In the Holy Land (1095–1291)
121-612: Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The Sixth Crusade (1228–1229), also known as the Crusade of Frederick II , was a military expedition to recapture Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land . It began seven years after the failure of the Fifth Crusade and involved very little actual fighting. The diplomatic maneuvering of
242-453: A Last Voyage and two additional Holy Wars. These Voyages include the First through Eighth Crusades in current numbering. Shortly thereafter, French Jesuit Louis Maimbourg (1610–1686) published his Histoire des Croisades pour la délivrance de la Terre Sainte (1675), identify the First through Fifth Crusades. In his work The Crusades—An Encyclopedia, historian Alan V. Murray further explains
363-613: A Nicaean stronghold west of Constantinople. Crusade against the Mongols. The Crusade against the Mongols (1241) was led by Conrad IV of Germany and is also known as the Anti-Mongol Crusade of 1241. British historian Peter Jackson documented this crusade in his study Crusade against the Mongols (1241) . Seventh Crusade. The Seventh Crusade (1248–1254) is also known as the Crusade of Louis IX of France to
484-836: A crusade (as noted above). In the twelve Latin chronicles , the event is called, for example, the Deeds of the Franks or the Expedition to Jerusalem. Anna Komnene simply notes the arrival of the various armies in Constantinople, and Arabic historian ibn Athir calls it the Coming of the Franks. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 1 of the Holy Warre. It is unclear as to who first used the term, but it has been credited to Louis Maimbourg in his 1675 Histoire des Croisades. The term
605-674: A crusade or pilgrimage to the Holy Land c. 1275 and was captured by the Egyptians and held for 32 years. The only known reference to this is by Thomas Fuller in his Historie of the Holy Warre , where it is referred to as the Last Voyage. Siege of Acre. The Siege of Acre (1291) marked the loss of the Holy Land to the Mamluks, typically identifying the end of the traditional Crusades. The anonymous Les Gestes des Chiprois (Deeds of
726-529: A difference in the debacle, partially due to the lack of effective leadership. They would have to wait for many more years for Frederick's actions. When Pope Innocent III died in 1216, his successor Honorius III did not immediately hold Frederick to his vow, but reminded him that the Christian world had waited for his action. Opposingly Gregory IX , the successor to Honorius, who became pope in March 1227, took
847-485: A group of crusaders near Tyre, killing or capturing some seventy horsemen. Frederick II sent his emissaries to inform Gregory IX of the situation. These included Rainald of Spoleto , Nicolò dei Maltraversi, the bishop of Reggio , and Marino Filangieri, the archbishop of Bari , but the pope refused to meet with them, and would not listen to Frederick's side of the story. Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor,
968-647: A large tribute. Zeno and Pietro da Canale were accused by Francesco Dandolo with arranging an anti-Turkish alliance. By the end of the year the Holy League (also known as the Naval League) "a union, society and league for the discomfiture of the Turks and the defence of the true faith", had been formally constituted. In 1334, Zeno took command of the league's fleet and defeated the fleet of the Beylik of Karasi at
1089-488: A lengthening campaign in the Holy Land. The Sixth Crusade would be one of negotiation. After resolving the internecine struggles in Syria, al-Kamil's position was stronger than it was a year before when he made his original offer to Frederick. He likely did not know that Frederick's force was a mere shadow of the army that had amassed when the Crusade had originally been called. Frederick realised that his only hope of success in
1210-519: A more hardline stance against the emperor. In Syria and Egypt, the Ayyubids were engaged in civil strife , in which the sultan al-Kamil fought against many of his brothers and other relatives. The sultan had yet to withdraw his offer of territory in exchange for peace that had been made during the Fifth Crusade, and Fredrick would eventually accept this deal. The failure of the Fifth Crusade
1331-464: A token show of force, a threatening march down the coast, would be enough to convince al-Kamil to honor a proposed agreement that had been negotiated some years earlier. The masters of the Templars and Hospitallers, Pedro de Montaigu and Bertrand de Thessy , accompanied the emperor, at a distance behind as he was excommunicate. In January 1229, Frederick received notice that John of Brienne, serving
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#17327662441961452-723: Is as follows. First Crusade. The First Crusade (1095–1099) refers to the activities from the Council of Clermont of 1095 through the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the battle of Ascalon in 1099. Sometimes segregated into the People's Crusade and the Princes' Crusade. Some accounts also include the Crusade of 1101 here. The original chroniclers of the First Crusade did not, of course, refer to it as such, or even as
