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63-459: Donald S. Lopez Jr. describes the etymology of the term: The term pāramitā , commonly translated as "perfection", has two etymologies. The first derives it from the word parama , meaning "highest", "most distant", and hence "chief", "primary", "most excellent". Hence, the substantive can be rendered "excellence" or "perfection". This reading is supported by the Madhyāntavibhāga (V.4), where

126-504: A Buddha, in order to benefit and liberate all sentient beings. Thus, Buddhahood is the goal for all the various spiritual paths found in the various Mahayana traditions (including Vajrayana , Zen , and Pure land ). This contrasts with the common Theravada goal of individual liberation, or arhatship . Buddhahood is the state of an awakened being, who, having found the path of cessation of dukkha ("suffering", as created by attachment to desires and distorted perception and thinking)

189-414: A Buddha, or that it must take aeons. In Theravada Buddhism , Buddha refers to one who has reached awakening (bodhi) through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out the dharma. A samyaksambuddha re-discovers the truths and the path to awakening on their own, and then teaches these to others after his awakening. A pratyekabuddha also reaches nirvana through his own efforts, but

252-531: A Buddha. The Mahayana tradition generally follows the list of "Twelve Great Buddha Acts" (Skt. dvadaśabuddhakārya ). These are: The Pali suttas do not have such a list, but the Theravada commentarial tradition lists 30 obligatory acts of a Buddha. Various Mahayana sutras and treatises contain explanations of the nature of a Buddha and the various attributes which Buddhas are said to have. These attributes are significantly different and more exalted than

315-507: A Buddha: one who had grown up in the world but had now gone beyond it, as a lotus grows from the water but blossoms above it, unsoiled. The Pāli Canon also states that Gautama Buddha is known as being a "teacher of the gods and humans," superior to both the gods (devas) and humans since he has attained the highest liberation, whereas the gods are still subject to anger, fear, and sorrow. In the Madhupindika Sutta (MN 18), Buddha

378-516: A Western monk of the Mountains and Rivers Order in New York, writes that Buddha is inspirational based on his humanness: A fundamental part of Buddhism's appeal to billions of people over the past two and a half millennia is the fact that the central figure, commonly referred to by the title "Buddha", was not a god, or a special kind of spiritual being, or even a prophet or an emissary of one. On

441-459: A classic list of " supernormal knowledges " (Skt. abhijñā , Pali : abhiññā ) that a Buddha has attained through spiritual practice. There is an ancient list of "six classes of superknowledge" (Pali: chalabhiññā, Skt. ṣaḍabhijña) that Buddhas have which are found in various Buddhist sources. These are: Buddhist texts include numerous stories of the Buddha's miracles , which include displays of

504-479: A great man . In the Pāli Canon , the Buddha is depicted as someone between a human and a divine being. He has a human body that decays and dies, and he was born from human parents (though some sources depict this as a miraculous birth). The most important element of a Buddha is that they have attained the supreme spiritual goal: nirvana . This is what makes him supreme and what grants him special powers. This view of

567-484: A later stratum (between 1st and 2nd century BCE) called the Buddhavamsa , twenty-one more Buddhas were added to the list of seven names in the early texts. Theravada tradition maintains that there can be up to five Buddhas in a kalpa or world age and that the current kalpa has had four Buddhas, with the current Buddha, Gotama, being the fourth and the future Buddha Metteyya being the fifth and final Buddha of

630-408: A later time in order to appeal to the interests and needs of the lay community and to popularize their religion. However, these views rely on the early scholarly presumption of Mahāyāna originating with religious devotion and appeal to laity. More recently, scholars have started to open up early Mahāyāna literature, which is very ascetic and expounds the ideal of the monk's life in the forest. Therefore,

693-461: A single utterance, all of his sayings being true, his physical body being limitless, his power ( prabhāva ) being limitless, the length of his life being limitless, never tiring of enlightening sentient beings and awakening pure faith in them, having no sleep or dreams, no pause in answering a question, and always in meditation ( samādhi ). A doctrine ascribed to the Mahāsāṃghikas is, "The power of

