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165-535: Sitting Bull ( Lakota : Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake [tˣaˈtˣə̃ka ˈijɔtakɛ] ; c.  1831–1837  – December 15, 1890) was a Hunkpapa Lakota leader who led his people during years of resistance against United States government policies. Sitting Bull was killed by Indian agency police accompanied by U.S. officers and supported by U.S. troops on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him at

330-586: A military commission , composed of officers from the Minnesota volunteer Infantry, sentenced 303 Dakota men to death. President Abraham Lincoln reviewed the convictions and approved death sentences for 39 out of the 303. On December 26, 1862, 38 were hanged in Mankato, Minnesota , with one getting a reprieve, in the largest one-day mass execution in American history. The United States Congress abolished

495-432: A "great pet" of her. In observing Oakley, Sitting Bull's respect for the young sharpshooter grew. Oakley was quite modest in her attire, deeply respectful of others, and had a remarkable stage persona despite being a woman who stood only five feet in height. Sitting Bull felt that she was "gifted" by supernatural means in order to shoot so accurately with both hands. As a result of his esteem, he symbolically "adopted" her as

660-580: A 31-hour siege known as the Battle of Birch Coulee , which continued until Colonel Henry Hastings Sibley finally arrived with more troops and artillery on September 3. The state military suffered its worst casualties during the war, with 13 soldiers dead on the ground, nearly 50 wounded, and more than 80 horses killed, while only 2 Dakota soldiers were confirmed dead. Farther north, the Dakota attacked several unfortified stagecoach stops and river crossings along

825-666: A Lakota warrior. During the Dakota War of 1862 , in which Sitting Bull's people were not involved, several bands of eastern Dakota people killed an estimated 300 to 800 settlers and soldiers in south-central Minnesota in response to poor treatment by the government and in an effort to drive the whites away. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War , the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, even against bands that had not been involved in

990-486: A clear view of Sibley's troops, who were unaware of their presence. Dakota fighters lay in the tall grass along the side of the road with tufts of grass woven into their headdresses for disguise, waiting patiently for daybreak when they expected the troops to march. Much to the surprise of the Dakota, at about 7 am on September 23, a group of soldiers from the 3rd Minnesota Infantry Regiment left camp in four or five wagons, on an unauthorized trip to forage for potatoes at

1155-438: A daughter in 1884. He named her "Little Sure Shot", a name that Oakley used throughout her career. In 1885, Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to go Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill Cody's Buffalo Bill's Wild West . He earned about $ 50 a week (equal to $ 1,696 today) for riding once around the arena, where he was a popular attraction. Although it is rumored that he cursed his audiences in his native tongue during

1320-873: A direct military role in the ensuing battle; instead, he acted as a spiritual leader. A week prior to the attack, he had performed the Sun Dance, in which he fasted and sacrificed over 100 pieces of flesh from his arms. On June 25, 1876, Custer's scouts discovered Sitting Bull's camp along the Little Big Horn River, known as the Greasy Grass River to the Lakota. After being ordered to attack, Custer's 7th Cavalry's troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat. Sitting Bull's followers, led into battle by Crazy Horse, counterattacked and ultimately defeated Custer while surrounding and laying siege to

1485-500: A fluent speaker to use. In 2013 Lakota teachers at Red Cloud Indian School on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation discussed their use of orthography for their K–12 students as well as adult learners. The orthography used at Red Cloud "is meant to be more phonetic than other orthographies... That means there are usually more 'H's than other versions. While many orthographies use tipi ... Red Cloud spells it thípi." He continues, "the orthography also makes heavy use of diacritical marks... that

1650-454: A following ⟨ƞ⟩ , ⟨ŋ⟩ , or ⟨n⟩ ; historically, these were written with ogoneks underneath, ⟨į ą ų⟩ . No syllables end with consonantal /n/ . A neutral vowel ( schwa ) is automatically inserted between certain consonants, e.g. into the pairs ⟨gl⟩ , ⟨bl⟩ and ⟨gm⟩ . So the clan name written phonemically as ⟨Oglala⟩ has become

1815-516: A grammatical sentence that contains only a verb. (interjection) (conjunction) (adverb(s)) (nominal) (nominal) (nominal) (adverb(s)) verb (enclitic(s)) (conjunction) When interjections are used, they begin the sentence or end it. A small number of interjections are used only by one gender, for instance the interjection expressing disbelief is ečéš for women but hóȟ for men; for calling attention women say máŋ while men use wáŋ . Most interjections, however, are used by both genders. It

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1980-462: A group of 150 to 250 followers fled to the northern plains of Dakota Territory and Canada. During the war, Dakota men attacked and killed over 500 white settlers, causing thousands to flee the area and took hundreds of "mixed-blood" and white hostages, almost all women and children. By the end of the war, 358 settlers had been killed, in addition to 77 soldiers and 36 volunteer militia and armed civilians. The total number of Dakota casualties

2145-529: A hair sample obtained during his lifetime. In October 2021, Willerslev confirmed Lakota writer and activist Ernie Lapointe 's contention that he was Sitting Bull's great-grandson and his three sisters were Sitting Bull's biological great-grandchildren. Lakota language Speakers of the Lakota language make up one of the largest Native American language speech communities in the United States , with approximately 2,000 speakers, who live mostly in

2310-538: A harsh winter along with poor hunting due to depletion of wild game , led to starvation and severe hardship for the eastern Dakota. In the summer of 1862, tensions between the eastern Dakota, the traders, and the Indian agents reached a breaking point. On August 17, 1862, in a disagreement four young Dakota men killed five white settlers in Acton, Minnesota . That night, a faction led by Chief Little Crow decided to attack

2475-481: A higher tone than all other vowels in the word. This is generally the vowel of the second syllable of the word, but often the first syllable can be stressed, and occasionally other syllables as well. Stress is generally indicated with an acute accent: ⟨á⟩ , etc. Compound words will have stressed vowels in each component; proper spelling will write compounds with a hyphen. Thus máza-ská , literally "metal-white", i.e. "silver; money" has two stressed vowels,

2640-630: A member of the National Indian Defense Association (NIDA), reached out to Sitting Bull, acting to be his voice, secretary, interpreter, and advocate. She joined him, together with her young son Christy, at his compound on the Grand River, sharing with him and his family home and hearth. During a time of harsh winters and long droughts impacting the Sioux Reservation, a Paiute Indian named Wovoka spread

2805-595: A performer with Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota . Because of fears that Sitting Bull would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement, Indian Service agent James McLaughlin at Fort Yates ordered his arrest. During an ensuing struggle between Sitting Bull's followers and the agency police, Sitting Bull was shot in

2970-428: A property. (In English, such descriptions are usually made with adjectives .) Verbs are inflected for first-, second- or third person , and for singular, dual or plural grammatical number . There are two paradigms for verb inflection . One set of morphemes indicates the person and number of the subject of active verbs. The other set of morphemes agrees with the object of transitive action verbs or

3135-642: A purchase or lease of the Hills, the government in Washington had to find a way around the promise to protect the Sioux in their land, as specified in the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie. It was alarmed at reports of Sioux depredations, some of which were encouraged by Sitting Bull. In November 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant ordered all Sioux bands outside the Great Sioux Reservation to move onto

3300-695: A religious movement from present-day Nevada east to the Plains that preached a resurrection of the Native. It was known as the Ghost Dance movement because it called on the Indians to dance and chant for the rising up of deceased relatives and the return of the buffalo. The dance included shirts that were said to stop bullets. When the movement reached Standing Rock, Sitting Bull allowed the dancers to gather at his camp. Although he did not appear to participate in

3465-470: A skirmish line which fired as they gradually crawled forward and finally charged, successfully driving the Dakota back from the ravine. On the extreme left, Major Robert N. McLaren led a company from the 6th Regiment around the south side of the lake to defend a ridge overlooking a ravine, and defeated a Dakota flanking attack on the other side. The Battle of Wood Lake ended after about two hours, as Little Crow and his men retreated in disorder. Chief Mankato