1573-469: Is by a combination of dates and descriptive terminology relating to participation, goals, or both, and this is the solution that has been adopted [here]. However, the names of the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Crusades, which are at least unambiguous (if not accurate), have been retained, as they are now established by long tradition. The list of the Crusades to the Holy Land from 1095 through 1291
1694-578: Is regarded by some as an extension of the Eighth Crusade. Edward, later King of England, was accompanied by his wife Eleanor of Castile , who came to his aid after an assassination attempt. Discussed as part of the Eighth Crusade by Joseph François Michaud in Volume 3 of his seminal Histoire des Croisades (1812–1822). Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg. The Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg (1275). Henry I, Lord of Mecklenburg (died 1302) went on
1815-522: Is sometimes regarded as part of the Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) and sometimes as a separate expedition. This means that the term Sixth Crusade may refer either to Frederick II's crusade or to the first crusade of King Louis IX of France, which might also be called the Seventh Crusade. Consequently, each subsequent number after the fifth might refer to either of two different expeditions. The only absolutely clear method of designating individual crusades
1936-790: The Haute Cour . Frederick did not immediately take action as Acre was split in its support for Frederick. Frederick's own army and the Teutonic Knights supported him, but the Templars, the patriarch and the Syrian clergy followed the hostile papal line. The Pisans and Genoese supported the emperor and the English vacillated, first for Frederick, shifting to the pope, then back. He gave nominal commands to faithful adherents— Hermann of Salza , Odo of Montbéliard , Richard Filangieri —in order for Crusaders to avoid jeopardizing their positions in
2057-566: The Ayyubid dynasty . Crusade to the East of Philip of Flanders. The Crusade to the East (1177) was a crusade led by Philip I, Count of Flanders that intended to invade Egypt, instead only mounting an unsuccessful siege of Harim . Third Crusade. The Third Crusade (1189–1192). The Third Crusade was in response to the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 and had significant English participation, under Richard I of England , as well as by
2178-642: The Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily , Frederick II , resulted in the Kingdom of Jerusalem regaining some control over Jerusalem for much of the ensuing fifteen years as well as over other areas of the Holy Land. The Fifth Crusade ended in 1221, having failed to gain any more influence in the Near East. Frederick II , Holy Roman Emperor , never joined the campaign, despite his vow to do so. The forces he sent to Egypt arrived too late to make
2299-774: The Khwarazmians under the shah Jalal al-Din Mangburni to attack Diyar Bakr . In 1226, al-Mu'azzam again moved on Homs, while Gökböri attacked Mosul and al-Jazira . Al-Ashraf stopped his brother at Homs and called on the Seljuk Sultan of Rûm , Kayqubad I , to help him with Gökböri. In the end, both al-Ashraf and Badr al-Din Lu'lu' , ruler of Mosul, succumbed to al-Mu'azzam, but not before Jalal had invested himself in Akhlat and later Azerbaijan . His suzerainty over Akhlat
2420-930: The War of the Sicilian Vespers (the Almogavar) against the Anatolian beyliks . It concluded with the Catalan's taking control of the Duchy of Athens and Thebes . Hospitaller Crusade. The Hospitaller Crusade (1306–1310). A crusade known as the Hospitaller conquest of Rhodes that consolidated hold of the Knights Hospitaller on Rhodes. Documented by Hans Prutz in his Die Anfänge der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos, 1310–1355 (1908). Crusade against
2541-549: The battle of Adramyttion . Zeno later served as one of the leaders of the Smyrna Crusade of 1344. The Holy League of Clement VI. The Holy League of Clement VI (1343) was a crusade proclaimed by Clement VI in 1343 that resulted in a naval attack on Smyrna the next year. The Grand Counci of Venice elected Pietro Zeno as captain of the flotilla sent to assist the crusade against Aydinid-held Smyrna. Other crusader leaders included patriarch Henry of Asti , The crusade
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#17327662441962662-441: The bishop of Exeter , participated in the Crusade as a proxy for his uncle William Brewer , who died before he was able to fulfill his crusading vows. Brewer had taken the cross in 1189, but was excused because of administrative duties. Briwere went on the Crusade with Peter des Roches , bishop of Winchester . An army of other Crusaders accompanied them to the Holy Land, although whether they were English or mercenaries recruited on