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756-534: Is a title for those who are spiritually awake or enlightened , and have thus attained the supreme goal of Buddhism, variously described as nirvana ("blowing out"), bodhi (awakening, enlightenment), and liberation ( vimutti, vimoksa ). A Buddha is also someone who fully understands the Dharma , the true nature of all things or phenomena ( dharmas ), the ultimate truth . Buddhahood (Sanskrit: buddhatva; Pali : buddhatta or buddhabhāva ; Chinese : 成佛 )

819-502: Is a common view in Buddhist modernism , which sought to teach a form of Buddhism that was modern , rational and scientific . One figure who sees Buddha as mainly human is Thích Nhất Hạnh , a Vietnamese Buddhist monk in the Zen tradition, who states that "Buddha was not a god. He was a human being like you and me, and he suffered just as we do." In a similar fashion, Jack Maguire,

882-449: Is also seen as having many miraculous and magical powers . However, a living Buddha has the limitations of a physical body, will feel pain, get old and die. In Mahayana Buddhism however, a Buddha is considered to be a transcendent being, who is all-knowing , immeasurably powerful , with an eternal lifespan. His wisdom light is said to pervade the cosmos, and his great compassion and skillful means are limitless. This transcendent being

945-517: Is classified as both Śīla and Prajñā , Mettā and Upekkhā are classified as Dhyāna , and Adhiṭṭhāna falls under all six. Bhikkhu Bodhi states that the correlations between the two sets shows there was a shared core before the Theravada and Mahayana schools split. In the Ten Stages Sutra , four more pāramitās are listed: The Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra ( महारत्नकूट सूत्र , the Sutra of

1008-475: Is common throughout East Asian Buddhism . The myriad Buddhas are also seen as active in the world, guiding all sentient beings to Buddhahood. Paul Williams writes that the Buddha in Mahāyāna is "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world". This view entails a kind of docetism regarding the "historical" Buddha, Shakyamuni . His life and death were a "mere appearance," like a magic show; in reality,

1071-695: Is described in powerful terms as the Lord of the Dhamma and the bestower of immortality. Similarly, in the Anuradha Sutta (SN 44.2), Gautama Buddha is described as the "supreme man" and the "attainer of the superlative attainment". Because he has attained the highest spiritual knowledge, the Buddha is also identified with the Dhamma (the most fundamental reality) In the Vakkali Sutta (SN 22.87). In

1134-493: Is equivalent to the arhat. In Mahāyāna Buddhism meanwhile, a Buddha is seen as a transcendent being who has extensive powers, such as omniscience , omnipotence , and whose awakened wisdom (buddha-jñana) is all pervasive. This view can be found in numerous Mahāyāna sources, like the Avatamsaka sutra . Mahāyāna buddhology mainly understands the Buddha through the "three bodies" ( trikaya ) framework. In this framework,

1197-484: Is in the state of "no-more-Learning". There is a broad spectrum of opinion on the nature of Buddhahood, its universality, and the method of attaining Buddhahood among the various schools of Buddhism. The level to which this manifestation requires ascetic practices varies from none at all to an absolute requirement, dependent on doctrine. While most schools accept the bodhisattva ideal, in which it takes aeons to reach Buddhahood, not all agree that everyone can become

1260-400: Is not understood as having a normal physical human body, instead, Mahayana defends a kind of docetism , in which the Buddha's life on earth (as Shakyamuni) was a magical display which only appeared to have a human body. A being who is on the path to become a Buddha is called a bodhisattva . In Mahayana Buddhism , Buddhahood is the universal goal and all Mahayanists ultimately aim at becoming

1323-505: Is reflected in the Tibetan translation pha rol tu phyin pa ("gone to the other side"). Theravada teachings on the pāramīs can be found in late canonical books and post-canonical commentaries . Theravada commentator Dhammapala describes them as noble qualities usually associated with bodhisattvas . American scholar-monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu describes them as perfections (paramī) of character necessary to achieve enlightenment as one of

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1386-492: Is the condition and state of a buddha. This highest spiritual state of being is also termed sammā-sambodhi (Sanskrit: samyaksaṃbodhi; "full, complete awakening") and is interpreted in many different ways across schools of Buddhism . The title of "Buddha" is most commonly used for Gautama Buddha , the historical founder of Buddhism, who is often simply known as "the Buddha". The title is also used for other beings who have achieved awakening and liberation (or vimoksha ), such as

