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33-518: This dynasty, together with the 15th and 17th dynasties, are often combined under the group title, Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BC), a period that saw the division of Upper and Lower Egypt between the pharaohs at Thebes and the Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty based at Avaris . Of the two chief versions of Manetho 's Aegyptiaca , the Sixteenth Dynasty is described by

66-533: A truce in the latter years of the dynasty, but one of his predecessors, Nebiryraw I , may have been more successful and seems to have enjoyed a period of peace in his reign. Famine , which had plagued Upper Egypt during the late 13th Dynasty and the 14th Dynasty , also blighted the 16th Dynasty, most evidently during and after the reign of Neferhotep III . Various chronological orderings and lists of kings have been proposed by scholars for this dynasty. These lists fall broadly in two categories: those assuming that

99-466: Is here given as per Jürgen von Beckerath 's Dynasty XV/XVI in his Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen . Wolfgang Helck, who also believes that the 16th Dynasty was an Hyksos vassal state, proposed a slightly different list of kings. Many of the rulers listed here in the 16th Dynasty under the hypothesis that they were vassals of the Hyksos are put in the 14th Dynasty in the hypothesis that the 16th Dynasty

132-432: Is recorded as having destroyed Egyptian monuments and removed Egyptian statuary for booty, as well as plundering royal tombs, Ahmose complaining that "pyramids have been torn down". Known rulers of the 15th Dynasty are as follows: The 15th Dynasty of Egypt was the first Hyksos dynasty, ruling from Avaris , without control of the entire land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt since they infiltrated from

165-640: Is regarded as a major scholar in the study of the Turin King List , having examined the document in person twice; he has published new and better interpretations of this damaged papyrus document in his aforementioned 1997 book and in a ZAS paper titled "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", and has published a detailed discussion of the nature of the document. Ryholt reportedly intends to publish his study of

198-634: The Nile Delta were called "Aamu" by the Egyptians, which was also the term used to designate the inhabitants of Syria and the Levant, or the enemies of Ramses II at the battle of Kadesh . This has generally been translated as "Western Asiatics" by Egyptologists. The term Hyksos was traditionally used to designate foreign chieftains, and more specifically "rulers of the Asiatics", already before

231-650: The Second Intermediate Period because it reviews the political history of this period and contains an updated—and more accurate—reconstruction of the Turin Canon since the 1959 publication of Alan Gardiner 's Royal Canon of Egypt. It also contains an extensive catalogue of all the known monuments, inscriptions and seals for the kings of this period. Ryholt is also a specialist on Demotic papyri and literature and has authored numerous books and articles about this subject. In 2011 he discovered

264-412: The Second Intermediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one man: Apepi I, who ruled Egypt for 40+X years. This is also supported by this king's employment of a third prenomen during his reign: Nebkhepeshre. Apophis likely employed different prenomens over the course of several periods of his reign. This scenario is not without precedent or parallel, since several kings, including Mentuhotep II ,

297-539: The Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt . The list of rulers is given here as per Kim Ryholt and is supposedly in chronological order: Additional kings are classified as belonging to this dynasty per Kim Ryholt but their chronological position is uncertain. They may correspond to the last five lost kings on the Turin canon: 15th Dynasty The Fifteenth Dynasty was a foreign dynasty of ancient Egypt . It

330-453: The 16th Dynasty comprised vassals of the Hyksos, as advocated by Jürgen von Beckerath and Wolfgang Helck ; and those assuming that the 16th Dynasty was an independent Theban kingdom, as recently proposed by Kim Ryholt . The traditional list of rulers of the 16th Dynasty regroups kings believed to be vassals of the Hyksos, some of which have semitic names such as Semqen and Anat-her . The list of kings differs from scholar to scholar and it

363-720: The Earliest Literate Societies under the University of Copenhagen Programme of Excellence (since 2008) and director of The Papyrus Carlsberg Collection & Project (since 1999). One of his most significant publications is a 1997 book titled The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C. Aidan Dodson , a prominent English Egyptologist, calls Ryholt's book "fundamental" for an understanding of