2783-468: The pontifical states . Moreover, all papal possessions in the Kingdom of Sicily were to be restored to the pope. Frederick attested to the terms at the high altar with his hand on the Gospels. Apostolic legate Rainald of Urslingen , the duke of Spoleto , swore "on the soul of the emperor" that the agreement would be upheld under the pain of excommunication. In a letter to the pope, Frederick reiterated
2904-533: The 19th century through such works as Heroes of the Crusades (1869) by Barbara Hutton. The references shown above for the First Crusade generally cover the People's Crusade as well. Crusade of 1101. The Crusade of 1101 (1101–1102) was also called the Crusade of the Faint-Hearted. Campaigns that followed the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 that were generally ignored by 18th and 19th century historians. Thomas Fuller nevertheless referred to it as Voyage 2 of
3025-726: The Ayyubids did not last long. Dā’ūd refused his uncle's request to abandon Krak de Montreal . Then, yet another brother, al-Aziz Uthman of Banyas , attacked emir Bahram Shah of Baalbek . Ordered to stand down by Dā’ūd, al-Aziz persisted and al-Kamil responded by taking Jerusalem and Nablus in July 1228. Al-Ashraf was summoned to Damascus and he met al-Kamil at Tall al-Ajul . There it was decided that al-Ashraf would take Damascus, leaving Dā’ūd with al-Jazira. Al-Kamil remained in Jerusalem to conduct negotiations with Frederick II. By 1226, it
3146-501: The Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Among modern historians, René Grousset was among the first to discuss this crusade in his Histoire des croisades et du royaume franc de Jérusalem (1934-1936) Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 10 of the Holy Warre. Crusade of Richard of Cornwall. The Crusade of Richard of Cornwall (1240–1241) was also known as the Crusade of Richard of Cornwall and Simon of Montfort to Jaffa. Richard also held
3267-728: The Catalan Grand Company. The Crusade against the Catalan Grand Company (1330–1332) was also called the Anti-Catalan Crusade , waged by Walter VI, Count of Brienne , and titular Duke of Athens. In 1330, John XXII issued a papal bull and ordered prelates in Italy and Greece to preach for a crusade against the Catalan Grand Company . Shortly thereafter, Robert of Naples gave the crusade his support. The Venetians, however, renewed their treaty with
3388-629: The Catalans in 1331. By the summer, it was clear that the expedition had failed, and Walter returned to Brindisi , saddled with crippling debts. The Naval Crusade of the Holy League. The Naval Crusade of the Holy League (1332–1333) was short-lived crusade against the Aydinid Turkish fleet by Pietro Zeno , serving as balio of Negroponte . In 1332, a Turkish armada under Umur Bey attacked Negroponte, and Zeno bought them off with
3509-583: The Continent is unclear. The contingent left from Brindisi in August 1227. The bishops were influential advisors to Frederick II. As the pope had ordered that no one collaborate with the excommunicate Frederick, both bishops ignored the papal orders and worked closely with Frederick. The financial resources both bishops brought were especially appreciated by the crusaders. The fortifications of Caesarea and Jaffa were implemented with their money. Both witnessed
3630-542: The Cretan coast, pausing for a whole day at Heraklion before crossing the Aegean Sea to Rhodes during 12–15 July. They sailed along the Anatolian coast to Phenika, where they stayed on 16–17 July replenishing their water supplies. The fleet then crossed the sea to Cyprus, arriving at Limassol on 21 July. The Kingdom of Cyprus had been an imperial fief since the emperor Henry VI , Frederick's father, had accepted
3751-470: The Crusade against Conradin of 1268 (cf. Italian Crusades below). Crusade of James I of Aragon. The Crusade of James I of Aragon (1269–1270). James I of Aragon joined forces with Abaqa , Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate , to take a crusade to the Holy Land, but returned without engaging the Mamluks in light of their strength at Acre. Eighth Crusade. The Eighth Crusade (1270) was also known as
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3872-536: The Crusade of Louis IX of France to Tunis. Accompanied by Jean de Joinville who wrote the biography Life of Saint Louis (1309) . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 31 of the Holy Warre. Lord Edward's Crusade. Lord Edward's Crusade (1271–1272) was led by the future Edward I of England , and is also known as the Crusade of Lord Edward of England, the Ninth Crusade, or the Last Crusade. It
3993-520: The Crusade was a complex endeavour involving multiple deployments, negotiations with the Ayyubids, a delay of the departure of Frederick due to illness, a subsequent excommunication, and, finally, arrival of the emperor at Acre. The key points in the timeline are: After a five-week stopover in Cyprus, in September 1228, Frederick arrived at Acre. The new role of Frederick also affected the objective of
