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105-514: Śrīharṣa was the son of Śrīhira and Mamalladevī. His father, Śrīhira, was a poet in the court of the Gahadavala king Vijayachandra . His father was also a guide of common people towards god with vedas, Bhagavad Gita's thoughts etc. His father asked Harsha at the time of his death to study well and become a pandit. He told him to use his shiksha (education) towards making life of common people divinity oriented and better. Also, he told Śrīharṣa to take thoughts of Bhagavad Gita to every one. Śrīharṣa had

210-522: A "keeper of elephants" according to the medieval Muslim historian Salman. The Diwan-i-Salman states that a Ghaznavid army led by Mahmud (c. 971-1030) invaded India and defeated one Jaipal. As a result of this victory, the feudatory chiefs from all over the country lined up to offer allegiance to Mahmud. Mahmud received so many elephants as gifts from these chiefs, that an elephant stable was set up in Kannauj , with Chand Rai as its manager. According to

315-644: A 100,000-horse cavalry. Hammira ordered his eight generals to attack the invading army from eight directions. The Delhi army was defeated and forced to flee the battlefield. After Hammira's victory celebrations were over, his Mongol chiefs sought his permission to punish Bhoja. The request was granted, and the Mongol chief Mahima Sahi raided Jagara, where he captured Pitama. Ullu Khan and Bhoja implored Ala-ud-Din Khalji to punish Hammira. The Delhi Sultan then raised an army by seeking forces from other rulers. These included

420-474: A 1237 CE inscription, may have been the successor of Harishchandra. But this cannot be said with certainty. Hammira Mahakavya Hammira Mahakavya ( IAST : Hammīra-Mahākāvya ) is a 15th-century Indian Sanskrit epic poem written by the Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri. It is a legendary biography of the 13th century Chahamana king Hammira . While not entirely accurate from a historical point-of-view,

525-472: A Hindu deity or a Jain tirthankara. E.g.: The poem then describes the life Hammira, who is compared to the legendary heroes Mandhata , Yudhishthira and Rama . Cantos 1-4 are devoted to Hammira's ancestors, including kings from the Shakambhari Chahamana dynasty. Cantos 5-7 describe Hammira's engagement in various services, sports and festivities. The information contained in this part

630-534: A Kalachuri king, probably Yashah-Karna or his successor Gaya-Karna. As a prince, Govindachandra appears to have repulsed a Pala invasion, sometime before 1109 CE. The Pala-Gahadavala conflict halted for a few decades as a result of his marriage with Kumaradevi, a relative of the Pala monarch Ramapala. Epigraphic evidence suggests that there was a revival of the Pala-Gahadavala rivalry in the 1140s CE, during

735-764: A classic Indian education at a gurukula , studying and living under guru's guidance. He mastered all scriptures and all schools of thoughts prevailing at that time. He famously wrote the Sweets of Refutation ( Khaṇḍanakhaṇḍanakhādya ), which critiques the epistemology of the Nyaya school and the rational inquiry in general. Śrīharṣa spent his later life in ascetic serenity on the banks of River Ganga. He composed several works. These include Naiṣadhacarita, Khaṇḍanakhaṇḍakhādya, Vijayaprasasti , Chindaprasasti , Gaudorvisakulaprasasti , Sahasankacarita , Arnavavarnana and Amarakhandana . Śrīharṣa's most well known philosophical text

840-420: A courtesan named Radha Devi, who told him about all the happenings at the royal court. One day, Radha Devi told him that many of Hammira's horses had died of a disease. He communicated to the king through Radha Devi that he would present the king with many horses if restored to his former post. The king agreed, and Dharmasingh gradually gained his confidence by filling the royal treasury with wealth confiscated from

945-562: A friendship with the Delhi Sultan would help him against his rival, Vigraha of Vakshasthalapura. He, therefore, accepted the Jalal-ud-Din's invitation to Delhi. Vagabhata advised him against this move, but the king insultingly rejected his advice. A dejected Vagabhata left for Malwa . Other courtiers also advised Viranarayana against accepting Jalal-ud-din's friendship, but the king didn't heed their advice. He went to Delhi, where he

1050-433: A handsome man, and his father arranged his marriage to 7 beautiful women. In 1283 CE, Jaitrasingh appointed Hammira as his successor, and retired to forest . Soon after becoming the king, Hammira waged wars to expand his kingdom. First, he subdued Arjuna, the king of Saraspura. Next, he forced the ruler of Gadhamandala to pay him a tribute. After this, he marched to Malwa , where he defeated Bhoja II . His army marched in

1155-549: A hundred arrows. He then slit his own throat to avoid capture. This event happened during the 18th year of his reign, in the Shravana month. Hammira Mahakavya does not provide a satisfactorily correct genealogy of the Chahamana kings. Nilkanth Janardan Kirtane, who translated the text into English in 1899, dismisses the text's description of the early Chahamana kings as "filled with fanciful conceptions", aimed at providing

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1260-525: A large army. Bhimasingh's soldiers had captured a large amount of wealth in the battle, and had marched ahead to carry it safely to Ranthambore. Bhimasingh was left with a small number of men. Ullu Khan attacked this small detachment, killed Bhimasingh, and then returned to Delhi. In Ranthambore, Hammira had finished his sacrifice by the time he learned about Bhimasingh's death. He ordered Dharmasingh to be blinded and castrated for deserting Bhimasingh. Dharmasingh decided to avenge his humiliation, and befriended