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396-866: The Egyptian dynasties to the south, the Sixteenth Dynasty , the Abydos Dynasty and the Seventeenth Dynasty , with short intervals of peace during which there were some relations with Nubia . Soon after the occupation of the Nile Delta , where it replaced the Fourteenth Dynasty, the Fifteenth Dynasty expanded to occupy Memphis , leading to the fall of the Thirteenth Dynasty at Memphis. As Egyptian political power disintegrated at Memphis, new dynasties arose in

429-466: The Fifteenth Dynasty and also after it. It was not an official title of the rulers of the Fifteenth dynasty, and is never encountered together with royal titulature, except in one rare instance in an inscription from Tell el-Dab'a mentioning an unknown king and describing him as a Hyksos. "Hyksos" was rather a generic term which is encountered separately from royal titulature, and in regnal lists after

462-635: The Nile Delta area and settled his capital at Avaris . These events put an end to the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt . There is no evidence of conflict at that time however, and the settling of the Canaanite populations could have occurred rather peacefully in the power vacuum left by the disintegration of the Fourteenth Dynasty. Subsequent relations with Egyptian polities, however, were marked with violent conflict. The people of Avaris in

495-718: The Pharaoh Ahmose I . The trading relations of the Fifteenth Dynasty were mainly with Canaan and Cyprus . Trade with Canaan is said to have been "intensive", especially with many imports of Canaanite wares, and may have reflected the Canaanite origins of the dynasty. According to the Kamose stelae, the Hyksos imported "charriots and horses, ships, timber, gold, lapis lazuli , silver, turquoise , bronze, axes without number, oil, incense, fat and honey". The Fifteenth Dynasty also exported large quantities of material looted from southern Egypt, especially Egyptian sculptures, to

528-458: The Uronarti context was confirmed by Yvonne Markowitz and acknowledged by Reisner. Ryholt's proposal that king Sheshi , 'Ammu Ahotepre and Yakbim Sekhaenre were rulers of the 14th Dynasty is contested by Ben Tor's study of the strata levels of their seals which, in her view, indicate dating to the second half of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty and are not contemporary with the 13th dynasty. Ryholt

561-528: The areas of Canaan and Syria . These transfers of Egyptian artifacts to the Near East may especially be attributed to king Apophis . Trade relations with Cyprus were also very important. The relation of the Fifteenth Dynasty to Egyptian religious traditions was ambiguous, and they are said by commentators from the Eighteenth Dynasty that "they ruled without ackowledging Re ". The dynasty

594-439: The best attested kings of the 14th Dynasty, was contemporary with the early 13th Dynasty on the basis of an archaeological deposit at Uronarti where a seal-impression of this king was found together with impressions of two early 13th dynasty Egyptian kings. Ben Tor has posited that the context of Maaibre Sheshi seal is not secure and that it was most likely a New Kingdom seal impression. The likelihood of New Kingdom intrusions into

627-413: The capital of Avaris , and many were marked with additional inscriptions, especially by Apophis . All of this is contested however. For Alexander Ilin-Tomich, the territory directly ruled by the Hyksos kings of Avaris was likely confined to the eastern Delta and the nature and extent of their control over Middle Egypt remains unclear. The Fifteenth Dynasty eventually ended with the conquest of Avaris by

660-417: The end of the Fifteenth Dynasty itself. In another instance, Khyan is thought to have used the title "Hyksos" early in his reign, and then abandoned it for traditional Egyptian titulature when he invaded the whole of Egypt. Only the first four kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are known to have used the naming "Hyksos", and after that royal titulature becomes purely Egyptian. Regular conflicts continued with

693-457: The famous Ramesses II , and Seti II , are known to have used two different prenomens during their reigns. Kim Ryholt Kim Steven Bardrum Ryholt (born 19 June 1970) is a Danish Egyptologist . He is a professor of Egyptology at the University of Copenhagen and a specialist on Egyptian history and literature. He is director of the research center Canon and Identity Formation in

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726-425: The identity and dating of 14th Dynasty . Ryholt – like Manfred Bietak – argues that it was a forerunner of the 15th Dynasty , but differs in regarding it as contemporary with the 13th Dynasty from the latter's founding around 1800 BC until its collapse in c. 1650/1648 BC. This view is questioned in a review of the book by Daphna Ben Tor and James/Susan Allen. Ryholt has also suggested that Maaibre Sheshi , one of