1449-412: Is the main path, and tantra is something to train in only as a branch. The four tenet systems are like stairs. The higher systems highlight contradictions in the lower ones, but by knowing the lower, we can appreciate the profundity of the higher. The higher systems are vast and profound since they do not contradict logic. If we are aware of the areas in which we can make mistakes, it helps us to stay on

1512-533: Is unable or unwilling to teach the dharma to others. An arhat needs to follow the teaching of a Buddha to attain Nirvana, and may also preach the dharma after attaining nirvana. In one instance the term buddha is also used in Theravada to refer to all who attain Nirvana , using the term sāvakabuddha to designate an arhat, someone who depends on the teachings of a Buddha to attain Nirvana. In this broader sense it

1575-621: The Buddha ; as a result, the ten perfections were identified as part of the path for the bodhisattva (Pāli: bodhisatta ). Over subsequent centuries, the pāramīs were seen as being significant for aspirants to both Buddhahood and arahantship . Bhikkhu Bodhi summarizes: in established Theravāda tradition the pāramīs are not regarded as a discipline peculiar to candidates for Buddhahood alone but as practices which must be fulfilled by all aspirants to enlightenment and deliverance, whether as Buddhas , paccekabuddhas , or disciples . What distinguishes

1638-493: The abhiññās, healings, elemental magic (such as manipulating fire and water), and various other supernatural phenomena, traveling to higher realms of Buddhist cosmology , and others. One of the most famous of these miracles was the Twin Miracle at Sāvatthī , in which the Buddha emitted fire from the top of his body and water from his lower body simultaneously, before alternating them and then expanding them to illuminate

1701-617: The early Buddhist schools , the Mahāsāṃghika branch regarded the buddhas as being characterized primarily by their supramundane ( lokottara ) nature. The Mahāsāṃghikas advocated the transcendental and supramundane nature of the buddhas and bodhisattvas and the fallibility of arhats. Of the 48 special theses attributed by the Indian scholar Vasumitra to the Mahāsāṃghika sects of Ekavyāvahārika , Lokottaravāda , and Kukkuṭika , 20 points concern

1764-480: The kalpa . This would make the current aeon a bhadrakalpa (fortunate aeon). In some Sanskrit and northern Buddhist traditions however, a bhadrakalpa has up to 1,000 Buddhas, with the Buddhas Gotama and Metteyya also being the fourth and fifth Buddhas of the kalpa respectively. The Koṇāgamana Buddha , is mentioned in a 3rd-century BCE inscription by Ashoka at Nigali Sagar , in today's Nepal . There

1827-626: The suffering which unawakened people experience in life. Most schools of Buddhism have also held that the Buddha was omniscient . However, the early texts contain explicit repudiations of making this claim of the Buddha. Mahāyāna buddhology expands the powers of a Buddha exponentially, seeing them as having unlimited lifespan and all-pervasive omniscient wisdom, as omnipotent, and as able to produce an infinite number of magical manifestations (nirmanakayas) as well as being able to produce pure lands (heaven-like realms for bodhisattvas). The Early Buddhist texts (and other later sources as well) contain

1890-697: The Buddha as having ten characteristics (Ch./Jp. 十號). These characteristics are frequently mentioned in the Pāli Canon as well as in other early Buddhist sources as well as in Mahayana texts , and are chanted daily in many Buddhist monasteries. The ten epithets are: The tenth epithet is sometimes listed as "The World Honored Enlightened One" (Skt. Buddha-Lokanatha ) or "The Blessed Enlightened One" (Skt. Buddha-Bhagavan ). According to various Buddhist texts, upon reaching Buddhahood each Buddha performs various acts ( buddhacarita ) during his life to complete his duty as

1953-404: The Buddha is seen as a very special and unique class of persons called a "great person" (mahāpurisa). Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human. Instead, he is seen as having many supranormal powers ( siddhi ), such as the superknowledges ( abhijna ), the capacity for a very long lifespan, as well as the thirty-two marks of

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2016-554: The Buddha knew the dharmas of innumerable other Buddhas of the ten directions. Mahāyāna Buddhism generally follows the Mahāsāṃghika ideal of the Buddha being a transcendent and all-knowing (sarvajña) being with unlimited spiritual powers. Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as an omnipotent and almighty divinity "endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities". Mahāyāna cosmology also includes innumerable Buddhas who reside in innumerable buddha fields ( buddha kshetra ). The Mahāyāna Lotus Sutra , for example, says