1365-528: A large number of temples. After Jayachandra's death, several local feudatory chiefs offered their allegiance to the Ghurids. A legendary account in Prithviraj Raso states that Jayachandra allied with the Ghurids against Prithviraj Chauhan , who had eloped with his daughter Samyukta . However, such legends are not supported by historical evidence. Jayachandra's son Harishchandra succeeded him on

1470-555: A peace treaty with Hammira. While the negotiations were pending, Hammira's forces allowed the invading army to cross the mountain pass without being attacked. Hammira's camp believed that they had trapped their rivals into their territory, while the Delhi forces believed that they had managed to secure an advantageous position in the enemy territory. Meanwhile, in Hammira's court, Molhana Deva told Hammira that he will to have accept one of

1575-477: A peace treaty. Hammira sent Ratipala to hear Ala-ud-Din's offer, but this irked another Chahamana general Ranamalla, who was unhappy about not being chosen to visit Ala-ud-Din. When Ratipala came to Ala-ud-Din's camp, he was received with great honour. The Delhi Sultan presented him gifts, took him to his harem , and let him eat and drink in private with the Sultan's sister. Ala-ud-Din then promised to make Ratipala

1680-505: A prolonged siege. Nevertheless, the king soon learned the truth, and ordered the killing of the Kothari. Disturbed by the events of the day, especially the betrayals by his own men, Hammira could not sleep at night. The next day, Hammira's men prepared for a final war, determined to fight to death. Hammira offered his loyal Mongol chief Mahima Sahi the option to leave, as he did not want a foreigner dying for him. But Mahima Sahi readied for

1785-490: A response to a challenge in Virama's court that no contemporary poet was capable of composing a kāvya comparable to the works composed by the ancient poets such as Kalidasa , Bilhana and others. Nayachandra also states that Hammira appeared in his dream urging him to compose Hammira-Mahākāvya . The author states that Hammira appeared in his dream exactly 100 years after his death (which happened in 1301). This suggests that

1890-878: A shrine which later got corrupted into "Bundela". He and his other clansmen will later conquer parts of central India and that area would came to be known as Bundelkhand The rulers of Bijaipur-Kantit feudal estate near Mirzapur also described themselves as Gahrwars, and claimed descent from the Gahadavalas The Gahadavalas controlled their territory through semi-independent feudatory chiefs, whose various titles included Rāṇaka , Mahānāyaka , Mahārāja and Rāja . The king's officials were known as amātyas . Their duties are described in Lakshmidhara's Kṛtya-Kalpataru . The most important court positions included: The yuvaraja ( heir apparent ) and other princes announced grants in their own name, while

1995-459: A slender vine was intoxicating […] With endearing sideways glances, which seemed to revive the lord of love , she penetrated the minds of the courtiers and made them exultant. The courtiers kept eyeing her up and down like a monkey climbing up and down a vine. Hammira-Mahakavya During the truce, Hammira's courtesan Radha Devi (or Dhara-devi ) performed a dance on a wall of the fort. She purposely turned her back towards Ala-ud-Din Khalji, who

2100-428: A sorry state. Chandraraja compared Shahab-ud-Din to Parashurama , who had come to exterminate the warrior caste from the earth. On hearing this, Prithviraja became angry, and declared that he would force Shahab-ud-Din to beg them for an apology on his knees. After some days, he marched towards Multan and entered Shahab-ud-Din's territory. When the enemy king learned of this, he also set out from Multan, with an army. In

2205-600: A tax called Turushka -danda ("Turkic punishment"). Scholars interpret it as a contribution towards a tribute to be paid to the Turushka s ( Ghaznavids ), or a tax towards potential war expenses involving Turushka enemies. Some scholars, such as Sten Konow , had theorized this to be a tax imposed on Turushka s (Muslim Turkic people), implying that the Gahadavalas persecuted Muslim subjects — this has fallen out of favor with modern scholars. Adakkamalla, attested by

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2310-481: A victory procession at Ujjain , where he prayed to Mahakala . On the way back to Ranthambore, he marched to Chitrakuta ( Chittor ), and sacked Medapata (modern Mewar ). Subsequently, Hammira stayed for some days at the ashram of sage Vasishtha . Although he followed the religion of the Vedas , he also prayed at the temple of the Jain tirthankara Rishabhadeva . Hammira then marched to Abu . The king of Abu

2415-481: A war to recover it. As a result, the Gahadavalas probably moved their capital back to Varanasi soon after Chandradeva's reign. The writings of the Muslim chroniclers such as Ali ibn al-Athir , Minhaj-i-Siraj , and Hasan Nizami consistently describe Jayachandra as the "Rai of Banaras" (ruler of Varanasi), and make no reference to Kannauj (Kanyakubja) in their description of the Gahadavalas. This further suggests that

2520-541: Is always inconclusive. Because of this, Śrīharṣa argues that Nyaya logicians should stop doing philosophy and have faith in the liberating power of the Upaniṣads . Śrīharṣa is thus radically different from the Advaita philosopher Saṃkara , who held that reason can help us better understand ultimate truth. For Śrīharṣa, reason is useless, only faith and the Upaniṣads will lead us to the truth of non-duality. Śrīharṣa composed

2625-487: Is of little historical value. The next few cantos describe his reign. The last third part of the text describes Hammira's conflict with Ala-ud-Din Khalji , the Muslim Sultan of Delhi . The text gives the following line of succession of the Chahamana kings, which does not match exactly with the historical genealogy of the dynasty: Much of the information about these ancestors is fanciful in nature. For example,

2730-521: Is that Adakkamalla was from a different branch of the family that ruled a small fief . Nothing is known about Adakkamalla's successors. The bardic chronicles of Rajputana claim that the Rathore rulers of Jodhpur State descended from the family of the Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra . For example, according to Prithviraj Raso , Rathore was an epithet of Jayachandra (Jaichand). The rulers of