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3630-642: A state in 1858, representatives of several Dakota bands led by Little Crow traveled to Washington to negotiate about upholding existing treaties. Instead, they lost the northern half of the reservation along the Minnesota River in the resulting 1858 Dakota Treaty . This loss was a major blow to the standing of Little Crow in the Dakota community. Meanwhile, the settler population in Minnesota Territory had grown to 172,072 in 1860, two years after statehood, from just 6,077 in 1850. The land

3795-588: A suitable location for a military fort in the Hills. Custer's announcement of gold in the Black Hills triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush . Tensions increased between the Lakota and European Americans seeking to move into the Black Hills. Although Sitting Bull did not attack Custer's expedition in 1874, the U.S. government was increasingly pressured by citizens to open the Black Hills to mining and settlement. Failing in an attempt to negotiate

3960-474: A time when authorities feared that he would join the Ghost Dance movement. Before the Battle of the Little Bighorn , Sitting Bull had a vision in which he saw many soldiers, "as thick as grasshoppers", falling upside down into the Lakota camp, which his people took as a foreshadowing of a major victory in which many soldiers would be killed. About three weeks later, the confederated Lakota tribes with

4125-400: Is postpositional , with adpositions occurring after the head nouns: mas'óphiye él , "at the store" (literally 'store at'); thípi=kiŋ ókšaŋ , "around the house" (literally 'house=the around') (Rood and Taylor 1996). Rood and Taylor (1996) suggest the following template for basic word order. Items in parentheses are optional; only the verb is required. It is therefore possible to produce

4290-524: Is common for a sentence to begin with a conjunction. Both čhaŋké and yuŋkȟáŋ can be translated as and ; k’éyaš is similar to English but . Each of these conjunctions joins clauses. In addition, the conjunction na joins nouns or phrases. Lakota uses postpositions , which are similar to English prepositions, but follow their noun complement. Adverbs or postpositional phrases can describe manner, location, or reason. There are also interrogative adverbs, which are used to form questions. To

4455-478: Is marked with an acute accent : ⟨á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ⟩ on stressed vowels (which receive a higher tone than non-stressed ones) The following consonants approximate their IPA values: ⟨b, g, h, k, l, m, n, ŋ, p, s, t, w, z⟩ . ⟨Y⟩ has its English value of /j/ . An apostrophe, ⟨'⟩ , is used for the glottal stop . A caron is used for sounds, other than /ŋ/ , which are not written with Latin letters in

4620-398: Is more appropriate. They are both used in matters of time and space. As mentioned above, nominals are optional in Lakota, but when nouns appear the basic word order is subject–object–verb. Pronouns are not common, but may be used contrastively or emphatically. Lakota has four articles : waŋ is indefinite, similar to English a or an , and kiŋ is definite, similar to English

4785-440: Is not popular among some educators and academics". Delphine Red Shirt, an Oglala Lakota tribal member and a lecturer on languages at Stanford University , disagrees and prefers a Lakota orthography without diacritical marks. "I'm very against any orthography that requires a special keyboard to communicate," she said. First language speaker and veteran language teacher at Red Cloud, the late Philomine Lakota, had similar concerns with

4950-578: Is now Marmarth, North Dakota . They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect some repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the left hip by a soldier. The bullet exited through the small of his back, and the wound was not serious. From 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud , a leader of the Oglala Lakota , fought against U.S. forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of

5115-484: Is often written without diacritics . Besides failing to mark stress, this also results in the confusion of numerous consonants: /s/ and /ʃ/ are both written ⟨s⟩ , /h/ and /χ/ are both written ⟨h⟩ , and the aspirate stops are written like the unaspirates, as ⟨p, t, c, k⟩ . All digraphs (i.e. characters created by two letters, such as kh, kȟ, k') are treated as groups of individual letters in alphabetization. Thus for example

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5280-420: Is phonetically [laˈkˣota] ). For some speakers, there is a phonemic distinction between the two, and both occur before /e/ . No such variation occurs for the affricate /tʃʰ/. Some orthographies mark this distinction; others do not. The uvular fricatives /χ/ and /ʁ/ are commonly spelled ⟨ȟ⟩ and ⟨ǧ⟩ . All monomorphemic words have one vowel which carries primary stress and has

5445-811: Is spent teaching and speaking the language. On May 3, 2022, the Tribal Council of the Standing Rock Sioux , in a near-unanimous vote, banished the Lakota Language Consortium (and specifically, LLC linguist Jan Ullrich and co-founder Wilhelm Meya) from ever again setting foot on the reservation. The council's decision was based on the LLC's history with not only the Standing Rock community, but also with at least three other communities that also voiced concerns about Meya and

5610-400: Is unknown, but 150 Dakota men died in battle. On September 26, 1862, 269 "mixed-blood" and white hostages were released to Sibley's troops at Camp Release . Interned at Fort Snelling , approximately 2,000 Dakota surrendered or were taken into custody, including at least 1,658 non-combatants, as well as those who had opposed the war and helped to free the hostages. In less than six weeks,

5775-664: The 25th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment . In Iowa, alarm over the Dakota attacks led to the construction of a line of forts from Sioux City to Iowa Lake . The region had already been militarized because of the Spirit Lake Massacre in 1857. After the 1862 conflict began, the Iowa Legislature authorized "not less than 500 mounted men from the frontier counties at the earliest possible moment, and to be stationed where most needed," though this number

5940-493: The 6th Minnesota , five companies of the 7th Minnesota, one company of the 9th , 38 Renville Rangers, 28 mounted citizen guards, and 16 citizen-artillerists. Sibley planned to meet Little Crow's men on the open plains above the Yellow Medicine River , where he believed his better organized, better equipped forces with their rifled muskets and artillery with exploding shells would have an advantage against

6105-621: The 6th Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment and 300 "very irregular cavalry". On August 27, a vanguard of mounted men under Colonel Samuel McPhail arrived at Fort Ridgely and lifted the siege; the rest of Sibley's force arrived the next day and established a camp outside the fort. Many of the 250 refugees, some of whom had been confined within Fort Ridgely for eleven days, were transported to St. Paul on August 29. Militia units under Sibley's command to Fort Ridgely: On August 28, Governor Ramsey sent Judge Charles Eugene Flandrau to

6270-624: The Department of the Northwest on September 6, 1862 and appointed General John Pope , who had been defeated in the Second Battle of Bull Run , to command it, with orders to quell the violence "using whatever force may be necessary." Pope reached Minnesota on September 16. Recognizing the severity of the crisis, Pope instructed Colonel Henry Hastings Sibley to move decisively, but struggled to secure additional Federal troops in time for

6435-466: The Lakota language , roughly translates to "Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down", but Americans commonly refer to him as "Sitting Bull". Thereafter, Sitting Bull's father was known as Jumping Bull. At this ceremony before the entire band, Sitting Bull's father presented his son with an eagle feather to wear in his hair, a warrior's horse, and a hardened buffalo hide shield to mark his son's passage into manhood as

6600-589: The Minnesota River valley in southwest Minnesota . The war lasted for five weeks and resulted in the deaths of hundreds of settlers and the displacement of thousands more. In the aftermath, the Dakota people were exiled from their homelands, forcibly sent to reservations in the Dakotas and Nebraska, and the State of Minnesota confiscated and sold all their remaining land in the state. The war also ended with

6765-531: The Powder River Country in present-day Montana . In support of Red Cloud, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold , Fort Stevenson , and Fort Buford and their allies from 1865 through 1868. The uprising has come to be known as Red Cloud's War . By early 1868, the U.S. government desired a peaceful settlement to the conflict. It agreed to Red Cloud's demands that the U.S. abandon Forts Phil Kearny and C.F. Smith . Gall of