2079-525: The Buddha still exists and is constantly helping living beings. Because of this transcendental view, Mahāyāna Buddhologies have sometimes been compared to various types of theism (including pantheism ) by different scholars. There is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue, as well on the general relationship between Buddhism and theism . Since Buddhas remain accessible, a Mahāyānist can direct prayers to them, as well as experience visions and revelations from them. This has been very influential in

2142-478: The Buddha's lifespan is as long as an eon ( kalpa ) but that he voluntarily allowed his life to end. Another early source for the Mahāsāṃghika view that a Buddha was a transcendent being is the idea of the thirty-two major marks of a Buddha's body. Furthermore, the Simpsapa sutta states that the Buddha had way more knowledge than what he taught to his disciples. The Mahāsāṃghikas took this further and argued that

2205-616: The Buddhas a supreme person with many superpowers, but which has a physical body that has many limitations of a human form was also shared by other early Buddhist schools like the Sarvastivada school, and the Dharmaguptaka . In the Pāli Canon, the Buddha is asked whether he was a deva or a human, and he replies that he had eliminated the deep-rooted unconscious traits that would make him either one, and should instead be called

2268-552: The Buddhist pāramitās as a set of character ideals that guide self-cultivation and provide a concrete image of the Buddhist ideal. The Prajñapāramitā sūtras (प्रज्ञापारमिता सूत्र) and a large number of other Mahāyāna texts list six perfections: This list is also mentioned by the Theravāda commentator Dhammapala , who describes it as a categorization of the same ten perfections of Theravada Buddhism. According to Dhammapala, Sacca

2331-662: The Dharma." The concept of many bodhisattvas simultaneously working toward Buddhahood is also found among the Mahāsāṃghika tradition, and further evidence of this is given in the Samayabhedoparacanacakra , which describes the doctrines of the Mahāsāṃghikas. Guang Xing writes that the Acchariyābbhūtasutta of the Majjhimanikāya along with its Chinese Madhyamāgama parallel is the most ancient source for

2394-570: The Heap of Jewels ) also includes these additional four pāramitās, with the order of numbers 8 and 9 switched. According to the perspective of Tibetan Buddhism , the practice of accumulating paramitas is generally considered very important. In most contexts, they are seen as a fundamental basis for practice of the higher teachings, such as Vajrayana .  His Holiness the Dalai Lama has said: To attain enlightenment, we need better rebirths; and

2457-474: The Mahāsāṃghika view. The sutra mentions various miracles performed by the Buddha before his birth and after. The Chinese version even calls him Bhagavan , which suggests the idea that the Buddha was already awakened before descending down to earth to be born. Similarly, the idea that the lifespan of a Buddha is limitless is also based on ancient ideas, such as the Mahāparinirvānasūtra's statement that

2520-520: The Pāli Canon that therefore might not be an original part of the Theravāda teachings. The oldest parts of the Sutta Piṭaka (for example, Majjhima Nikāya , Digha Nikāya , Saṃyutta Nikāya and the Aṅguttara Nikāya ) do not mention the pāramīs as a category (though they are all mentioned individually). Some scholars refer to the pāramīs as a semi-Mahāyāna teaching added to the scriptures at

2583-434: The benefit of others." This ultimate awakened reality is understood and interpreted in numerous different ways by the different Mahayana schools. The Buddha-nature doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism also consider Buddhahood to be a universal and innate property which is immanent in all beings. Most Buddhists do not consider Gautama Buddha to have been the only Buddha. The Pāli Canon refers to many previous ones (see list of

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2646-463: The bodhisattva path based on a system of four pāramitās: The Mahāvibhāṣā also mentions the system of six pāramitās, arguing that patience ( Kṣānti ) is classified as a kind of discipline and that meditation ( Dhyāna ) is to be seen as a mode of wisdom ( prajñā ). Religious studies scholar Dale S. Wright states that Mahāyāna texts refer to the pāramitās as "bases of training" for those looking to achieve enlightenment. Wright describes