2835-486: Is the Khaṇḍanakhaṇḍakhādya ("Sugar-candy Pieces of Refutations" or just Sweets of Refutation ). Śrīharṣa thinks that any philosophical argument or view is subject to refutation-arguments ( khaṇḍana-yukti ) and thus all philosophical arguments are defeasible and are not sufficient evidence to believe in any philosophical view. The work focuses on skeptical critiques of rational philosophical proofs, especially

2940-452: Is the furthest point in the north-west where the Gahadavala inscriptions have been discovered. Some coins attributed to Madanapala are associated with Delhi, but according to numismatist P. C. Roy these coins were actually issued by a Tomara king of same name. According to Roy, Indrasthaniyaka should be identified with a place other than Delhi. The Gahadavalas are associated with two ancient cities: Kanyakubja and Varanasi . According to

3045-477: Is the only thing we need to know that consciousness is real. This view was commonly defended by the Yogācāra school of Buddhism, which defended the theory of self-reflexive awareness ( svasamvedana ). Śrīharṣa also seeks to show through his many critiques of rational Nyaya thought that using rationality to attempt to understand ultimate reality is a futile act. Thus, he thinks that rational argumentation cannot prove

3150-472: The kāvya poem Naishadha Charita ( IAST : Naiṣadhacarita ) in 1174, during the reign of the Vijayachandra's son Jayachandra . According to Rājaśekhara's Prabandhakośa , upon the wide acceptance of Naishadha Charita , Śrīharṣa was dignified with the title Narabharati . The Naishadha Charita contains erotic themes, but according to the 15th-century Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri , Śrīharṣa

3255-543: The Bodhisattavas , and one Shrimitra (Śrimītra). Shrimitra is named as a perceptor ( diksha -guru ) of Kashisha Jayachchandra, identified with the king Jayachandra. The inscription records the construction of a guha (cave monastery) at Jayapura. Archaeologist Federica Barba theorizes that the Gahadavalas built large Hindu temples in traditional Buddhist cities such as Sarnath , and converted Buddhist shrines into Brahmanical ones. The Gahadavala inscriptions mention

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3360-455: The Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri. The author's grandfather and teacher Jayasiṃha Sūri was a poet and a scholar. Jayasiṃha knew six languages, and composed three works - Nyāya Sāraṭika , a Sanskrit grammar, and a poem on Kumāra Nṛpati. The author was not a contemporary of the text's hero Hammira. He was possibly a court poet of the Tomara ruler Vīrama, since he states that he wrote the text as

3465-665: The Kachhavaha princess of Jayapura . He set out for the Kachhavaha capital Amarapur for the marriage ceremony, but was forced to retreat because of a surprise attack by the Delhi Sultan Jalal-ud-din . Unable to defeat Viranarayana in the battle, Jalal-ud-Din made a plan to subdue him using deceitful means. He sent a flattering message to Viranarayana, stating that he was greatly impressed by his bravery, and wanted to be friends. Viranarayana believed that

3570-493: The Manda feudal estate, who described themselves as Rathore, traced their ancestry to Jayachandra's alleged brother Manikyachandra (Manik Chand). These claims are of later origin, and their historical veracity is doubtful. The Bundelas , another prominent Rajput clan are descendants of Gahadavalas .Raja Hemkaran or Pancham Singh, a Gaharwar Rajput from Benaras who had the title of Vindhyela which he acquired from regularly visiting

3675-467: The Pithipati dynasty of Bod Gaya . No contemporary inscriptions of the neighbouring dynasties use the term "Gahadavala" to describe the rulers of Kanyakubja or Varanasi. The dynastic name does not appear in contemporary literature, including in the works authored by the Gahadavala courtiers Shriharsha and Lakshmidhara (author of Kṛtya-Kalpataru ). C. V. Vaidya and R. C. Majumdar , who connected

3780-620: The Ranthambore Fort . These included Mahima Sahi or Mahimashahi (Indianized version of "Muhammad Shah"). He sent his younger brother Ullu Khan ( Ulugh Khan ) to sack Ranthambore, because unlike Jaitrasingh, Hammira did not pay any tribute to the Delhi Sultanate. Ullu Khan's army entered Hammira's territory, but could not march to Ranthambore because his cavalry could not cross the Varnanasha river. Ullu Khan encamped on

3885-626: The Tomara rulers of Delhi might have been Gahadavala feudatories. If this assumption is true, then the Gahadavala kingdom extended up to Delhi in the north-west. However, historical evidence suggests that Delhi was under the control of the Chahamanas since Vigraharaja IV (r. c. 1150-1164 CE), and before that under the Tomara sovereigns. No historical records indicate that the Gahadavalas ever ruled Delhi. Rahin (or Rahan) village in Etawah district

3990-524: The ensuing battle , Prithviraja defeated and captured Shahab-ud-Din. The Muslim king was made to bend on his knees, and seek forgiveness from the Rajput kings he had harassed. Subsequently, Prithviraja presented expensive gifts to all the kings (including Shahab-ud-Din), and asked them to return home. Despite being well-treated after his defeat, Shahab-ud-Din felt humiliated and sought revenge. He invaded Prithviraja's kingdom seven more times, but each time, he

4095-424: The non-duality of consciousness, the view that only consciousness truly exists. Indeed, while Śrīharṣa critiques almost all philosophical categories and views, including causality and the external world (apart from consciousness), he affirms the reality of consciousness. According to Śrīharṣa, all consciousness events are self-aware or self-revealing. Thus, consciousness knows itself, and this reflexive self-knowing