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6930-878: The Red River Trails , a settled trade route between Fort Garry (now Winnipeg , Manitoba) and Saint Paul, Minnesota, in the Red River Valley in northwestern Minnesota and eastern Dakota Territory. Many settlers and employees of the Hudson's Bay Company and other local enterprises in this sparsely populated country took refuge in Fort Abercrombie , located in a bend of the Red River of the North about 25 miles (40 km) south of present-day Fargo, North Dakota . Between late August and late September,

7095-786: The Sioux Uprising , the Dakota Uprising , the Sioux Outbreak of 1862 , the Dakota Conflict , or Little Crow's War , was an armed conflict between the United States and several eastern bands of Dakota collectively known as the Santee Sioux . It began on August 18, 1862, when the Dakota, who were facing starvation and displacement, attacked white settlements at the Lower Sioux Agency along

7260-440: The Standing Rock Agency . This reservation straddles the present-day boundary between North and South Dakota. Sitting Bull and his band of 186 people were kept separate from the other Hunkpapa gathered at the agency. U.S. Army officials were concerned that he would stir up trouble among the recently surrendered northern bands. On August 26, 1881, he was visited by U.S. census taker William T. Selwyn, who counted 12 people in

7425-753: The Union Army in the Civil War. With the outbreak of war in Minnesota in August, the state adjutant general's headquarters ordered the 6th, 7th, 8th , 9th, and 10th Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiments , which were still being constituted, to dispatch troops under Sibley's command as soon as companies were formed. Many enlisted soldiers who had been furloughed until after harvest were quickly recalled, and new recruits were urged to enlist, furnishing their own arms and horses if possible. Concerned that his troops lacked experience, Sibley urged Ramsey to hasten

7590-488: The attack at Redwood Ferry . The company included members of the 6th Minnesota Infantry Regiment and mounted men of the Cullen Frontier Guards, as well as teams and teamsters sent to bury the dead, accompanied by approximately 20 civilians who had asked to join the burial party. In the early morning hours of September 2, 1862, a group of 200 Dakota men surrounded and ambushed their campsite, kicking off

7755-419: The other two battalions led by Reno and Benteen . The Native Americans' victory celebrations were short-lived. Public shock and outrage at Custer's defeat and death, and the government's understanding of the military capability of the remaining Sioux, led the Department of War to assign thousands more soldiers to the area. Over the next year, the new American military forces pursued the Lakota, forcing many of

7920-550: The "SLO" or even "Suggested Lakota Orthography." Tasha Hauff writes, Choosing a writing system, or orthography, is often a serious point of contention in Indigenous communities engaging in revitalization work (Hinton, 2014). While writing a traditionally oral language can itself be considered a colonial act, standardizing a writing system is fraught with political as well as pedagogical complications. Because teachers at Standing Rock were in need of language-teaching materials, and

8085-426: The . In addition, waŋží is an indefinite article used with hypothetical or irrealis objects, and k’uŋ is a definite article used with nouns that have been mentioned previously. There are also nine demonstratives , which can function either as pronouns or as determiners . Verbs are the only word class that are obligatory in a Lakota sentence. Verbs can be active, naming an action, or stative , describing

8250-496: The 3rd Minnesota retreated down the slope towards the stream where they would sustain most of their casualties. Once the 3rd Minnesota had retreated across the creek, they were joined by the Renville Rangers, a unit of "nearly all mixed-bloods" under Lieutenant James Gorman, sent by Sibley to reinforce them. The Dakota forces formed a fan-shaped line, threatening their flank. Seeing that the Dakota were now passing down

8415-452: The Battle of Wood Lake had begun. Not waiting for orders or permission, Major Abraham E. Welch led 200 men from the 3rd Minnesota with a line of skirmishers to the left and the right following in reserve. They advanced to a point 300 yards beyond the stream, when an officer rode up to Major Welch with instructions from Colonel Sibley to fall back to camp. Welch obeyed reluctantly and the men of

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8580-702: The Blue Earth country to secure the state's southern and southwestern frontier, extending from New Ulm to the northern border of Iowa . On September 3, Flandrau received his officer's commission as a colonel in Minnesota's volunteer militia. He set up his headquarters at South Bend, four miles southwest of Mankato , where he maintained a guard of 80 men. Flandrau organized a line of forts, garrisoned by soldiers under his command, at New Ulm, Garden City, Winnebago, Blue Earth, Martin Lake, Madelia and Marysburg. Flandrau and his companies were relieved on October 5, 1862, by

8745-640: The Czech linguist advocates resembles the Czech orthography – making it easier for Czech people to read. The Europeans predominantly use the internet to give the impression that this "Czech orthography" is a Lakota product and the standard for writing Lakota." "The Rosebud Sioux Tribe was the first of the Lakota tribes to take legal action against the self-authorizing practices the LLC committed by utilizing names of Lakota language experts without their consent to obtain funding for their projects." Rosebud Resolution No. 2008–295 goes further and compares these actions to what

8910-420: The Dakota at bay during the brief siege. Dakota men penetrated parts of the defenses and burned much of the town. By that evening, a thunderstorm dampened the warfare, preventing further Dakota attacks. Regular soldiers and militia from nearby towns (including two companies of the 5th Minnesota Infantry Regiment , then stationed at Fort Ridgely) reinforced New Ulm. Residents continued to build barricades around

9075-406: The Dakota continued their offensive and attacked the settlement of New Ulm , Minnesota, on August 19, 1862, and again on August 23, 1862. Dakota men had initially decided not to attack the strongly defended Fort Ridgely along the river, and turned toward the town, killing settlers along the way. By the time New Ulm was attacked, residents had organized defenses in the town center and were able to keep

9240-615: The Dakota launched several attacks on Fort Abercrombie; all were repelled by its defenders, including Company D of the 5th Minnesota Infantry Regiment , which was garrisoned there, with assistance from other infantry units, citizen soldiers and "The Northern Rangers". In the meantime, steamboat and flatboat traffic on the Red River came to a halt. Mail carriers, stage drivers and military couriers were killed while attempting to reach settlements such as Pembina, North Dakota ; Fort Garry; St. Cloud, Minnesota ; and Fort Snelling . Eventually,

9405-468: The Dakota people went to war against the United States" and that it was instead "a faction that went on the offensive". She estimates that fewer than 1,000 mostly Mdewakanton men out of a population of more than 7,000 Dakota were involved in the "Sioux uprising". According to Wingerd, up to 300 Sissetons and Wahpetons may have joined in the fighting – only a fraction out of the 4,000 who lived near

9570-503: The Dakota with their double-barreled shotguns . Meanwhile, Dakota runners were reporting Sibley's movements every few hours. Chief Little Crow and his soldiers' lodge received word that Sibley's troops had reached the Lower Sioux Agency and would arrive at the area below the Yellow Medicine River around September 21. On the morning of September 22, Little Crow's soldiers' lodge ordered all able-bodied men to march south to

9735-568: The European Americans. After the ultimatum on January 1, 1876, when the U.S. Army began to track down as hostiles those Sioux and others living off the reservation, Native Americans gathered at Sitting Bull's camp. He took an active role in encouraging this "unity camp". He sent scouts to the reservations to recruit warriors and told the Hunkpapa to share supplies with those Native Americans who joined them. An example of his generosity

9900-567: The Hunkpapa and other representatives of the Hunkpapa, Blackfeet and Yankton Dakota , signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2, 1868, at Fort Rice (near Bismarck , North Dakota). Sitting Bull did not agree to the treaty. He told the Jesuit missionary Pierre Jean De Smet, who sought him on behalf of the government: "I wish all to know that I do not propose to sell any part of my country." He continued his hit-and-run attacks on forts in

10065-547: The Hunkpapa leader's immediate family and 41 families, totaling 195 people, were recorded in Sitting Bull's band. The military decided to transfer Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Randall to be held as prisoners of war. Loaded onto a steamboat , the band of 172 people was sent down the Missouri River to Fort Randall near present-day Pickstown, South Dakota on the southern border of the state, where they spent

