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32-572: The term Six Armenian Vilayets was a diplomatic usage referring to the Ottoman provinces with substantial Armenian populations. In fact, this term was known in the diplomatic language of the time as the area for which a number of Great Powers wished reforms for the benefit of the Armenians. The term was based on the official language adopted by the signatories of the Treaty of Berlin , the final act of

64-653: A Bulgarian state, which was just what Britain and Austria-Hungary feared the most. The Treaty of Berlin confirmed most of the Russian gains from the Ottoman Empire specified in the Treaty of San Stefano, such as Batumi and Adjara , but the valley of Alashkerd and the town of Bayazid were returned to the Ottomans. The regions of Ardahan and Kars were also ceded to Russia. The 1879 Treaty of Constantinople

96-488: A border rectification between Greece and the Ottoman Empire, which occurred after protracted negotiations in 1881, with the transfer of Thessaly to Greece. In the "Salisbury Circular" of 1 April, the Marquess of Salisbury , appointed foreign secretary the next day, made clear his own and his government's objections to the Treaty of San Stefano and its favourable position of Russia. Historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote, "If

128-523: A major European crisis that reinforced pre- World War I alliances. The Treaty of Berlin accorded special legal status to some religious groups and also would serve as a model for the Minority Treaties , which would be established within the framework of the League of Nations . It stipulated that Romania recognize non-Christians (Jews and Muslims) as full citizens. It also vaguely called for

160-478: A new Ottoman Constitution approved by Sultan Abdul Hamid II that same day. In the subsequent conference's plenary sessions, the Ottoman Empire submitted objections and alternative reform proposals that were rejected by the Great Powers, and attempts to bridge the gap did not succeed. Eventually, on 18 January 1877 Grand Vizier Midhat Pasha announced the definitive refusal of the Ottoman Empire to accept

192-546: The Armenian Apostolic Church . Ethnic Armenians who professed the Muslim faith, which by that time had grown in number, were counted only as “Muslims” (not as Armenian Muslims or Armenians), while Armenian Protestants, just as Pontic Greeks , Caucasus Greeks , and Laz, were counted as "others". All figures are as of early 20th century. Treaty of Berlin (1878) The Treaty of Berlin (formally

224-574: The Black Sea a neutral territory. The treaty had protected the Ottoman Empire, ended the Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia and Russia) and weakened Russia's overall position. In 1870, Russia invoked the doctrine of rebus sic stantibus and effectively terminated the treaty by breaching provisions concerning the neutrality of the Black Sea. The great powers became increasingly convinced that

256-607: The Black Sea Straits and Constantinople itself and thus – as Prime Minister Disraeli feared – potentially threaten the vital Mediterranean routes to British India via the Suez Canal , completed in 1869. On his part, Salisbury saw the conference as a promising opportunity for mapping out a comprehensive deal with Russia over their conflicting territorial ambitions in Central Asia. The conference envisaged

288-617: The Congress of Berlin in 1878, in Article LXI: “The Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and to guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds.” Note: The analysis excludes certain portions of these provinces where Armenians are only a minor element. These portions are as follows: Hakkiari, in

320-598: The Ottoman territories with a majority- Bulgarian population. The Ottoman Empire refused the proposed reforms, leading to the Russo-Turkish War a few months later. The Great Powers were represented at the conference respectively by: Of these, Lord Salisbury, Count de Chaudordy and Baron von Calice were Ambassadors Plenipotentiary to the conference, while Count Ignatyev, Sir Henry Elliot, Count de Bourgoing, Baron von Werther, Count Zichy and Count Corti were

352-708: The Treaty between Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire for the Settlement of Affairs in the East ) was signed on 13 July 1878. In the aftermath of the Russian victory against the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 , the major powers restructured the map of the Balkan region . They reversed some of the extreme gains claimed by Russia in

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384-753: The Ottoman Empire would not be able to hold its territories in Europe. In 1875, the Herzegovina uprising resulted in the Great Eastern Crisis . As the conflict in the Balkans intensified, atrocities during the 1876 April Uprising in Bulgaria inflamed anti-Turkish sentiments in Russia and Britain, which eventually culminated in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 . The treaty formally recognized

416-716: The Sanjak of Novi Pazar were withdrawn in 1908, after the annexation of the Vilayet of Bosnia and the resulting Bosnian Crisis , to reach a compromise with the Ottoman Empire, which was struggling with internal strife because of the Young Turk Revolution (1908). The chaotic situation in the Ottoman Empire also allowed Bulgaria to formally declare its independence on 5 October 1908. Constantinople Conference The 1876–77 Constantinople Conference ( Turkish : Tersane Konferansı "Shipyard Conference", after

448-453: The Turks, Kurds, Circassians, etc. The official Ottoman population statistics of 1914 that were based on an earlier census underestimated the number of ethnic minorities, including the number of Armenians. The Ottoman figures didn't define any ethnic groups, only religious ones. So the “Armenian” population as counted by the authorities only tallied ethnic Armenians who were also adherents of

480-500: The Vilayet of Van; the south of Sairt, in the Vilayet of Bitlis; the south of the Vilayet of Diyarbekir; the south of Malatia, in the Vilayet of Mamuret-ul-Aziz; the north-west and west of the Vilayet of Sivas. including Qizilbash including Zaza Assyrians ( Nestorians , Jacobites , Chaldeans ), Circassians , Greeks , Yazidis , Persians , Lazs , Roma Note: The Ottoman population statistics doesn't give information for separate Muslim ethnic groups such as

512-471: The conference (‘ Tsarigrad ’ being the old Bulgarian name for Constantinople). Bulgarian historiography treats the conference as the most reliable international evidence for the Bulgarian character of the local Slavic population of Macedonia due to the fact that the Ottoman Empire and the 6 European Great Powers, regardless of the differences in their geopolitical interests, recognized the majority of