4114-452: The Crusade. In 1224, the plans to invade Egypt required suitable ships able to enter the Nile delta. Now, the emphasis was a campaign to focus on Jerusalem, with men from Germany and finance from Sicily. Oliver of Paderborn , so effective in recruiting for the Fifth Crusade, participated in the recruitment and even joined the army gathering in Italy, but was not as successful. His diminished role
4235-545: The Crusades in toto include Murray's Encyclopedia, Stephen Runciman's A History of the Crusades , 3 volumes (1951–1954), and the Wisconsin Collaborative History of the Crusades, 6 volumes (1969-1989). In the Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The conflicts that are usually associated with crusades in
4356-567: The Cypriote baron Amalric Barlais as bailli of Cyprus, supported by Gavin of Chenichy. Frederick II arrived in Acre on 7 September 1228 and was received warmly by the Templars, Hospitallers and clergy, but denied the kiss of peace due to his excommunication. He yielded to pressure and made overtures to the pope, sending Henry of Malta and archbishop Marino Filangieri to announce his arrival in Syria and to request absolution. Rainald of Spoleto
4477-666: The Cypriots) contains one of two eyewitness accounts of the siege. After the fall of Acre, the crusades continued in the Levant through the 16th century. Principal references on this subject are Kenneth Setton's History of the Crusades, Volume III. The Fourteenth and Fifteen Centuries (1975), and Norman Housley's The Later Crusades, 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (1992) and The Crusading Movement, 1274–1700 (1995). Barbara Tuchman's A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century (1978) provides an interesting perspective on both
4598-657: The Damascene atabeg Toghtekin . This marked a major victor for Baldwin II of Jerusalem prior to his second captivity in 1123. Crusade of 1129. The Crusade of 1129 , also known as the Damascus Crusade, was begun by Baldwin II of Jerusalem after his captivity. The crusade failed in its objective to capture Damascus and is described by Syriac historian Michael the Syrian in his Chronicle (after 1195). Second Crusade. The Second Crusade (1147–1150). After
4719-519: The Damascus to negotiate with al-Mu'azzam who, rejecting the overture, attempted to make peace with the younger Ayyubid brother al-Ashraf. The negotiations would continue in the autumn of 1227, after Frederick's excommunication, as described below. The port of Brindisi was designated as the departure point and by mid-summer 1227, large numbers of Crusaders had arrived. The crowded conditions and high heat contributed to general discontent and disease among
4840-486: The East, or Louis IX's First Crusade. Early works on this crusade include Primat of Saint-Denis' Roman des rois (1274) and Jean de Joinville's Life of Saint Louis (1309) . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 12 of the Holy Warre. Grousset's Histoire des croisades... and Peter Jackson's Seventh Crusade, 1244–1254: Sources and Documents (2007) provide the necessary historical background. Crusade of Odo of Burgundy. The Crusade of Odo of Burgundy (1265–1266)
4961-514: The Fifth Crusade, it was an extension of that activity that involved little fighting. Jerusalem was nevertheless returned to Western hands by negotiation. Original sources include Chronica Majora (1259) by Matthew Paris and Flores Historiarum (1235) by Roger of Wendover , with Arabic sources that include Abu'l-Feda's Tarikh al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar (1329). Modern histories include Röhricht's Die Kreuzfahrt Kaiser Friedrich des Zweiten (1228–1229) (1872). Referred to it as Voyage 9 of
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5082-550: The Franks, along with a narrow corridor to the coast. List of Crusades to Europe and the Holy Land#Later Crusades (1291-1578) The list of Crusades in Europe and to the Holy Land identifies those conflicts in the 11th through 16th centuries that are referred to as Crusades . These include the traditional numbered crusades and others that prominent historians have identified as crusades. The scope of
5203-526: The Hermit , the first of what is known as the Popular Crusades . It is sometimes regarded as an integral part of the First Crusade, with the Princes' Crusade as the second part. A standard reference is Peter der Eremite. Ein kritischer Beitrag zur Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (1879) by pioneering German historian Heinrich Hagenmeyer (1834–1915). Peter and his crusade achieved a popular status in
5324-563: The Holy Land begin with the Council of Clermont in 1095 and end with the loss of Acre in 1291. These include the numbered Crusades (First through Eighth or Ninth) with numerous smaller crusades intermixed. One of the first to view the Crusades as a movement was English historian Thomas Fuller (1608–1661), whose Historie of the Holy Warre (1639) identified crusades as the Holy War consisting of "Voyages," numbering One through Thirteen, plus