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10230-485: The IPA: ⟨č⟩ /tʃ/ , ⟨ǧ⟩ /ʁ/ , ⟨ȟ⟩ /χ/ , ⟨š⟩ /ʃ/ , ⟨ž⟩ /ʒ/ . Aspirates are written with ⟨h⟩ : ⟨čh, kh, ph, th,⟩ and velar frication with ⟨ȟ⟩ : ⟨kȟ, pȟ, tȟ.⟩ Ejectives are written with an apostrophe: ⟨č', ȟ', k', p', s', š', t'⟩ . The spelling used in modern popular texts

10395-572: The LLC materials but do not write in the orthography. These are usually Elders who remain in the habit of writing the way they learned. A few people at Standing Rock, however, have been offended by the notion of a standard way of writing Lakota/Dakota, especially one that seems unlike any of the systems used by Elders. Community members have been particularly wary of the SLO ["Standard Lakota Orthography"], which appears to be developed by outsiders who are not fluent speakers and would require considerable study for

10560-422: The LLC was one of the few organizations developing such resources, Standing Rock adopted the new orthography, but not without resistance from members of the community. ... The new writing system at Standing Rock was often criticized or even rejected within the community. Some fluent speakers at Standing Rock have not accepted the new writing system. There are some who continue to work in language education and who use

10725-469: The LLC's promotion of their New Lakota Dictionary , websites and other Internet projects aimed at revising and standardizing their new spelling of the Lakota language. "Lakota first language speakers and Lakota language teachers criticize the "Czech orthography" for being overloaded with markings and – foremost – for the way it is being brought into Lakota schools"; it has been criticized as " neocolonial domination." Sonja John writes that "The new orthography

10890-510: The LLC, "saying he broke agreements over how to use recordings, language materials and historical records, or used them without permission." The "Standard Lakota Orthography" as the LLC calls it, is in principle phonemic, which means that each character ( grapheme ) represents one distinctive sound ( phoneme ), except for the distinction between glottal and velar aspiration, which is treated phonetically. Lakota vowels are ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ nasal vowels are aŋ, iŋ, uŋ. Pitch accent

11055-407: The Lakota Language Consortium and its " Czech orthography " from the reservation and its educational system. This ban was a response to a series of protests by community members and grassroots language preservation workers, at Rosebud and other Lakota communities, against the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC). Despite its name, the LLC is an organization formed by two Europeans. Concerns arose due to

11220-483: The Lakota coalition, of which Sitting Bull was the ostensible head, was the primary target of the federal government's pacification campaign. During the period 1868–1876, Sitting Bull developed into one of the most important Native American political leaders. After the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) and the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation, many traditional Sioux warriors, such as Red Cloud of

11385-427: The Lower Sioux Agency the next morning in an effort to drive all settlers out of the Minnesota River valley. The demands of the Civil War slowed the U.S. government response, but on September 23, 1862, an army of volunteer infantry, artillery and citizen militia assembled by Governor Alexander Ramsey and led by Colonel Henry Hastings Sibley finally defeated Little Crow at the Battle of Wood Lake . Little Crow and

11550-661: The Native Americans to surrender. Sitting Bull refused to do so and in May 1877 led his band across the border into the North-West Territories , Canada. He remained in exile for four years near Wood Mountain , refusing a pardon and the chance to return. When crossing the border into Canadian territory, Sitting Bull was met by the Mounties of the region. During this meeting, James Morrow Walsh , commander of

11715-539: The North-West Mounted Police, explained to Sitting Bull that the Lakota were now on British soil and must obey British law. Walsh emphasized that he enforced the law equally and that every person in the territory had a right to justice. Walsh became an advocate for Sitting Bull and the two became good friends for the remainder of their lives. While in Canada, Sitting Bull also met with Crowfoot , who

11880-742: The Northern Cheyenne defeated the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer on June 25, 1876, annihilating Custer's battalion and seeming to fulfill Sitting Bull's prophetic vision. Sitting Bull's leadership inspired his people to a major victory. In response, the U.S. government sent thousands more soldiers to the area, forcing many of the Lakota to surrender over the next year. Sitting Bull refused to surrender, and in May 1877, he led his band north to Wood Mountain , North-West Territories (now Saskatchewan ). He remained there until 1881, when he and most of his band returned to U.S. territory and surrendered to U.S. forces. After working as

12045-631: The Northern Cheyenne, Hunkpapa, Oglala, Sans Arc, and Minneconjou camped together for a Sun Dance , with both the Cheyenne medicine man White Bull or Ice and Sitting Bull in association. This ceremonial alliance preceded their fighting together in 1876. Sitting Bull had a major revelation. At the climactic moment, "Sitting Bull intoned, 'The Great Spirit has given our enemies to us. We are to destroy them. We do not know who they are. They may be soldiers.' Ice too observed, 'No one then knew who

12210-572: The Oglala and Spotted Tail of the Brulé , moved to reside permanently on the reservations. They were largely dependent for subsistence on the U.S. Indian agencies. Many other chiefs, including members of Sitting Bull's Hunkpapa band such as Gall, at times, lived temporarily at the agencies. They needed the supplies at a time when white encroachment and the depletion of buffalo herds reduced their resources and challenged Native American independence. In 1875,

12375-616: The Plains Wars because they thought the other nation was under attack by the U.S. Given this connection, she suggests the major war should have been called "The Great Cheyenne War". Since 1860, the Northern Cheyenne had led several battles among the Plains Indians. Before 1876, the U.S. Army had destroyed seven Cheyenne camps, more than those of any other nation. Other historians, such as Robert M. Utley and Jerome Greene, also use Lakota oral testimony, but they have concluded that

12540-416: The U.S. government annuity payments owed to the eastern Dakota, past broken treaties, food shortages due to the agent Thomas Galbraith withholding distributions of rations , and famine following crop failure. The traders refused to extend credit to the tribesmen for food, in part because the traders suspected the payments might not arrive at all due to the American Civil War . Tensions increased through

12705-473: The U.S. government was two months behind on both money and food when the war started because of men stealing food. The Federal government was preoccupied by the Civil War . Most land in the river valley was not arable, and hunting could no longer support the Dakota community. The Dakota became increasingly discontented over their losses: land, non-payment of annuities, because the Indian agents were late with

12870-469: The United States and surrender on July 19, 1881. Sitting Bull had his young son Crow Foot surrender his Winchester Rifle to major David H. Brotherton, commanding officer of Fort Buford . Sitting Bull said to Brotherton, "I wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle". In the parlor of the Commanding Officer's Quarters in a ceremony the next day, he told

13035-558: The Upper Sioux Agency – in defiance of their tribal elders, who opposed participation in what they warned would be a suicidal offensive. On August 18, 1862, Little Crow led a group in a surprise attack on the Lower Sioux (or Redwood) Agency . Trader Andrew Myrick was among the first who were killed. Wounded, he escaped through an attic window, but was gunned down while running for the cornfields. Myrick's severed head

13200-404: The Upper Sioux Agency. About half a mile from camp, after crossing the bridge over the creek to the other side of the ravine and ascending 100 yards into the high prairie, the lead wagon belonging to Company G was attacked by a squad of 25 to 30 Dakota men who sprang up and began shooting. One soldier jumped out of the wagon and returned fire; the soldiers in the rear wagons started shooting; and

13365-538: The Yellow Medicine River. While hundreds of soldiers marched willingly, others went because they had been threatened by the soldiers' lodge headed by Cut Nose (Marpiya Okinajin); they were also joined by a contingent from the "friendly" Dakota camp who sought to prevent a surprise attack on Sibley's army. A total of 738 men were counted when they reached a point a few miles from Lone Tree Lake, where they had learned that Sibley had set up camp. A council

