itō Hirobumi , Yamagata Aritomo , and Kido Takayoshi). This reflected their belief in

4347-487: Was a group known as Nihon Karate Kyokai ( Japan Karate Association , JKA) and on another side the Shotokai Association. One of the largest issues between them was the question of whether competitions were to be introduced or not. Although Shotokai is the name of Shotokan Karate association, it has a defined practice method widely known as Shotokai Karate. Master Shigeru Egami defined the broad outlines of

4416-553: Was being done. Because of Japan's leaders taking control and adapting Western techniques it has remained one of the world's largest industrial nations. The rapid industrialization and modernization of Japan both allowed and required a massive increase in production and infrastructure. Japan built industries such as shipyards, iron smelters, and spinning mills, which were then sold to well-connected entrepreneurs. Consequently, domestic companies became consumers of Western technology and applied it to produce items that would be sold cheaply in

4485-442: Was essential for Japan to acquire western "spirit" in order to become a great nation with strong trade routes and military strength. The Meiji Restoration accelerated the industrialization process in Japan, which led to its rise as a military power by the year 1895, under the slogan of "Enrich the country, strengthen the military" ( 富国強兵 , fukoku kyōhei ) . There were a few factories set up using imported technologies in

4554-872: Was good for limiting disease spread, so the Japanese government lifted their attempted ban in May 1875 and promoted cremation for diseased people in 1897. Even before the Meiji Restoration, the Tokugawa Shogunate government hired German diplomat Philipp Franz von Siebold as diplomatic advisor, Dutch naval engineer Hendrik Hardes for Nagasaki Arsenal and Willem Johan Cornelis, Ridder Huijssen van Kattendijke for Nagasaki Naval Training Center , French naval engineer François Léonce Verny for Yokosuka Naval Arsenal , and British civil engineer Richard Henry Brunton . Most of them were appointed through government approval with two or three years contract, and took their responsibility properly in Japan, except some cases. Then many other foreign specialists were hired. Despite

4623-480: Was largely composed of former samurai. This sent a strong message to the dissenting samurai that their time was indeed over. There were fewer subsequent samurai uprisings and the distinction became all but a name as the samurai joined the new society. The ideal of samurai military spirit lived on in romanticized form and was often used as propaganda during the early 20th-century wars of the Empire of Japan . However, it

4692-453: Was modernized and some parts of the castles were converted into modern military facilities with barracks and parade grounds, such as Hiroshima Castle . Others were handed over to the civilian authorities to build their new administrative structures. Some however were explicitly saved from destruction by interventions from various persons and parties such as politicians, government and military officials, experts, historians, and locals who feared

4761-443: Was needed for steamships and railroads. The growth of these sectors is shown below. The majority of Japanese castles were partially or completely dismantled in the late 19th century in the Meiji restoration by the national government. Since the feudal system was abolished and the fiefs ( han ) theoretically reverting to the emperor, the national government saw no further use for the upkeep of these now obsolete castles. The military

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