5445-605: The Holy Land was to negotiate for the return of Jerusalem as he lacked the manpower to engage in battle. He sent Thomas of Aquino and Balian of Sidon to inform the sultan of his arrival in the Holy Land. Al-Kamil was friendly but non-committal. In reply, Frederick received the ambassadors of the sultan, including Fakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh , at the Hospitaller camp at Recordane , near Acre. The sultan relocated from Nablus to Hiribya , northeast of Gaza, and Thomas and Balian were sent to resume negotiations. Frederick hoped that
5566-430: The Holy Land. First treated by R. Röhricht in his Die Kreuzzuge des Grafen Theobald von Navarra und Richard von Cornwallis nach dem heligen Landen . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyages 10 and 11 of the Holy Warre. Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre. The Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre (1239–1240) was a crusade led by Theobald I of Navarre , also referred to as Thibaut of Navarre or Theobald of Champagne. Part of
5687-444: The Holy Warre by Thomas Fuller in his 1639 Historie . See also references under the Crusade against Frederick II (1220–1241) below. Barons' Crusade. Barons' Crusade (1239–1241) was also referred to as the Crusade of 1239, or the Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre and the Crusade of Richard of Cornwall . Called for in 1234 by Gregory IX in his papal bull Rachel suum videns . Some successful expeditions recaptured portions of
5808-433: The Holy Warre whereas Jonathan Riley-Smith considered it part of the First Crusade in his The First Crusaders, 1095-1131 (1997). Norwegian Crusade. The Norwegian Crusade (1107–1110), also known as the Crusade of Sigurd Jorsalfar , king of Norway. More of a pilgrimage than a crusade, it did include the participation in military action, with the king's forces participation in the siege of Sidon . This crusade marks
5929-627: The Holy Warre, and Richard's portion as Voyage 5. The numbering of this crusade followed the same history as the first ones, with English histories such as David Hume's The History of England (1754–1761) and Charles Mills' History of the Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820) identifying it as the Third Crusade. The former only considers the follow-on crusades to the extent that England participated. Crusade of Emperor Henry VI. The Crusade of Henry VI (1197–1198)
6050-400: The Holy Warre. The Wendish Crusade of 1147 (one of the Northern Crusades) is usually associated with the Second Crusade. Crusader invasions of Egypt. The Crusader Invasions of Egypt (1154–1169) were attacks into Egypt by Amalric I of Jerusalem to take advantage of crises concerning the Fatimids . These activities eventually led to the fall of the Fatimids and the rise of Saladin and
6171-431: The Old Lord of Beirut, had been appointed regent without the knowledge of either Alice or Frederick. The emperor arrived with the clear intent of stamping his authority on the kingdom and was treated cordially by the local barons. Frederick claimed that the regency of John of Ibelin was illegitimate and demanded the surrender of John's mainland fief of Beirut to the imperial throne. Here he erred, for John pointed out that
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#17327662441966292-415: The Romans , and Constance of Aragon was crowned empress. A year later, Honorius III reminded Frederick that he had not fulfilled his vow, and in December 1221, sent Nicola de Chiaromonte, cardinal-bishop of Tusculum , to confer with Frederick. They returned to Veroli in April 1222 to confer with the pontiff. A strategy meeting for the next Crusade did not happen until March 1223 at Ferentino and included
6413-577: The Second Smyrna Crusade. Crusade against Francesco Ordelaffi . The Crusade against Francesco Ordelaffi (1355–1357) was a campaign by Innocent IV and Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz against Francesco II Ordelaffi in order to restore papal authority to central Italy. The pope's Angevin troops had some success against Ordelaffi through 1356, by mercenary troops sent by Bernabò Visconti allowed him to hold out until 1357. Isabella II of Jerusalem Isabella II (1212 – 4 May 1228), sometimes erroneously called Yolanda ,
6534-467: The assembled troops. Many returned home, leaving some transports unused. Others died, including Siegfried von Rechberg, the bishop of Augsburg . The first contingents of Crusaders sailed August 1227 and arrived in Syria early October. They included Germans under the command of Thomas of Aquino and Henry of Limburg , and French and English under the command of the bishops Peter des Roches and William Briwere . Arriving at Acre, they joined with forces of
6655-474: The balance of power, and Frederick dispatched Richard Filangieri , marshal of the Kingdom of Sicily, to Syria with 500 knights to augment to force already there as he prepared for a departure in the spring of 1228. Frederick made his last effort to be reconciled with Gregory, sending Albert I of Käfernburg , the archbishop of Magdeburg, and two Sicilian justiciars to speak with the pope. It had no effect and Frederick sailed from Brindisi on 28 June 1228. The fleet