13530-458: The agency; another seven were killed as they fled; ten were taken captive; and approximately 47 people escaped. B Company of the 5th Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment sent troops from Fort Ridgely to quell the uprising, but were defeated at the Battle of Redwood Ferry . Twenty-four soldiers, including the party's commander (Captain John Marsh), were killed in the battle. Throughout

13695-639: The approach... then the question is whose version will be adopted? This will cause dissent and politics to become a factor in the process." Also in 2002, Sinte Gleska University rejected a partnership with the European-owned Lakota Language Consortium. Sinte Gleska uses the orthography developed by Albert White Hat , which on December 13, 2012, was formally adopted by the Rosebud Sioux Tribe per Tribal Resolution No. 2012–343. This resolution also banned

13860-427: The area and would not distribute food to these bands without payment. At a meeting of the Dakota, the U.S. government and local traders, the Dakota representatives asked the representative of the government traders, Andrew Jackson Myrick , to sell them food on credit. His response was said to be, "So far as I am concerned, if they are hungry let them eat grass or their own dung." But the context of Myrick's comment at

14025-547: The army had thrown up breastworks to fortify the campsite, Rattling Runner (Rdainyanka) and the leaders of the "hostile" Dakota soldiers' lodge finally agreed that it would be unsafe to attack that night, and planned to attack Sibley's troops when they were marching on the road to the Upper Sioux Agency early in the morning. On the night of September 22, Little Crow, Chief Big Eagle and others carefully moved their men into position under cover of darkness, often with

14190-532: The attacks made exceptions for who was killed. Reverend Samuel Hinman later recounted that Little Crow himself had come to the Episcopal mission when the shootings started, glared at him, and left, allowing Hinman and his assistant Emily West to escape to Fort Ridgely. George Spencer, a clerk in the trading store, credited Little Crow's head soldier Wakinyantawa (His Own Thunder) for saving his life by placing him under his protection. Spencer then became one of

14355-454: The borders of the State" was repudiated , and in 2019, an apology was issued to the Dakota people for "150 years of trauma inflicted on Native people at the hands of state government." The eastern Dakota were pressured into ceding large tracts of land to the United States in a series of treaties negotiated with the U.S. government and signed in 1837, 1851 and 1858, in exchange for cash annuities, debt payments, and other provisions. Under

14520-525: The captives were divided up more broadly among families in Little Crow's encampment. The subject of the rape and abuse of captives during the Dakota War is controversial. Of the white women and girls who were taken captive over the course of war, up to 40 were between the ages of twelve and forty. Historian Gary Clayton Anderson states that nearly all of the young girls taken captive and most of

14685-427: The course of action to take; according to many accounts, Little Crow himself had initially been against an uprising and agreed to lead it only after an angry young brave called him a coward. By daybreak, Little Crow ordered an attack on the Lower Sioux Agency to take place that morning. Historian Mary Wingerd disagrees with the modern terminology of calling it the Dakota war, stating it is "a complete myth that all

14850-651: The creation of the tribe. Other creation stories say language was invented by Iktomi . A wholly Lakota newspaper named the Anpao Kin ("Daybreak") circulated from 1878 by the Protestant Episcopal Church in Niobrara Mission , Nebraska until its move to Mission, South Dakota in 1908 continuing until its closure in 1937. The print alongside its Dakota counterpart Iapi Oaye ("The Word Carrier") played an important role in documenting

15015-508: The dancing, he was viewed as a key instigator. Alarm spread to nearby white settlements. In 1890, James McLaughlin , the U.S. Indian agent at Fort Yates on Standing Rock Agency, feared that the Lakota leader was about to flee the reservation with the Ghost Dancers , so he ordered the police to arrest him. On December 14, 1890, McLaughlin drafted a letter to Lieutenant Henry Bullhead, an Indian agency policeman named as Bull Head in

15180-490: The day, Dakota war parties swept the Minnesota River Valley and near vicinity, killing many settlers. Numerous settlements including the townships of Milford , Leavenworth and Sacred Heart , were surrounded and burned and their populations nearly exterminated. During the chaos of the initial attacks, some Dakota tried to warn their friends at the Lower Sioux Agency to flee. Even those participating in

15345-445: The development of a written form of Lakota was Ella Cara Deloria , also called Aŋpétu Wašté Wiŋ (Beautiful Day Woman), a Yankton Dakota ethnologist, linguist, and novelist who worked extensively with the Dakota and Lakota peoples, documenting their languages and cultures. She collaborated with linguists such as Franz Boas and Edward Sapir to create written materials for Lakota, including dictionaries and grammars. Another key figure

15510-420: The early days of the conflict presented a dilemma for the Dakota war leaders. Big Eagle and others argued that they should be returned to the fort, but Little Crow insisted that they were valuable to the war effort and should be kept as hostages for their own protection. While the captives were initially held by the soldiers who had captured them, as the days progressed, the logistics of feeding and taking care of

15675-566: The eastern Dakota and Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) reservations in Minnesota, and in May 1863, the eastern Dakota and Ho-chunk imprisoned at Fort Snelling were exiled from Minnesota to a reservation in present-day South Dakota . The Ho-Chunk were later moved to Nebraska near the Omaha people to form the Winnebago Reservation . In 2012 and 2013, Governor Ramsey 's 1862 call for the Dakota to "be exterminated or driven forever beyond

15840-530: The enemy were – of what tribe.'...They were soon to find out." Sitting Bull's refusal to adopt any dependence on the U.S. government meant that at times he and his small band of warriors lived isolated on the Plains . When Native Americans were threatened by the United States, numerous members from various Sioux bands and other tribes, such as the Northern Cheyenne, came to Sitting Bull's camp. His reputation for "strong medicine" developed as he continued to evade

16005-477: The enlistment and affairs including obituaries of Native Sioux soldiers into the army as America became involved in World War I . Lakota has five oral vowels, /i e a o u/ , and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ã ũ/ (phonetically [ɪ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃] ). Lakota /e/ and /o/ are said to be more open than the corresponding cardinal vowels, perhaps closer to [ɛ] and [ɔ] . Orthographically, the nasal vowels are written with

16170-457: The few white men taken captive during the war; the rest of the captives were predominantly women and children. A large number of captives were "mixed-blood" Dakota. Although there were repeated threats against the lives of mixed-blood settlers, even the most violent men exercised restraint when reminded that by killing mixed-blood Dakota, they would risk retribution from their victims' "full-blood" kinsmen. The large number of captives taken in

16335-529: The fight effectively ended the war. Sibley lost seven men and another 34 were seriously wounded. At Camp Release on September 26, 1862, the Dakota Peace Party handed over 269 former prisoners to the troops commanded by Colonel Sibley. The captives included 162 "mixed-bloods" ( mixed-race ) and 107 whites, mostly women and children, who had been held hostage by the "hostile" Dakota camp, which broke up as Little Crow and some of his followers fled to

16500-619: The fight, including Bull Head. The police killed Sitting Bull and seven of his supporters at the site, along with two horses. Sitting Bull's body was taken to present-day Fort Yates, North Dakota , where it was placed in a coffin made by the U.S. Army carpenter there, and he was buried on the grounds of Fort Yates. A monument was installed to mark his burial site after his remains were reportedly taken to South Dakota . In 1953, Lakota family members exhumed what they believed to be Sitting Bull's remains, transporting them for reinterment near Mobridge, South Dakota , his birthplace. A monument to him

16665-399: The first a in each component. If it were written without the hyphen, as mazaska , it would imply a single main stress. A common phonological process which occurs in rapid speech is vowel contraction , which generally results from the loss of an intervocalic glide. Vowel contraction results in phonetic long vowels ( phonemically a sequence of two identical vowels), with falling pitch if

16830-415: The first underlying vowel is stressed, and rising pitch if the second underlying vowel is stressed: kê: (falling tone), "he said that", from kéye ; hǎ:pi (rising tone), "clothing", from hayápi . If one of the vowels is nasalized, the resulting long vowel is also nasalized: čhaŋ̌:pi , "sugar", from čhaŋháŋpi . When two vowels of unequal height contract, or when feature contrasts exist between