2709-407: The contrary, he was a human being like the rest of us who quite simply woke up to full aliveness. The various Buddhist schools hold some varying interpretations on the nature of Buddha. All Buddhist traditions hold that a Buddha is fully awakened and has completely purified his mind of the three poisons of craving , aversion and ignorance . A Buddha is no longer bound by saṃsāra , and has ended

2772-594: The cosmos. Mahayana sutras contain even more extensive miracles. In the Vimalakirti Sutra , the Buddha display the true pure nature of his " buddha field " to everyone on earth, who suddenly beholds the world as a perfect world filled with jewels and other majestic features. Likewise, in the Lotus Sutra , the Buddha shakes the earth and shines a beam of light which illuminates thousands of "buddha-fields". Some Buddhists meditate on (or contemplate)

2835-615: The current kalpa (Pali: kappa, meaning eon or "age") called the good eon ( bhaddakappa ) and three are from past eons. One sutta called Chakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta from an early Buddhist text called the Digha Nikaya also mentions that following the Seven Buddhas of Antiquity, a Buddha named Maitreya is predicted to arise in the world. However, according to a text in the Theravada Buddhist tradition from

2898-422: The discriminating awareness (wisdom) of knowing what is beneficial and what is of harm. Therefore, we need to cultivate all six far-reaching attitudes. Similarly, concerning the six paramitas, or "the six far-reaching attitudes," and how they relate to the practice of the three vehicles of Tibetan Buddhism, His Holiness the Dalai Lama has said: The Hinayana path is the preliminary path, the Mahayana sutra one

2961-535: The essential real Buddha is equated with the Dharmakāya . As in Mahāyāna traditions, the Mahāsāṃghikas held the doctrine of the existence of many contemporaneous buddhas throughout the ten directions. In the Mahāsāṃghika Lokānuvartana Sūtra , it is stated, "The Buddha knows all the dharmas of the countless buddhas of the ten directions." It is also stated, "All buddhas have one body, the body of

3024-677: The historical Buddha or other Buddhas who appear human are understood docetically as magical "transformation bodies" ( nirmanakaya ). Meanwhile, the real or ultimate Buddha is the Dharmakaya , the body of ultimate reality. Thus, the Ratnagotravibhāga ( Analysis of the Jeweled Lineage ), a key Mahāyāna treatise, defines the Buddha as "the uncompounded (asamskrta), and spontaneous (anabhoga) Dharmakaya" and as "self-enlightened and self-arisen wisdom (jñana), compassion and power for

3087-409: The history of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Furthermore, a Mahāyāna devotee can also aspire to be reborn in a Buddha's Pure Land or Buddha field ( buddhakṣetra ), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. This practice is the central element of East Asian Pure Land Buddhism . Some modern Buddhists have argued that the Buddha was just a human being, albeit a very wise one. This

3150-769: The last two pertain to wisdom practice. Together, they encompass all the necessary methods and skills to dispel delusion and meet the needs of others, and to rise from states of contentment to even greater happiness. Donald S. Lopez Jr. Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.133 via cp1102 cp1102, Varnish XID 548521804 Upstream caches: cp1102 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 05:55:12 GMT Buddhahood In Buddhism , Buddha ( / ˈ b uː d ə , ˈ b ʊ d ə / , which in classic Indic languages means "awakened one")

3213-503: The lifespan of the Buddha is immeasurable. It also says that the Buddha actually achieved Buddhahood countless eons ( kalpas ) ago and has already been teaching the Dharma through his numerous manifestations ( nirmana ) for eons. In spite of this transcendent nature, Mahāyāna also affirms the immanent nature of Buddhahood in all beings (through the doctrine of Buddha-nature , which is seen as something that all beings have). This view of an immanent Buddha essence in all normal human beings

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3276-458: The named Buddhas ), while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial origin (see Amitābha or Vairocana as examples. For lists of many thousands of Buddha names see Taishō Tripiṭaka numbers 439–448). The Theravada Buddhist tradition generally sees the Buddha as a supreme person who is neither a God in the theistic sense, nor a deva , nor a regular human . Thus,