4200-489: The 1093 CE and 1100 CE Chandrawati inscriptions, the Gahadavalas occupied Kanyakubja after the descendants of Devapala had been destroyed. This Devapala can be identified as the mid-10th century Gurjara-Pratihara king of Kanyakubja. Chandradeva probably started his career as a feudatory, but declared independence sometime before 1089 CE. The sudden rise of the Gahadavalas has led to speculation that they descended from an earlier royal house. Rudolf Hoernlé once proposed that

4305-667: The 1167 CE Kamauli inscription, Jayachandra was initiated as a worshipper of Krishna (an incarnation of Vishnu) as a prince. The kings also offered homage to other Hindu gods, including Shiva and Surya . The Gahadvala inscriptions describe the kings as Parama-Maheshvara ("devotees of Shiva"). The Gahadavalas were also tolerant towards Buddhism . Two of Govindachandra 's queens — Kumaradevi and Vasantadevi — were Buddhists. An inscription discovered at Bodh Gaya suggests that Jayachandra also showed interest in Buddhism . This inscription begins with an invocation to Gautam Buddha ,

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4410-460: The 1190s, but his account can be ignored as inaccurate because he flourished around four centuries later, in the 16th century. Harishchandra may have also retained Varanasi . Meanwhile, the control of the region around Etawah appears to have been usurped by Jayachandra nephew Ajayasimha. The 13th century chronicler Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani refers to a victory achieved by the Delhi Sultanate ruler Iltutmish (r. 1211-1236) at Chandawar; Ajayasimha

4515-481: The Gahadavala throne. According to one theory, he was a Ghurid vassal. However, in an 1197 CE Kotwa inscription, he assumes the titles of a sovereign. According to historian Roma Niyogi, it is possible that he controlled Kanyakubja, as no contemporary Muslim historians mention that the Ghurids captured the city at that time. Firishta (16th century) was the earliest writer to claim that the Muslims captured Kannauj in

4620-516: The Gahadavalas no longer controlled Kanyakaubja by Jayachandra's time. By the last quarter of the 11th century, the north-central India was a troubled territory as a result of Ghaznavid raids and the lack of a strong imperial power. The Gurjara-Pratihara empire had ceased to exist. Their successors, such as the Paramaras and the Kalachuris , had declined in power. In these times of chaos,

4725-470: The Gahadavalas to the Rashtrakutas, speculated that the dynastic name might have derived from "Gawarmad", a place-name mentioned in a 1076 CE Kannada language inscription. However, the term is not mentioned in the early Gahadavala inscriptions. Therefore, if the dynasty's name has any geographical significance, it points to the newly acquired territories in northern India. According to the rulers of

4830-566: The Gahadavalas were an offshoot of the Pala dynasty of Gauda , but this theory has been totally rejected now. Another theory identifies the dynasty's founder Chandradeva as the Kannauj Rashtrakuta scion Chandra, but this theory is contradicted by historical evidence. For example, the Rashtrakutas of Kannauj claimed origin from the legendary solar dynasty . On the other hand, the Gahadavala inscriptions state they gained power after

4935-483: The Gahadavalas. The Kṛtya-Kalpataru , written by his courtier Lakashidhara, suggests that he also killed a Ghaznavid general. Govindachandra succeeded his father as the Gahadavala king sometime during 1109-1114 CE. The Gahadavalas became the most prominent power of northern India as a result of his military conquests and diplomatic relations. His adoption of the Kalachuri titles and coinage indicate that he defeated

5040-615: The Ghaznavids may have led to the neglect of the kingdom's eastern border, which later resulted in a Sena invasion. Jayachandra , the last powerful king of the dynasty, faced a Ghurid invasion under Muhammad of Ghor and his slave commander Qutbuddin Aibak . He was defeated and killed at the Battle of Chandawar in 1194. According to the contemporary Muslim historian Hasan Nizami , the Ghurids then sacked Varanasi, where they destroyed

5145-525: The Kantit feudal estate , who claimed descent from the Gahadavalas, the term "Gahadavala" derives from the Sanskrit word grahavāra ("overcomer of the evil planet"). Their fanciful legend claims that Yayati 's son acquired the title grahavāra after defeating the evil planet ( graha ) Saturn . The Gahadavala power was concentrated in what is now eastern Uttar Pradesh . At times, their rule extended to

5250-505: The Koti- yajna sacrifice. Hammira performed this sacrifice in accordance with the shastras . He invited Brahmins from all over the country, and made generous donations to them. He also engaged in the month-long Munivrata observance. Meanwhile, Ala-ud-Din Khalji had ascended the throne of Delhi. In third year of Ala-ud-Din's reign, his Mongol (also called Mughal or Mudgal ) noblemen rebelled against him, and were given asylum by Hammira in

5355-693: The Tomara court, around 1420 CE. Nayachandra's disciple Nayahamsa made a copy of the manuscript in 1496 CE, at "Sri Perojpur" (possibly Firozpur , although this is not certain). This manuscript was used by N. J. Kirtane to produce an editio princeps . Nayahamsa also added an appendix, which praises Nayachandra Suri and his spiritual lineage. Kirtane received the manuscript from a person of Nashik , who had received it from someone else. The Hammīra-Mahākāvya consists of 1500 verses, divided into 14 sarga s (cantos). The poem begins with an invocation to Hindu deities and Jain tirthankaras . The poet uses several words with double meanings that can refer to either