16995-488: The following year accompanied by federal troops. Sitting Bull and the Hunkpapa attacked the survey party, which was forced to turn back. In 1873, the military accompaniment for the surveyors was increased again, but Sitting Bull's forces resisted the survey "most vigorously." The Panic of 1873 forced the Northern Pacific Railway's backers, such as Jay Cooke , into bankruptcy, which halted construction of

17160-534: The fortified town of Hutchinson. Unsuccessful sieges of the stockaded towns of Hutchinson and Forest City followed on September 4, but the Dakota left with many spoils including captured horses. On August 31, while Sibley trained new soldiers and waited for additional troops, guns, ammunition and food, he sent a group of 153 men on a burial expedition to find and bury dead settlers and soldiers, and ascertain what had happened to Captain John S. Marsh and his men during

17325-401: The four soldiers, 20 warriors and other guests in the small room that he wished to regard the soldiers and the white race as friends but he wanted to know who would teach his son the new ways of the world. Two weeks later, after waiting in vain for other members of his tribe to follow him from Canada, Sitting Bull and his band were transferred to Fort Yates , the military post located adjacent to

17490-617: The garrison at Fort Abercrombie was relieved by a Minnesota Volunteer Infantry from Fort Snelling, and the civilian refugees were removed to St. Cloud. Due to the demands of the American Civil War , Adjutant General Oscar Malmros and Governor Alexander Ramsey of Minnesota had to repeatedly appeal for assistance from the governors of other northern states, the United States Department of War , and President Abraham Lincoln . Finally, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton formed

17655-437: The head of their band, and Cut Nose, the "head soldier" of their lodge. Red Middle Voice lobbied his nephew Chief Shakopee III for support, and together they traveled to Little Crow's village near the Lower Sioux Agency. In the middle of the night, a war council was convened at Little Crow's house, also including other Mdewakanton leaders such as Mankato, Wabasha, Traveling Hail, and Big Eagle. The leaders were divided about

17820-531: The homeless and beggars. Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency after working in Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. The tension between Sitting Bull and Agent McLaughlin increased, and each became warier of the other over several issues including division and sale of parts of the Great Sioux Reservation. In 1889, Indian Rights Activist Caroline Weldon from Brooklyn , New York City,

17985-457: The hostilities. In 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village . The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta . The Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August at the Battle of the Badlands . In September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a small party near what

18150-480: The house, knocked, and entered. Bull Head told Sitting Bull that he was under arrest and led him outside. Sitting Bull and his wife noisily stalled for time as the camp awakened and men converged at the house. As Bull Head ordered Sitting Bull to mount a horse, he said that the Indian Affairs agent wanted to see the chief, and that Sitting Bull could then return to his house. When Sitting Bull refused to comply,

18315-478: The largest mass execution in United States history with the hanging of 38 Dakota men. All four bands of eastern Dakota had been pressured into ceding large tracts of land to the United States in a series of treaties and were reluctantly moved to a reservation strip twenty miles wide, centered on Minnesota River. There, they were encouraged by U.S. Indian agents to become farmers rather than continue their hunting traditions. A crop failure in 1861, followed by

18480-671: The leaders of the Mdewakanton, Wahpekute, Sisseton and Wahpeton bands, having traded among them since arriving in the Minnesota River Valley 28 years beforehand as a representative of the American Fur Company . After receiving a message written by Lieutenant Timothy J. Sheehan about the seriousness of the attacks on Fort Ridgely, Colonel Sibley decided to wait for reinforcements, arms, ammunition and provisions before leaving St. Peter . On August 26, Sibley marched toward Fort Ridgely with 1400 men, including six companies of

18645-531: The letter's beginning, which included instructions and a plan to capture Sitting Bull. The plan called for the arrest to take place at dawn on December 15 and advised the use of a light spring wagon to facilitate removal before his followers could rally. Bullhead decided against using the wagon. He intended to have the police officers force Sitting Bull to mount a horse immediately after the arrest. Around 5:30 a.m. on December 15, 39 police officers and four volunteers approached Sitting Bull's house. They surrounded

18810-413: The men were provoked when the farmer refused to give them food or water, or liquor. The victims included Robinson Jones, who ran a post office, lodge, and store, and four others, including his wife and 15-year-old adopted daughter. Realizing that they were in trouble, the four men – Wahpeton men who had married Mdewakanton women – returned to Rice Creek village to tell their story to Red Middle Voice,

18975-610: The middle-aged women were forced into relationships which Dakota men perceived as "marriage". He lists "the chance to obtain a wife" as one of the many different motives young Dakota men had for participating in the early days of the conflict, along with revenge, plunder, and the chance to gain honors in warfare. There was at least one widely reported case of rape on the first evening of the conflict, August 18, 1862. There were also three well documented cases of female captives who were "adopted" and protected by Dakota families from potential aggressors. Confident with their initial success,

19140-599: The next 20 months. They were allowed to return north to the Standing Rock Agency in May 1883. In 1883, The New York Times reported that Sitting Bull had been baptized into the Catholic Church . James McLaughlin , Indian agent at Standing Rock Agency, dismissed these reports, saying: "The reported baptism of Sitting-Bull is erroneous. There is no immediate prospect of such ceremony so far as I am aware." In 1884, show promoter Alvaren Allen asked Agent James McLaughlin to allow Sitting Bull to tour parts of Canada and

19305-539: The non-Lakota speaker, the postpositions él and ektá sound like they can be interchangeable, but although they are full synonyms of each other, they are used in different occasions. Semantically (word meaning), they are used as locational and directional tools. In the English language they can be compared to prepositions like "at", "in", and "on" (when used as locatives) on the one hand, and "at", "in", and "on" (when used as directionals), "to", "into", and "onto", on

19470-471: The northern Sisseton and Wahpeton Dakota bands met at the Upper Sioux Agency in the northwestern part of the reservation and successfully negotiated to obtain food. When two other bands of the Dakota, the southern Mdewakanton and the Wahpekute , turned to the Lower Sioux Agency for supplies on August 15, 1862, they were rejected. Indian Agent (and Minnesota State Senator ) Thomas Galbraith managed

19635-411: The northern United States. The show was called the "Sitting Bull Connection". It was during this tour that Sitting Bull met Annie Oakley in present-day Minnesota . Sitting Bull was so impressed with Oakley's skills with firearms that he offered $ 65 (equal to $ 2,204 today) for a photographer to take a photo of the two together. The admiration and respect were mutual. Oakley stated that Sitting Bull made

19800-507: The northern plains states of North Dakota and South Dakota . Many communities have immersion programs for both children and adults. Like many indigenous languages, the Lakota language did not have a written form traditionally. However, efforts to develop a written form of Lakota began, primarily through the work of Christian missionaries and linguists, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The orthography has since evolved to reflect contemporary needs and usage. One significant figure in

19965-422: The original address which had been written as a 'gracious act of amity', and the audience, including President Grant , was left none the wiser. Sitting Bull stayed with the show for four months before returning home. During that time, audiences considered him a celebrity and romanticized him as a warrior . He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture, although he often gave his money away to

20130-435: The orthography, and argues against changing the spelling forms she learned from her father. However, she did consider that, a shared curriculum could "create consistency across the region and encourage the long-term viability of the language. However, Philomine is also cognizant that it will take more than a school curriculum to preserve the language." She added, "In order for a language to survive, it can't simply be taught from

20295-424: The other. (Pustet 2013) A pointer for when to use él and when to use ektá can be determined by the concepts of location (motionless) or motion; and space vs. time. These features can produce four different combinations, also called semantic domains, which can be arranged as follows (Pustet 2013): Summed up, when a context describes no motion, él is the appropriate postposition; when in motion, ektá