759-464: The identity of the famous sage king Nechepsos . Since 2013 he has directed a project on ancient ink as technology. He has also written a book on antiquities trade with Fredrik Norland Hagen . Ryholt's study makes note of numerous recent archaeological finds including the discovery of a new Hyksos king named Sakir-Har , the find of a doorjamb at Gebel Antef in the mid-1990s which establishes that Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf ( Sobekemsaf II here)

792-526: The interpretation of the Sixteenth Dynasty as Theban. The continuing war against 15th Dynasty dominated the short-lived 16th Dynasty. The armies of the 15th Dynasty, winning town after town from their southern enemies, continually encroached on the 16th Dynasty territory, eventually threatening and then conquering Thebes itself. In his study of the Second Intermediate Period, the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt has suggested that Dedumose I sued for

825-515: The kings of the dynasty, as "Chieftain of Retjenu (i.e. Caanan )". The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty formed "the second Asiatic Kingdom in the Delta", covering an area which may have included Canaan itself, although the archaeological record is sparse. The dynasty probably lasted for a period of about 108 years. The first king, also described as a Hyksos ( ḥḳꜣw-ḫꜣswt , a " shepherd " according to Africanus ), led his people into an occupation of

858-516: The more reliable Africanus (supported by Syncellus ) as "shepherd [ hyksos ] kings", but by Eusebius as Theban . Ryholt (1997), followed by Bourriau (2003), in reconstructing the Turin canon , interpreted a list of Thebes-based kings to constitute Manetho 's Sixteenth Dynasty, although this is one of Ryholt's "most debatable and far-reaching" conclusions. For this reason other scholars do not follow Ryholt and see only insufficient evidence for

891-567: The north-east. The names and order of kings are uncertain. The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of the 15th Dynasty. Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings named Apepi, but this is primarily because there are two known prenomens for this king: Awoserre and Aqenenre. However, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of

924-434: The reign of Nebiriau I, the realm controlled by the 16th Dynasty extended at least as far north as Hu and south to Edfu. Not listed in the Turin canon (after Ryholt) is Wepwawetemsaf , who left a stele at Abydos and was likely a local kinglet of the Abydos Dynasty . Ryholt gives the list of kings of the 16th Dynasty as shown in the table below. Others, such as Helck, Vandersleyen, Bennett combine some of these rulers with

957-469: The south, the Abydos Dynasty and the Sixteenth Dynasty at Thebes . The Fifteenth Dynasty at one point, after a period of about 20 years since its foundation, extended its rule as far south as Thebes , entering into conflict with Pharaoh Neferhotep III . The whole of Egypt was conquered during the reign of Khayan . The Abydos Dynasty also vanished on the occasion of these southern conquests. Numerous monuments from conquered areas were brought north to

990-606: Was an independent Theban kingdom. The chronological ordering is largely uncertain. In his 1997 study of the Second Intermediate Period, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt argues that the 16th Dynasty was an independent Theban kingdom. From Ryholt's reconstruction of the Turin canon, 15 kings can be associated to the dynasty, several of whom are attested by contemporary sources. While most likely rulers based in Thebes itself, some may have been local rulers from other important Upper Egyptian towns, including Abydos , El Kab and Edfu . By

1023-440: Was founded by Salitis , a Hyksos from West Asia whose people had invaded the country and conquered Lower Egypt . The 15th, 16th, and 17th Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title, Second Intermediate Period . The 15th Dynasty dates approximately from 1650 to 1550 BC. The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are said to have been Canaanite . Pharaoh Kamose is known to have referred to Apophis , one of

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1056-519: Was generally believed. Among the most significant discussions is Ryholt's evidence that Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep rather than Ugaf was the first king of Egypt's 13th Dynasty , and a discussion of the foreign origins of the Semitic 13th Dynasty king named Khendjer —whose reign lasted a minimum of 4 years and 3 months based on dated workmen's control notes found on stone blocks from his pyramid complex . The most controversial conclusion concerns

1089-622: Was the father of the 17th Dynasty Theban kings Antef VI and Antef VII . He also discusses Ahmose's Unwetterstele document. The book also argues strongly that the Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt was made up of poorly attested Theban kings such as Nebiriau I , Nebiriau II , Seuserenre Bebiankh and Sekhemre Shedwast who are documented in the last surviving page of the Turin Canon rather than minor Hyksos vassal kings in Lower Egypt , as

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