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5460-428: The author an opportunity to showcase "his power for poetical conceits." According to him, the text is "fairly historic" in its description of the kings from Prithviraja III to Hammira, but even in this portion, the author sometimes "relapses into rhapsody which amounts to a confession of his ignorance of the historical facts." Historian Asoke Kumar Majumdar agrees with Kirtane's assessment, and describes certain parts of

5565-502: The banks of the river, burning and destroying several nearby villages. Hammira was still engaged in the Munivrata observance, and therefore could not personally lead an army against Ullu Khan. He sent his generals Bhimasingh and Dharmasingh to counter the Delhi army. In the ensuing battle, Ullu Khan suffered a defeat, and lost several of his soldiers. When Bhimasingh started marching back to Ranthambore, Ullu Khan secretly followed him with

5670-540: The battle, and killed all the female members of his family. Hammira's queens (including Ranga Devi or Arangi-devi) and daughters (including Devall-devi), also killed themselves by self-immolation to avoid being captured by the enemy soldiers. After performing a funeral ceremony for the deceased, Hammira and his loyal men attacked Ala-ud-Din's camp. A deadly battle ensued, in which Hammira's loyal generals died one by one: Virama, Mahima Sahi, Jaja, Gangadhar Tak, and Kshetrasingh Paramara. Finally, Hammira also fell, pierced by

5775-400: The captive Prithviraja with him. Udayaraja besieged Yoginipura (Delhi) for a month, in a bid to rescue Prithviraja. After being captured, Prithviraja refused to eat any food. One of Shahab-ud-Din's advisors remarked that he should release Prithviraja, who had released the Muslim king with honour in past. Shahab-ud-Din became angry at this suggestion, and ordered Prithviraja to be imprisoned in

5880-567: The citizens. This made the citizens detest Hammira. The king's brother Bhoja tried to warn him against Dharmasingh's activities, but the king was very pleased with Dharmasingh's revenue generation, and entrusted full powers to Dharmasingh. Dejected, Bhoja and his younger brother Pitama decided to leave the kingdom. They told Hammira that they were leaving for Varanasi . But after departing from Hammira's court, they went to Yoginipura (Delhi) and started serving Ala-ud-Din. At his instigation, Ala-ud-Din ordered Ullu Khan to invade Hammira's kingdom with

5985-409: The composition of the poem must have begun in 1401. However, the exact date and place of the text's origin are not certain. According to scholar Cynthia Talbot, it was probably composed around 1400 CE, possibly to please a Chauhan (Chahamana) ruler. Based on the assertion that the poem was written as a response to a challenge in Virama's court, Phyllis Granoff theorizes that the poem was written at

6090-403: The conditions, leading to a battle. Nusrat Khan was killed in this battle. Ullu Khan had to abandon the attack at the onset of the monsoon rains. He retreated to some distance from Ranthambore, and sent a message to Ala-ud-Din asking for help, along with Nusrat's dead body. Ala-ud-Din then himself led a force to Ranthambore, and besieged the fort. After two days of unsuccessfully trying to capture

6195-462: The destruction of the solar and the lunar dynasties. Moreover, Kumaradevi, the queen of the Gahadavala ruler Govindachandra came from a Rashtrakuta branch that ruled in Bodh Gaya . Her Sarnath inscription mentions the Gahadavalas and the Rashtrakutas as two distinct families and does not indicate that one was a branch of the other. Yet another theory identifies Chandradeva as Chand Rai,

6300-457: The dualistic system of Nyaya nor can it prove non-dualism either. Instead, he says that the method of knowing non-duality is a subtle awareness of non-duality which arises from contemplation based on hearing the words and great sentences ( mahavakyas ) of the Upaniṣads . One reading of the main idea of this text is that it seeks to show the instability of reason , and how any rational argument can be undermined by further reasoning. Thus, reasoning

6405-473: The dynasty's imperial power. The kingdom completely ceased to exist when Jayachandra's successors were defeated by the Delhi Sultanate Mamluk dynasty ruler Iltutmish ( r.  1211–1236 ). Chandradeva , the first monarch of the dynasty, was a son of Mahichandra and a grandson of Yashovigraha. The Gahadavala inscriptions state that Yashovigraha "seized the earth and made her fond of

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6510-402: The dynasty's mythical progenitor Chahamana (or Chohan) is described as follows: Once Brahma wandered in search of a holy place for a sacrifice. The lotus held in has hand fell at a spot that later came to be known as Pushkar . Brahma decided to conduct a sacrifice at that place, and invoked Surya (the sun) to protect his sacrifice from the danavas (demons). A hero then sprung from the orb of

6615-405: The earliest available inscription of his successor Vijayachandra is dated 1168 CE. Such a long gap is unusual for the dynasty, and may indicate troubled times arising out of an external invasion or a war of succession after Govindachandra's death. Vijayachandra faced a Ghaznavid invasion, which he seems to have repulsed sometime before 1164 CE. His focus on guarding the western frontiers against

6720-474: The eastern side of the fort to the safer western side. When this happened, the Chahamanas realized that Ala-ud-Din's soldiers had been constructing a tunnel to the fort. They used cannon fire to kill these underground workers and destroy their work. Ala-ud-Din faced further trouble, when a group of rams ransacked his camp. Frustrated, Ala-ud-Din asked Hammira to send the Chahamana general Ratipala to conclude

6825-630: The epistemological system of the Nyāya - Vaiśeṣika philosophical school. His main critique is the inadequacy of the Nyaya definitions of the six philosophical categories they defend: substance ( dravya ), quality ( guṇa ), action ( karma ), universal ( sāmānya ), ultimate differentiator ( viśeṣa ), and the relation of inherence ( samavāya ). Śrīharṣa also critiques the Nyaya definition of knowledge, and argues that there may no single satisfactory definition. Śrīharṣa thinks that his critiques also provide evidence for