20460-441: The place name Ogallala . The voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ becomes a uvular trill ( [ʀ] ) before /i/ and in fast speech it is often realized as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] . The voiceless aspirated plosives have two allophonic variants each: those with a delay in voicing ([pʰ tʰ kʰ]) , and those with velar friction ([pˣ tˣ kˣ]) , which occur before /a/ , /ã/ , /o/ , /ĩ/ , and /ũ/ (thus, lakhóta , /laˈkʰota/

20625-507: The police used force on him. The Sioux in the village were enraged. Catch-the-Bear, a Lakota, shouldered his rifle and shot Bull Head, who, in response, fired his revolver into the chest of Sitting Bull. Another police officer, Red Tomahawk, shot Sitting Bull in the head, and Sitting Bull dropped to the ground. Sitting Bull died between 12 and 1 p.m. A close quarters fight erupted, and within minutes, several men were dead. The Lakota killed six policemen immediately, and two more died shortly after

20790-403: The preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized): hi=pi=kte , "they will arrive here", [hiukte]; yatkáŋ=pi=na , "they drank it and...", [jatkə̃õna] . Lakota also exhibits some traces of sound symbolism among fricatives, where the point of articulation changes to reflect intensity: zí , "it's yellow", ží , "it's tawny", ǧí , "it's brown". (Compare with

20955-533: The railroad through Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota territory. After the 1848 discovery of gold in the Sierra Nevada and dramatic gains in new wealth from it, other men became interested in the potential for gold mining in the Black Hills . In 1874, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer led a military expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln near Bismarck to explore the Black Hills for gold and to determine

21120-490: The ravine to try to outflank their men on the right, Sibley ordered Lieutenant Colonel William Rainey Marshall , with five companies of the 7th Minnesota Infantry Regiment and a six-pounder artillery piece under Captain Mark Hendricks, to advance to the north side of the camp; he also ordered two companies from the 6th Minnesota Infantry Regiment to reinforce them. Marshall deployed his men equally in dugouts and in

21285-536: The reservation, knowing that not all would likely comply. As of February 1, 1876, the Interior Department certified as hostile those bands who continued to live off the reservation. This certification allowed the military to pursue Sitting Bull and other Lakota bands as "hostiles". Based on tribal oral histories, historian Margot Liberty theorizes that many Lakota bands allied with the Cheyenne during

21450-602: The return of the 3rd Minnesota Infantry Regiment to Minnesota, following their humiliating surrender to the Confederates in the First Battle of Murfreesboro . The enlisted men of the 3rd Minnesota were formally exchanged as paroled prisoners on August 28. Placed under the command of Major Abraham E. Welch, who had served as a lieutenant in the 1st Minnesota Infantry Regiment , they joined Sibley's forces at Fort Ridgely on September 13. The final decisive battle of

21615-698: The show, the historian Utley contends that he did not. Historians have reported that Sitting Bull gave speeches about his desire for education for the young, and reconciling relations between the Sioux and whites. The historian Edward Lazarus wrote that Sitting Bull reportedly cursed his audience in Lakota in 1884, during an opening address celebrating the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway . According to Michael Hiltzik , "...Sitting Bull declared in Lakota , 'I hate all White people.' ... 'You are thieves and liars. You have taken away our land and made us outcasts.'" The translator, however, read

21780-449: The side and head by Standing Rock policemen Lieutenant Bull Head ( Tatankapah , Lakota: Tȟatȟáŋka Pȟá ) and Red Tomahawk ( Marcelus Chankpidutah , Lakota: Čhaŋȟpí Dúta ), after the police were fired upon by Sitting Bull's supporters. His body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota , near his birthplace. Sitting Bull

21945-462: The similar examples in Mandan .) Several orthographies as well as ad hoc spelling are used to write the Lakota language, with varying perspectives on whether standardization should be implemented. In 2002, Rosebud Cultural Studies teacher Randy Emery argued that standardization of the language could cause problems "because the language is utilized diversely. If standardization is determined to be

22110-547: The smaller size of the buffalo herds in Canada, Sitting Bull and his men found it difficult to find enough food to feed their starving people. Sitting Bull's presence in the country led to increased tensions between the Canadian and the United States governments. Before Sitting Bull left Canada, he may have visited Walsh for a final time and left a ceremonial headdress as a memento. Hunger and desperation eventually forced Sitting Bull and 186 of his family and followers to return to

22275-641: The subject and object need to be marked, two affixes occur on the verb. Below is a table illustrating this. Subject affixes are marked in italics and object affixes are marked in underline . Some affixes encompass both subject and object (such as čhi - ...). The symbol ∅ indicates a lack of marking for a particular subject/object (as in the case of 3rd Person Singular forms). Cells with three forms indicate Class I, Class II, and Class III verb forms in this order. Example: uŋk á ni pȟepi "We are waiting for you" from apȟé "to wait for somebody". Dakota War of 1862 The Dakota War of 1862 , also known as

22440-507: The subject of stative verbs. Most of the morphemes in each paradigm are prefixes, but plural subjects are marked with a suffix and third-person plural objects with an infix . First person arguments may be singular, dual , or plural; second or third person arguments may be singular or plural. Examples: máni "He walks." mánipi "They walk." Example: waŋwíčhayaŋke "He looked at them" from waŋyáŋkA "to look at something/somebody". Subject and object pronouns in one verb If both

22605-495: The summer of 1862. On 1 January 1862 George E. H. Day (Special Commissioner on Dakota Affairs) wrote a letter to President Lincoln. Day was an attorney from Saint Anthony who had been commissioned to look into the complaints of the Sioux. He wrote: Day also accused Clark Wallace Thompson, Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Northern Superintendency , of fraud. On August 4, 1862, representatives of

22770-494: The terms of the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux signed on July 23, 1851, and Treaty of Mendota signed on August 5, 1851, the Dakota ceded large tracts of land in Minnesota Territory to the U.S. in exchange for promises of money and supplies. The treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota committed the Dakota to live on a 20-mile (32  km) wide reservation centered on a 150 mile (240 km) stretch of

22935-403: The time, early August 1862, is historically unclear. Another version is that Myrick was referring to the Dakota women, who were already combing the floor of the fort's stables for any unprocessed oats to feed to their starving children, along with a little grass. The effect of Myrick's statement on Little Crow and his band was clear, however. In a letter to General Sibley , Little Crow said it

23100-519: The top. A language is a living thing and students need to breathe life into it daily; talking with friends, family and elders in Lakota". In 2018, at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation , Lakota speaker Manny Iron Hawk and his wife Renee Iron Hawk discussed opening an immersion school and the difficulties around choosing an orthography to write Lakota; Mr. Iron Hawk voiced support for the LLC (SLO) Orthography, saying it

23265-408: The town. The Dakota attacked Fort Ridgely on August 20 and 22, 1862. Although the Dakota were not able to take the fort, they ambushed a relief party from the fort to New Ulm on August 21. The defense at the Battle of Fort Ridgely further limited the ability of the American forces to aid outlying settlements. The Dakota raided farms and small settlements throughout south central Minnesota and what

23430-538: The treaty payments to the Dakota arrived in St. Paul, Minnesota , and were brought to Fort Ridgely the next day. They arrived too late to prevent violence. On August 17, 1862, four young Dakota men on a hunting trip killed five settlers near a settlement in Acton Township, Minnesota . Some accounts say that the men acted on a dare, following an argument about whether or not they should steal eggs. Others say that

23595-433: The upper Minnesota River . During the ratification process, however, the U.S. Senate removed Article 3 of each treaty, which had defined the reservations. In addition, much of the promised compensation went to traders for debts allegedly incurred by the Dakota, at a time when unscrupulous traders made enormous profits on their trade. Supporters of the original bill said these debts had been exaggerated. When Minnesota became

23760-412: The upper Missouri area throughout the late 1860s and early 1870s. The events between 1866 and 1868 mark a historically debated period of Sitting Bull's life. According to historian Stanley Vestal , who conducted interviews with surviving Hunkpapa in 1930, Sitting Bull was made "Supreme Chief of the whole Sioux Nation" at this time, but historians and ethnologists later refuted this, since Lakota society