6776-476: The cathedral of Brindisi , on 9 November 1225. During the ceremony, Frederick declared himself King of Jerusalem and immediately saw to it that his new father-in-law John of Brienne, the current regent of Jerusalem, was dispossessed and his rights transferred to him. The contemporary chronicles described the exotic wedding celebrations, which took place in the Castle of Oria, and the indignant reaction of her father John of Brienne, now without royal authority. After
6897-406: The collection Gesta Dei per Francos (God's Work through the Franks) (1611) by Jacques Bongars . A standard reference is Reinhold Röhricht's Studien zur Geschichte des fünften Kreuzzuges (1891). Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 8 of the Holy Warre. Sixth Crusade. The Sixth Crusade (1228–1229), was also known as the Crusade of Emperor Frederick II . Sometimes regarded as part of
7018-569: The crusade and its aftermath. Voltaire did not call it a crusade in his Histoire des Croisades , instead calling it the Suite de la Prise de Constantinople par les Croisés. Jonathan Philips' The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (2004) is a standard reference today. Fifth Crusade. The Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) was a failed attempt to recapture Jerusalem by first conquering Cairo. Critical original sources include Historia Damiatina by Oliver of Paderborn (died 1227) and Chronica Hungarorum by Joannes de Thurocz , compiled in
7139-400: The crusade was against the Byzantine empire. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 7 of the Holy Warre. Charles du Cange , wrote the first serious study of the Fourth Crusade in his Histoire de l'empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs françois (1657). Geoffrey of Villehardouin was a knight and historian who wrote his eyewitness account De la Conquête de Constantinople (c. 1215) of
7260-487: The crusade. The pope also urged Louis VIII of France to join Frederick, and to resolve his quarrel with Raymond VII of Toulouse . None of these efforts were fruitful and all were convinced that the timetable set at Ferentino was unachievable. The pope while at Rieti agreed to a delay on 18 July 1225, just days before the deadline and ten years after Frederick had originally committed to a crusade. The Agreement of San Germano of 25 July 1225, signed at present day Cassino ,
7381-433: The crusades and the general history of the era. A nineteenth-century reference often cited is Joseph François Michaud's Histoire des Croisades (1812–1822), translation by William Robson . Crusade against Frederick III. The Crusade against Frederick III of Sicily (1298, 1299, 1302). The final round of the War of the Sicilian Vespers in which pope Boniface VIII attempted to dislodge Frederick. Frederick's position
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#17327662441967502-487: The curia as rector of a Patrimony of Saint Peter , had taken San Germano and was threatening Capua . This placed Frederick in an awkward position. If he delayed in the Holy Land too long, he could lose his empire. If he left without results, he would be dishonored. He directed Henry of Malta to send twenty galleys to Syria by the following Easter. Fortunately, al-Kamil was occupied with a siege in Damascus against his nephew an-Nasir Dā’ūd . He then agreed to cede Jerusalem to
7623-586: The disastrous siege of Edessa in 1144, the Western powers launched the Second Crusade, which accomplished little. Principal chroniclers of the event were Odo of Deuil , chaplin to Louis VII of France , who wrote his account De profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem and Otto of Freising who wrote Gesta Friderici imperatoris concerning the emperor Frederick Barbarosso . Referred to as the Second Crusade in Maimbourg's Histoire des Croisades. .. as well as Georg Müller's De Expedition Cruciatis Vulgo Von Kreutz Fahrten (1709). Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 3 of
7744-473: The emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Philip II of France . To the English, it was known as the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi , the Itinerary of king Richard, and to the Germans as the expedition of Frederick, as described in Historia Peregrinorum (History of the Pilgrims). Thomas Andrew Archer's The Crusade of Richard I, 1189–1192 (1889) provides a comprehensive look at the crusade and its sources. Thomas Fuller referred to Frederick's portion as Voyage 4 of
7865-432: The emperor's history of centralization and his desire to impose imperial authority. This was largely due to Frederick's treatment of John of Ibelin in Cyprus, and his apparent disdain for their constitutional concerns. Frederick's army was not large. Of the troops he had sent under duke Henry of Limburg in 1227 had mostly returned home out of impatience or of fear of offending the Church. The few who had sailed East under