6930-658: The first Gahadavala king Chandradeva brought stability to the region by establishing a strong government. The 1104 CE Bashai (or Basahi) inscription of his son Madanapala declares that he saved the distressed earth after the deaths of the Paramara Bhoja and the Kalachuri Karna . Since the Kalachuris controlled the area around Varanasi before the Gahadavalas, it appears that Chandradeva captured this territory from them. The Kalachuri king defeated by him

7035-569: The first monarch of the dynasty, established a sovereign kingdom sometime before 1090, after the decline of the Kalachuri power. The kingdom reached its zenith under his grandson Govindachandra who annexed some of the Kalachuri territories, warded off Ghaznavid raids, and also fought the Palas . In 1194, Govindachandra's grandson Jayachandra was defeated by the Ghurids , which effectively ended

7140-577: The following conditions in order to conclude a peace treaty with Ala-ud-Din Khalji: A battle comparable to the Mahābhārata went on for two days such that it seemed that the sun had travelled to the far mountain [behind which the sun sets] in the west in order to speak to the horizon. In this battle 85,000 great, radiant Yavana warriors arrived in Yama-Loka . Hammira-Mahakavya Hammira rejected

7245-494: The fort, he sent a message to Hammira, praising the Chahamana king's bravery and promising to grant his any wish. Hammira replied that he wished to fight with Ala-ud-Din for two days. In the ensuing battle, the invading army lost around 85,000 men. Subsequently, both the parties agreed to a temporary ceasefire. She [Dhara-devi] was paying attention to her breasts and bottom that seemed to be competing with each other in largeness. Her body which seemed to be made for pleasure like

7350-404: The fortress. Prithviraja died after a few days. When Udayaraja heard about this, he led his entire army to a decisive battle, in which he was defeated and killed. Prithviraja was succeeded by Hariraja . The new king spent most of his time in company of female dancers, who had been presented to him by the king of Gujarat . Hariraja squandered the state's revenues on dancers and musicians, even as

7455-444: The governor of Ranthambore in return for his help in conquering the fort. Ratnapala agreed to Ala-ud-Din's proposal to betray Hammira. Upon returning to the fort, he greatly exaggerated the strength of Ala-ud-Din's army. He then told Hammira that Ranamalla was angry with the king, and recommended that Hammira talk to him in the private to ensure his support against Ala-ud-Din. Next, Ratipala approached Ranamalla, and told him that Hammira

7560-411: The grants made by the queens were announced by the king. The territory directly ruled by the Gahadavala monarch was sub-divided into several administrative divisions: According to the Gahadavala inscriptions, Govindachandra appreciated and patronized different branches of learning (as indicated by his title Vividha-vidya-vichara-vachaspati ). His courtier Lakshmidhara composed Kṛtya-Kalpataru at

7665-588: The just rule of Prithviraja in the East, the Muslim king Shahab-ud-Din began attempts to subjugate the earth. The kings of the West, led by one Chandraraja, appealed Prithviraja to counter Shahab-ud-Din. Chandraraja told Prithviraja that Shahab-ud-Din had set up his capital at Multan , and had defeated the noblest of the Hindu Rajput kings. The invader had burned their cities, dishonoured their women and reduced them to

7770-641: The king made a grant after bathing in the Ganga river at Varanasi. This suggests that the Gahadavala kings mainly lived in and around Varanasi, which was their favoured capital. They probably considered Kanyakubja as a 'capital of honour', since it had been a seat of reputed kingdoms since the Maukhari period. A verse in the 1104 CE Basahi inscription of Madanapala states that his father Chandradeva had made Kanyakubja his capital. However, Madanapala's 1105 CE Kamauli grant omits this verse, although it repeats all

7875-448: The king that Ratipala seemed drunk, and therefore, should not be believed. Virama recommended that the king order Ratipala's killing, but Hammira dismissed his concerns. Hammira argued that the fort was strong enough to resist the enemy attack, and expressed concern that if Ratipala was innocent, his killing would demoralize others. Hammira then decided to visit Ranamalla to seek his support, as advised by Ratipala. When Ranamalla heard about

7980-482: The king's request. Vijayachandra also patronized scholars and poets including Shriharsha , whose works include Naishadha Charita and the now-lost Shri-Vijaya-Prashasti . Jayachandra 's court poet Bhatta Kedar wrote a eulogy titled Jaichand Prakash (c. 1168) on his life, but the work is now lost . Another lost eulogy on his life is the poet Madhukar's Jaya-Mayank-Jasha-Chandrika (c. 1183). The Gahadavala kings worshipped Vishnu . For example, according to

8085-422: The king's sceptre (or justice)". He did not bear any royal titles, so it appears that he was a petty chief with some military victories to his credit. He probably served a prominent king, possibly the 11th century Kalachuri king Karna . His son Mahichandra (alias Mahitala or Mahiyala) bore the feudatory title nṛpa , and is said to have defeated several enemies. He may have been a Kalachuri vassal. According to

8190-430: The king's visit, he thought that the king was coming to imprison him. He and his men left immediately, and sought shelter with Ala-ud-Din. Soon after, Ratipala also joined him. Hammira now decided to prepare for a battle. He asked his Kothari (store-keeper) about the status of the fort's granary. The granary had run out of foodgrains. But the Kothari, fearing for his job, told the king that there were enough foodgrains for