3339-495: The other human Buddhas who achieved enlightenment before Gautama; members of the Five Buddha Families such as Amitabha ; and the bodhisattva Maitreya , known as the "Buddha of the future who will attain awakening at a future time." In Theravada Buddhism , a Buddha is commonly understood as a being with the deepest spiritual wisdom about the nature of reality who has transcended rebirth and all suffering . He

3402-476: The practice of the pāramitās in Mahāyāna Buddhism may have been close to the ideals of the ascetic tradition of the śramaṇa . Bhikkhu Bodhi maintains that in the earliest Buddhist texts (which he identifies as the first four nikāyas ), those seeking the extinction of suffering ( nibbana ) pursued the noble eightfold path . As time went on, a backstory was provided for the multi-life development of

3465-433: The right path and have confidence in it. Thus, the study of the tenet systems gives stability to our view. Then, on the basis of the six far-reaching attitudes and bodhichitta , we will be able to fulfill our own aims and those of others. Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche renders "pāramitā" into English as "transcendent action" and then frames and qualifies it: When we say that paramita means "transcendent action," we mean it in

3528-425: The sense that actions or attitude are performed in a non-egocentric manner. "Transcendental" does not refer to some external reality, but rather to the way in which we conduct our lives and perceive the world – either in an egocentric or a non-egocentric way. The six paramitas are concerned with the effort to step out of the egocentric mentality. The initial four perfections involve skillful means practice, while

3591-528: The six perfections – in particular, far-reaching ethical self-discipline – enable us to attain better rebirths. We won’t be able to help others materially if we aren’t wealthy, and so we need to cultivate generosity. We need virtuous friends, and so we must reject anger and practice patience. In order to accomplish anything, we need perseverance. To gain friends, we must control our disturbing emotions, and so we must practice mental constancy (concentration). And finally, to really be effective in helping others, we need

3654-410: The supramundane nature of buddhas and bodhisattvas. According to Vasumitra, these four groups held that the Buddha is able to know all dharmas in a single moment of the mind. Yao Zhihua writes: In their view, the Buddha is equipped with the following supernatural qualities: transcendence ( lokottara ), lack of defilements, all of his utterances preaching his teaching , expounding all his teachings in

3717-467: The supreme bodhisattva from aspirants in the other two vehicles is the degree to which the pāramīs must be cultivated and the length of time they must be pursued. But the qualities themselves are universal requisites for deliverance, which all must fulfill to at least a minimal degree to merit the fruits of the liberating path. The Sarvāstivāda Vaibhāṣika school's main commentary, the Mahāvibhāṣā , teaches

3780-501: The tathāgatas is unlimited, and the life of the buddhas is unlimited." According to Guang Xing, two main aspects of the Buddha can be seen in Mahāsāṃghika teachings: the true Buddha who is omniscient and immeasurably powerful, and the manifested forms through which he liberates sentient beings through skillful means. For the Mahāsaṃghikas, the historical Gautama Buddha was one of these transformation bodies (Skt. nirmāṇakāya ), while

3843-596: The three enlightened beings, a samma sambuddha , a pacceka-buddha , or an arahant . In the Pāli Canon , the Buddhavamsa of the Khuddaka Nikāya lists the ten perfections ( dasa pāramiyo ) as: Two of these virtues — mettā and upekkhā —are also brahmavihāras , and two – vīrya and upekkhā —are factors of awakening . The Theravāda teachings on the pāramīs can be found in canonical books ( Jataka tales , Apadāna , Buddhavamsa , Cariyāpiṭaka ) and post-canonical commentaries written to supplement

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3906-436: The twelve excellences ( parama ) are associated with the ten perfections ( pāramitā ). A more creative yet widely reported etymology divides pāramitā into pāra and mita , with pāra meaning "beyond", "the further bank, shore or boundary," and mita , meaning "that which has arrived", or ita meaning "that which goes". Pāramitā then means "that which has gone beyond", "that which goes beyond" or "transcendent". This reading

3969-406: The way a Buddha is understood in non-Mahayana Buddhism. Some of the key attributes of Buddhahood in Mahayana buddhology include: In the earliest strata of Pali Buddhist texts , especially in the first four Nikayas , only the following seven Buddhas, The Seven Buddhas of Antiquity ( Saptatathāgata ), are explicitly mentioned and named (see for example SN 12.4 to SN 12.10). Four of these are from

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