7986-539: The expedition of 24 June 1225. At the same time, Frederick, widowed since June 1222, planned a strategic wedding. After the retreat of the Crusaders from Egypt in 1221, John of Brienne returned to Acre. He hoped to find a suitable husband for his daughter Isabella II of Jerusalem , then just 9 years of age. Leaving Odo of Montbéliard as bailli of the kingdom, he travelled to Italy, accompanied by patriarch Raoul of Mérencourt and Hospitaller master Guérin de Montaigu . In Apulia, he met with Frederick II and arranged for
8107-426: The expedition planners. Henry III of England took the cross upon his coronation in May 1220 and had planned a crusade after Louis IX of France's failures. In 1223, Honorius III appealed to Henry to assist in the Holy Land. But, like his father John Lackland before him, crises closer to home took precedence. Nevertheless, there was to be significant English participation in the Sixth Crusade. William Briwere ,
8228-418: The eyes of the curia. Once news of Frederick's excommunication had spread, public support for him waned considerably. The position of the Hospitallers and Templars was more complicated. They refused to join the emperor's army directly, but they supported the Crusade once Frederick agreed to have his name removed from official orders. The Outremer barons greeted Frederick enthusiastically at first, but were wary of
8349-451: The first king of Jerusalem to visit Europe, with multiple objectives. The treasury of the kingdom was depleted and additional funds were badly needed. He also wanted to ensure that future crusades were not hampered by the divided leadership shown in Egypt, and that the kingdom would lead such efforts. John's pleas for support at the courts of England and Spain were for naught, and the pledge he received from Philip II of France on his death-bed
8470-405: The first time a European king visited the Holy Land. This crusade is described in Heimskringla by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson . Venetian Crusade. The Venetian Crusade (1122–1124), also known as the Crusade of Calixtus II . The Western participants from the Republic of Venice were regarded by Riley-Smith as First Crusaders, and the actions resulted in the capture of Tyre from
8591-427: The first time in December 1225, taking the crown at a special ceremony at Foggia . John of Brienne left for Rome, where Honorius sympathized with him, and ignored Frederick's claims. Balian of Sidon , Simon of Maugastel, the archbishop of Tyre , and the other Jerusalemite lords who had escorted Isabella to Brindisi acknowledged Frederick as their lawful king. Notably, these did not include the Ibelins . Nevertheless,
8712-570: The harbour and the citadel but not the acropolis. Sometimes considered as part of the Holy League of Clement VI. Crusade of Humbert II of Viennois. The Crusade of Humbert II of Viennois (1346) was the second of the Smyrniote Crusades . A second expedition under the command of Humbert II of Viennois with little to show other than a victory over the Turks at Mytilene . Described in the Book of Chivalry by Geoffroi de Charny. Also called
8833-525: The homage of Aimery of Lusignan and made him king on the eve of the German Crusade in 1196. Hugh I of Cyprus had ruled the island kingdom since the death of his father Aimery in 1205. Upon his death, his wife Alice of Champagne became regent of the young king Henry I of Cyprus . Alice was the aunt of the empress Isabella II and had attended her coronation in Tyre. In the meantime, John of Ibelin ,
8954-610: The imperial power in northern Italy, long usurped by the numerous communes located there. Those assembled responded with the reformation of the Lombard League , which had already defeated the emperor Frederick I in the 12th century, and again Milan was chosen as the league's leader. The Diet was cancelled as well as the Truce of Constance . The situation was stabilized only through a compromise reached by Honorius between Frederick and
9075-510: The kingdom and fortified the coastal towns of Caesarea and Jaffa. They forced the Muslims of Damascus out of Sidon and fortified the island of Qal'at al-Bahr . The Germans rebuilt Montfort Castle , northeast of Acre, for the Teutonic Knights. The emperor and his contingent were delayed while their ships were refitted. They sailed on 8 September 1227, but before they reached their first stop of Otranto many, including Frederick, were struck with
9196-443: The kingdoms of Cyprus and Jerusalem were constitutionally separate and he could not be punished for offences in Cyprus by seizure of Beirut. This would have important consequences for the crusade, as it alienated the powerful Ibelin faction , turning them against the emperor. Frederick sailed to Acre from Famagusta on 3 September 1228. He was accompanied by the king Henry I of Cyprus, John of Ibelin, and many Cypriote nobles. He left