8295-459: The kingdom by placing large forces at the various frontier posts, and died after a reign of 12 years. Vagabhata was succeeded by Jaitrasingh. He fulfilled the desire of his pregnant queen Hira Devi to "bathe herself in the blood of the Sakas (Muslims)". When her son Hammira was born, the astrologers predicted that he would drench the earth with the blood of his Muslim enemies. Hammira grew up to be

8400-519: The kings of Anga , Telanga , Magadha , Maisur , Kalinga , Banga, Bhot, Medapata , Panchal , Bangal , Thamim, Bhilla , Nepal , Dahal and the Himalayan foothills. These kings agreed to contribute to Ala-ud-Din's campaign for different reasons, including their love for war, the prospect of plunder, or simply the desire to watch a battle. Ala-ud-Din dispatched a massive army to Ranthambore, led by his brother Ullu Khan and Nusrat Khan . The army

8505-630: The meaning of Turushka-danda is not certain. Lastly, neither Hindu nor Muslim sources indicate that the Ghaznavid invasions were as a result of non-payment of tribute. The etymology of the term "Gahadavala" is uncertain. This dynastic name appears only in four inscriptions of the Gahadavalas: three inscriptions issued by Chandradeva's grandson Govindachandra (as a prince), and the Sarnath inscription issued by his wife Kumaradevi who belonged to

8610-409: The medieval Muslim chronicles. Diwan-i-Salman by the contemporary Muslim historian Salman states that Malhi was imprisoned by the Ghaznavids, and released only after the payment of a ransom. The Gahadavala inscriptions indicate that Madanapala's son Govindachandra led the military expeditions during his reign. As a result of these expeditions, the Ghaznavids were forced to conclude a peace treaty with

8715-489: The medieval legends, Kanyakubja (Kannauj) was their capital. However, according to Al-Biruni , most of the Kanyakubja city was in ruins by 1030 CE, nearly half a century before the dynasty's founder Chandradeva ascended the throne. The vast majority of the Gahadavala inscriptions have been discovered in and around Varanasi ; only one has been found in the Kanyakubja area. The majority of these inscriptions state that

8820-458: The moon'. Strange was the power of the fire of his valour, for it burnt bright in the enemy in whom the stream of bravery flowed, while it was extinguished in that enemy who was destitute of this stream. The description of the events from the death of Prithviraja III to the reign of Hammira is fairly historical, but still not entirely accurate. The text describes Prithviraja III 's war against Muhammad of Ghor (Shahb-ud-Din) as follows: During

8925-446: The music, and this performance diverted the king's attention. Meanwhile, the Muslim soldiers managed to kill a number of Rajputs. Prithviraja finally came to his senses, dismounted from the horse, and killed a number of attackers. But then he fell to the ground after an enemy soldier attacked him from behind. He was taken captive just as Udayaraja arrived with a larger army. Fearing Udayaraja's army, Shahab-ud-Din retreated to Delhi but took

9030-549: The other introductory verses from the Basahi grant. Other than the 1104 CE Basahi inscription, no other inscription describes Kanyakubja as the Gahadavala capital. Historian Roma Niyogi theorized that Chandradeva temporarily moved his seat from Varanasi to Kanyakubja, because Kanyakubja was reputed as the capital of the earlier imperial powers. However, the Gahadavalas lost Kanyakubja to Ghaznavids somewhere between 1104 CE and 1105 CE, and Madanapala's son Govindachandra had to wage

9135-402: The reign of Govindachandra and the Pala monarch Madanapala (not to be confused with Govindachandra's father). Although the identity of the aggressor is not certain, the conflict seems to have happened over control of present-day western Bihar . Both Pala and Gahadavala inscriptions were issued in this area during this period. The last extant inscription of Govindachandra is dated 1154 CE, and

9240-565: The state's employees were not paid their salaries. Shahab-ud-Din took advantage of these circumstances, and invaded Hariraja's kingdom. Hariraja, who was not prepared for a fight, chose to die by self-immolation ( sak ), along with his family members. Govindaraja had established a new kingdom with its capital at Ranathambore , after being banished by his father. Following Hariraja's defeat, several of Ajmer's officials sought his asylum. Govindaraja treated them well, and appointed them to suitable offices. After Govindaraja's death, Balhana ascended

9345-442: The sun, and protected Brahma's sacrifice. With Brahma's blessings, this hero became a powerful king. Even the description of Hammira's historical ancestors does not provide much information of historical value. For example, Chandraraja is described as follows: Chandraraja, by his fame and the beauty of his countenance achieving a double conquest over the moon, vindicated the appropriate significance of his name which means 'Lord of

9450-428: The text as "very unreliable", specifically the portion which claims that Vigraharaja II killed Mularaja and conquered Gujarat. Historian R. B. Singh of Gorakhpur University notes that as a source for the history of the Chahamanas, Hammira Mahakavya is less reliable than Prithviraja Vijaya , as the former was composed two centuries later. Historian Kalika Ranjan Kanungo describes Hammira Mahakavya as well as

9555-460: The text provides valuable information about the medieval history of north-western India. Much of the text describes Hammira's ancestry and his conquests of the neighbouring Hindu kingdoms. The last third part describes his conflict with Ala-ud-Din Khalji , the Sultan of Delhi . The text attributes Hammira's defeat against Ala-ud-Din to betrayal by his officers. Hammira Mahakavya was composed by

9660-537: The theory, Chand Rai acquired the rulership of Kannauj by promising to pay a tribute to the Ghaznavids. The Ghaznavid raids of the Gahadavala kingdom resulted from the non-payment of this tribute. The Gahadavalas inscriptions mention a Turushka -danda ("Turkic punishment" ) tax, which according to the proponents of this theory, was collected to pay a tribute to the Ghaznavid (Turkic) overlord. This theory can be criticized on several grounds. First, no Muslim chronicles mention imposition of any tribute on Chand Rai. Secondly,