544-683: The conference decisions. The rejection by the Ottoman Government of the decisions of the Constantinople Conference triggered the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War , depriving at the same time the Ottoman Empire – in contrast to the preceding 1853–1856 Crimean War – of Western support. Tsarigrad Peak in Imeon Range on Smith Island in the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica is named after

576-560: The constitutional, legislative , executive, defense and law enforcement arrangements, cantonal administrative system, taxation, international supervision etc. for the proposed autonomous provinces. The agreed decisions of the six Great Powers were formally handed over to the Ottoman Government on 23 December 1876, dismissing the opening Ottoman suggestions that the Conference's mission might be unnecessary, given

608-496: The creation of an autonomous province including Bosnia and most of Herzegovina , while a southern part of the latter was to be ceded to the Principality of Montenegro . The Great Powers agreed on a substantial Bulgarian autonomy to take the form of two new Ottoman provinces ( vilayets ) established for the purpose: Eastern, with capital Tarnovo , and Western, with capital Sofia . The conference determined that, as of

640-460: The great powers' Constantinople Conference , which had been held one year before without any Bulgarian participation. The most notable result of the conference was the official recognition of the newly independent states of Romania , Serbia , and Montenegro (which had de facto been acting independently for decades). The Paris Peace Treaty of 1856, which ended the Crimean War , had made

672-555: The independence of the de facto sovereign principalities of Romania , Serbia and Montenegro (plus their expansion) and the autonomy of Bulgaria although the latter de facto functioned independently and was divided into three parts: the Principality of Bulgaria, the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia , and Macedonia , which was given back to the Ottomans, thus undoing Russian plans for an independent and Russophile " Greater Bulgaria ". The Treaty of San Stefano had created

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704-470: The late 19th century, the Bulgarian ethnic territories within the Ottoman Empire extended to Tulcea and the Danube Delta in the northeast, Ohrid and Kastoria in the southwest, Kirklareli and Edirne in the southeast, and Leskovac and Niš in the northwest. These territories were to be incorporated into the two Bulgarian autonomous provinces as follows: The Great Powers elaborated in detail

736-615: The parties involved to attack the nation that violates the treaty. ' " The Kosovo Vilayet remained part of the Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary was allowed to station military garrisons in the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar . The Vilayet of Bosnia was placed under Austro-Hungarian occupation although it formally remained part of the Ottoman Empire until it was annexed by Austria-Hungary thirty years later, on 5 October 1908. The Austro-Hungarian garrisons in

768-480: The plenaries of the conference, they were not invited to the preceding working sessions at which the Great Powers negotiated and elaborated their agreement. Lord Salisbury and Count Ignatyev played a leading role in the process. Ignatyev was trying to dispel British misgivings about Russia's assumed role of a protector of the Eastern Orthodox Slavs being but a disguise of its drive to take over

800-481: The preliminary Treaty of San Stefano , but the Ottomans lost their major holdings in Europe. It was one of three major peace agreements in the period after the 1815 Congress of Vienna . It was the final act of the Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) and included the United Kingdom , Austria-Hungary , France , Germany , Italy , Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Chancellor of Germany Otto von Bismarck

832-616: The resident Ambassadors of their countries in Constantinople. The US Consul General in Constantinople, Eugene Schuyler also took an active part in drafting the conference decisions. The Ottoman Empire was represented at the conference by: Midhat Pasha was the Grand Vizier (First Minister), and Saffet Pasha the Foreign Minister of the Ottoman Empire . Although the Ottoman representatives participated in

864-580: The territory acquired by Russia, subjects could choose whether they wished to be Ottoman or Russian subjects for a period of six months after the agreement became effective. Despite the pleas of the Romanian delegates, Romania was forced to cede southern Bessarabia to the Russian Empire. As a compensation, Romania received Dobruja , including the Danube Delta . The treaty also limited the Russian occupation of Bulgaria to 9 months, which limited

896-468: The time during which Russian troops and supplies could be moved through Romanian territory. The three newly independent states subsequently proclaimed themselves kingdoms: Romania in 1881, Serbia in 1882 and Montenegro in 1910, and Bulgaria proclaimed full independence in 1908 after it had united with Eastern Rumelia in 1885. Austria–Hungary annexed Bosnia in 1908, sparking the Bosnian crisis ,

928-450: The treaty of San Stefano had been maintained, both the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary might have survived to the present day. The British, except for Beaconsfield in his wilder moments, had expected less and were, therefore, less disappointed. Salisbury wrote at the end of 1878: 'We shall set up a rickety sort of Turkish rule again south of the Balkans. But it is a mere respite. There is no vitality left in them. The treaty also calls on

960-779: The venue Tersane Sarayı "Shipyard Palace") of the Great Powers ( Austria-Hungary , Britain , France , Germany , Italy and Russia ) was held in Constantinople (now Istanbul ) from 23 December 1876 until 20 January 1877. Following the beginning of the Herzegovinian Uprising in 1875 and the April Uprising in April 1876, the Great Powers agreed on a project for political reforms in Bosnia and in

992-484: Was a further continuation of negotiations. It reaffirmed the provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano which had not been modified by the Berlin Treaty and established amounts of compensation that the Ottoman Empire owed to Russia for losses to businesses and institutions during the war. It granted amnesty to Ottoman subjects and for release of prisoners of war. In addition, Article VII of the treaty provided that in

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1024-525: Was the chairman and dominant personality. The most important task of the Congress was to decide the fate of Bulgaria , but Bulgaria itself was excluded from participation in the talks, at Russian insistence. At the time, as it was not a sovereign state , Bulgaria was not a subject of international law , and the same went for the Bulgarians themselves. The exclusion was already an established fact in

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