23925-425: The vowels and the glide, two new phonetic vowels, [æː] and [ɔː] , result: iyæ̂: , "he left for there", from iyáye ; mitȟa: , "it's mine", from mitȟáwa . The plural enclitic =pi is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics =kte , =kiŋ , =kštó , or =na . If the vowel preceding =pi is high/open, =pi becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed), =pi becomes [o] (if

24090-534: The war effort. Pope also requested "two or three regiments" from Wisconsin. In the end, only the 25th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment arrived on September 22, and was sent to defend temporary military posts along the "Minnesota frontier". Recruitment for the Minnesota infantry had restarted in earnest in July 1862, following President Lincoln's call for 600,000 volunteers to fight with

24255-405: The war took place at the Battle of Wood Lake on September 23, 1862, and was a victory for the U.S. forces led by Colonel Henry Hastings Sibley. Following the arrival of more troops, guns, ammunition and provisions, Sibley's entire command had departed Fort Ridgely on September 19. According to one estimate, he had 1,619 men in his army, including the 270 men of the 3rd Minnesota, nine companies of

24420-429: The word čhíŋ precedes čónala in a dictionary. In 1982, Lakota educator Leroy Curley (1935–2012) devised a 41-letter circular alphabet. The basic word order of Lakota is subject–object–verb , although the order can be changed for expressive purposes (placing the object before the subject to bring the object into focus or placing the subject after the verb to emphasize its status as established information). It

24585-585: Was Albert White Hat Sr. , who taught at and later became the chair of the Lakota language program at his alma mater, Sinte Gleska University at Mission, South Dakota, one of the first tribal-based universities in the US. His work focused on the Sicangu dialect using an orthography developed by Lakota in 1982 and which today is slowly supplanting older systems provided by linguists and missionaries. The Lakota people 's creation stories say that language originated from

24750-459: Was 14 years old, he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors, which included his father and his uncle Four Horns, in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. He displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, which was witnessed by the other mounted Lakota. Upon returning to camp, his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake, in

24915-582: Was Sitting Bull's provision for Wooden Leg 's Northern Cheyenne tribe. They had been impoverished by Captain Reynolds' March 17, 1876, attack and fled to Sitting Bull's camp for safety. Over the course of the first half of 1876, Sitting Bull's camp continually expanded as natives joined him for safety in numbers. His leadership had attracted warriors and families, creating an extensive village estimated at more than 10,000 people. Lt. Col. Custer came across this large camp on June 25, 1876. Sitting Bull did not take

25080-525: Was a leader of the Blackfeet , long-time powerful enemies of the Lakota and Cheyenne. Sitting Bull wished to make peace with the Blackfeet Nation and Crowfoot. As an advocate for peace himself, Crowfoot eagerly accepted the tobacco peace offering. Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him. Sitting Bull and his people stayed in Canada for four years. Due to

25245-486: Was a major reason for commencing war: "Dear Sir – For what reason we have commenced this war I will tell you. it is on account of Maj. Galbrait [sic] we made a treaty with the Government a big for what little we do get and then cant get it till our children was dying with hunger – it is with the traders that commence Mr A[ndrew] J Myrick told the Indians that they would eat grass or their own dung." On August 16, 1862,

25410-503: Was accessible to second language learners, but know not all agreed with him. Others in the community voiced a preference for the tribe creating their own orthography. While Mr. Iron Hawk supports this approach, Renee Iron Hawk also expressed a sense of urgency, saying "We should just use what we have, and then fix and replace it, but we need to start speaking it now". The Iron Hawks both agreed that too much time has been spent arguing over which orthography to use or not use, and not enough time

25575-581: Was born on land later included in the Dakota Territory sometime between 1831 and 1837. In 2007, Sitting Bull's great-grandson asserted from family oral tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River , south of present-day Miles City, Montana . He was named Ȟoká Psíče (Jumping Badger) at birth, and nicknamed Húŋkešni [ˈhʊ̃kɛʃni] or "Slow", an allusion to his careful and unhurried nature. When Sitting Bull

25740-400: Was called, and Little Crow proposed attacking and capturing the camp that night. However, Gabriel Renville (Tiwakan) and Solomon Two Stars argued vehemently against his plan, saying that Little Crow had underestimated the size and strength of Sibley's command, that attacking at night was "cowardly", and that his plan would fail because they and others would not help them. Upon learning that

25905-587: Was divided into townships and plots for settlement. Logging and agriculture on these plots eliminated surrounding forests and prairies, which interrupted the Dakota's annual cycle of farming, hunting, fishing and gathering wild rice . Hunting by settlers dramatically reduced populations of wild game, such as bison, elk, deer and bear. This shortage of wild game not only made it difficult for the Dakota in southern and western Minnesota to directly obtain meat, but also reduced their ability to sell furs to traders for additional supplies. Although payments were guaranteed,

26070-415: Was done to children taken from their families by the residential schools . In 2006 some of the Lakota language teachers at Standing Rock chose to collaborate with Sitting Bull College , and the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC), with the aim of expanding their language curriculum. Teachers at Standing Rock use several different orthographies. Language activists at Standing Rock also refer to it as simply

26235-402: Was erected there. Following Sitting Bull's death, his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago for use as an exhibit at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition . Indigenous dancers also performed at the exposition. On September 14, 1989, the U.S. Postal Service released a Great Americans series 28¢ postage stamp featuring a likeness of the leader. On March 6, 1996, Standing Rock College

26400-427: Was highly decentralized. Lakota bands and their elders made individual decisions, including whether or not to wage war. Sitting Bull's band of Hunkpapa continued to attack migrating parties and forts in the late 1860s. In 1871, the Northern Pacific Railway conducted a survey for a route across the northern plains directly through Hunkpapa lands, it encountered stiff Lakota resistance. The same railway people returned

26565-418: Was killed in the battle by a cannonball. Big Eagle later explained that hundreds of Dakota fighters were unable to get involved or fire a shot in the battle, because they had been positioned too far out. Sibley decided not to pursue the retreating Dakota, mainly because he lacked the cavalry to do so. On his orders, Sibley's men recovered and buried 14 fallen Dakota. The exact Dakota losses are unknown but

26730-537: Was later found with grass stuffed into his mouth, in retaliation for Myrick's response, "Let them eat grass!" when asked weeks before if he was willing to extend credit to the Dakota when the government annuity payments had not arrived. Killing was suspended for a time while the attackers turned their attention to raiding the stores for flour, pork, clothing, whiskey, guns, and ammunition, allowing others to flee for Fort Ridgely, fourteen miles away. A total of thirteen clerks, traders, and government workers were killed at

26895-525: Was renamed Sitting Bull College in his honor. The college serves as an institution of higher education on Sitting Bull's home of Standing Rock in North Dakota and South Dakota. In August 2010, a research team led by Eske Willerslev , an ancient DNA expert at the University of Copenhagen , announced its intention to sequence the genome of Sitting Bull, with the approval of his descendants, using

27060-478: Was soon reduced. Although no fighting took place in Iowa, the Dakota uprising led to the rapid expulsion of the few remaining unassimilated Dakota. After suffering defeats in the Minnesota River Valley, Little Crow split off from the main force and moved north into central Minnesota. On September 3, 1862, a detachment of the 10th Minnesota Infantry was attacked by Little Crow at the Battle of Acton and fell back to

27225-412: Was then eastern Dakota Territory . On August 19, 1862, Minnesota Governor Alexander Ramsey asked his long-time friend and political rival, former Governor Henry Hastings Sibley , to lead an expedition up the Minnesota River for the relief of Fort Ridgely, and gave him an officer's commission as Colonel of Volunteers. Sibley had no previous military experience, but was familiar with the Dakota and

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