9765-414: The throne. Before his death, Balhana appointed his elder son Prahlada as the new king, and his younger son Vagabhata as the prime minister. Prahlada once killed a lion during a hunting expedition. As his party celebrated the killing, another lion severely injured him. On his deathbed, Vagabhata promised to serve his son Viranarayana faithfully. When Viranarayana became an adult, his marriage was arranged to

9870-459: The western parts of Bihar . The 1090 CE Chandrawati inscription of Chandradeva states that he protected the sacred places of Kashi ( Varanasi ), Kushika ( Kannauj ), Uttara Koshala (the area around Ayodhya ) and Indrasthaniyaka. The identity of Indrasthaniyaka is unknown, but because of its similarity to the word " Indraprastha ", some scholars have identified it as modern Delhi . Based on this, historians such as Roma Niyogi have proposed that

9975-476: The works of Kalidasa . Gahadavala The Gahadavala dynasty ( IAST : Gāhaḍavālas) also Gahadavalas of Kannauj was a Rajput dynasty that ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar , during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Banaras (now Varanasi) in the Gangetic plains , and for a brief period, they also controlled Kannauj . Chandradeva ,

10080-514: Was a great warrior, but chose to accept Hammira's suzerainty. After leaving Abu, Hammira plundered Varddhanapura and Changa. He then proceeded to Pushkar via Ajmer . At Pushkar, he worshipped Adivaraha and then marched to Shakambhari . During this journey, he plundered multiple towns including Marhata, Khandilla, Chamda and Kankroli. He then returned to his capital, Ranthmabore. Some days later, Hammira's spiritual guide Vishvarupa informed him that one could gain entry into heaven by performing

10185-405: Was actually a celibate, who had "conquered his sense organs" ( jitendriya ). The Naishadha Charita was brought into Gujarat by Harihara during the reign of Vīradhavala to which Chandu Pandita in his Dipika , composed in 1296, refers to as a new poem and also to the commentary of Vidyādhara. Naishadha Charita was composed earlier than Khaṇḍanakhaṇḍakhādya in which text Sriharsha alludes to

10290-412: Was angry with him, and planned to imprison him that night. Ratipala advised Ranamalla to escape the fort and seek shelter with Ala-ud-Din. Ratipala also spread a rumor among the queens that Ala-ud-Din's only condition for peace was marrying Hammira's daughter Devall-devi. Hammira's queens convinced his daughter to agree to the marriage, but Hammira rejected this proposal. Hammira's brother Virama warned

10395-475: Was defeated. Finally, he decided to seek help from the king of the Ghataika country. From this king, he obtained a large infantry and cavalry, and captured Delhi . When Prithviraja heard about this, he had only a small force stationed at his capital Ajmer . He asked his general Udayaraja to gather a larger army, and immediately set out against Shahab-ud-Din with the small force. Although Prithviraja's contingent

10500-475: Was encamped near the fort. Angry at her conduct, Ala-ud-Din asked for someone who could kill the dancer with an arrow. One of his subordinate chiefs told him that only a captive named Uddanasingh was capable of this. Ala-ud-Din ordered the release of Uddanasingh, who killed Radha Devi with an arrow. In response, Hammira's Mongol chief Mahima Sahi killed Uddanasingh with same arrow. Mahima Sahi's feat of archery greatly intimidated Ala-ud-Din, who moved his camp from

10605-535: Was probably Iltutmish's enemy in this battle. The ultimate fate of Harishchandra is not known, but he was probably defeated by the Delhi Sultanate under Iltutmish . A 1237 inscription issued during the reign of one Adakkamalla of Gahadavala family was found in Nagod State (present-day Satna district of Madhya Pradesh ). Adakkamalla may have been the successor of Harishchandra. Another possibility

10710-509: Was probably Karna's successor Yashah-Karna . Chandradeva's inscriptions indicate that he also tried to expand his kingdom in the east, but the Pala chronicle Ramacharitam suggests that his plan was foiled by Ramapala 's feudatory Bhimayashas. Chandradeva was succeeded by Madanapala , who faced invasions from the Muslim Ghaznavid dynasty. He is identified with "Malhi", who was the king of Kannauj (Kanyakubja) according to

10815-495: Was received warmly, but ended up being poisoned after a few days. Jalal-ud-Din then captured Ranthambore, and sent a message to the king of Malwa ordering him to kill Vagabhata. But Vagabhata discovered this, and killed the king of Malwa. He then gathered an army of Rajputs, and formed an alliance with the Kharpuras (Mongols), who had rebelled against the Delhi Sultanate. With this army, he recaptured Ranthambore. He safeguarded

10920-471: Was small, Shahab-ud-Din was terrified at this news. At night, he sent some men to Prithviraja's camp and bribed the cavalry chief and the royal musicians. The next morning, Shahab-ud-Din sent a force to attack Prithviraja's camp. Prithviraja asked his men to prepare for war. The disloyal cavalry chief presented him a dancing horse named Natyarambha. As soon as the king mounted this horse, the disloyal musicians started playing music. The horse started dancing to

11025-422: Was so large that its horses drank up all the waters of rivers on the way. Ala-ud-Din himself stayed behind with a reserve force. After reaching a difficult mountain pass on the borders of the enemy territory, Ullu Khan advised Nusrat not to rely solely on a more powerful army. He made a plan to cross this mountain pass without being attacked. In accordance with this plan, Ullu and Nusrat sent Molhana Deva to negotiate

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