9317-490: The law––the Assizes of Jerusalem ––required that the monarch be a resident of the kingdom. Frederick's first royal decree was to bestow new privileges upon Hermann of Salza and the Teutonic Knights, placing them on equal footing as the Templars and Hospitallers. Thomas of Aquino , the emperor's long-time advisor, replaced Odo of Montbéliard as bailli of the kingdom. In November 1222, John of Brienne arrived at Brindisi ,
9438-519: The league. During his sojourn in northern Italy, Frederick also invested the Teutonic Knights with the territories in what would become East Prussia, starting what was later called the Northern Crusades . Frederick II desired to go to the Holy Land as king of Jerusalem. He married John of Brienne's daughter Isabella II by proxy in August 1225 at Acre, presided over by Giacomo, the bishop of Patti . In accordance with her father's wishes, she
9559-447: The marriage of Isabella II to the emperor. The pope gave his blessing, and it was John's understanding that he remain regent until 1226. When John left Italy, marrying Berengaria of León in 1224, he entrusted Hermann of Salza to conclude the arrangements for the wedding of his daughter. Once again, preachers were sent throughout Europe to gain support for a new crusade, this time to be led by Frederick. Despite readying transport ships,
9680-439: The monies collected by individual crucesignati remained important. While some of these funds went directly to local Crusaders, by 1220, Innocent III had consolidated distribution. Frederick did not benefit from this, and from 1221 to 1228 there was limited ecclesiastical impost directed toward his planned Crusade. The funds for this imperial Sixth Crusade would have to be raised by the emperor. The gold sequestered after San Germano
9801-527: The only viable option. However, by May 1227, al-Ashraf had been released from Damascus, and the emirs al-Nasir Kilij Arslan at Hama and al-Mujahid at Homs turned against al-Mu'azzam. Fearing the Crusaders gathering at Acre, al-Mu'azzam began, as he did in the Fifth Crusade, to dismantle the defences of his fortresses, including Jerusalem. Al-Mu'azzam died on 12 November 1227, and was succeeded by his son an-Nasir Dā’ūd , with al-Kamil's approval. Peace among
9922-545: The patriarch Gérold of Lausanne remained as did the knights under Richard Filangieri . Even augmented with the forces available in Outremer, he could not muster an effective army capable of striking a decisive blow on the Muslims. Further, he got word that his regent Rainald of Spoleto had failed in his attack on the March of Ancona and that Gregory IX was planning to invade his own kingdom. He could neither afford nor mount
10043-420: The patriarch. These funds would be returned to the emperor once he arrived at Acre. If, for any reason (including his death), he did not arrive, the money would be employed for the needs of the Holy Land. He also promised that if he went on Crusade that he would lead. After the agreement was signed, Guala became Bishop of Brescia . Based on the terms of the agreement, Frederick's forces ceased to occupy portions of
10164-401: The plague. Louis of Thuringia had, in fact, died. Frederick disembarked to secure medical attention. Resolved to keep his oath, he sent a fleet of twenty galleys on to Acre. This included Hermann of Salza, Gérold of Lausanne, Odo of Montbéliard and Balian of Sidon. The Crusade was now under the command of Henry IV, Duke of Limburg . In February or March 1228, al-Aziz Uthman of Banyas ambushed
10285-403: The pope and emperor, plus John of Brienne , Latin patriarch Raoul of Mérencourt , the masters of the military orders, and many others. Frederick again vowed to go on Crusade in addition to signing an agreement with the errant Thomas of Celano, negotiated by Thomas of Aquino . But neither this nor the one signed two years later at San Germano assured Frederick's departure. A new date was set for
10406-462: The rebellion of al-Mu'azzam's, which was quickly suppressed by al-Ashraf and the Alleppine forces. Again attacking at Homs , al-Mu'azzam was restrained by threats from al-Kamil. Now opposing both of his well-positioned brothers, al-Mu'azzam reached out to disaffected members of the sultan's Egyptian forces, challenging the sultan to come to Syria if he dared. Against al-Ashraf, he enlisted the aid of
10527-468: The rest of his life. According to one version, John got into a disagreement with his new son-in-law because Frederick seduced a niece of Isabella who was her lady-in-waiting. In the other version of the chronicle, John often chastised his son-in-law, concluding that John wanted to seize Sicily for his nephew Walter IV of Brienne . Frederick declared that John had lost his claim to the kingdom when Isabella married him. He proclaimed himself king of Jerusalem for
10648-465: The same. Twenty years separated the crusader vows of the emperor Henry VI of Germany and his son Frederick and it is unclear whether the father's German Crusade of 1197 impacted the son's objectives for the Fifth Crusade. The emperor again took the vow when he was re-crowned in Rome by the pope on 22 November 1220. At the same time, Frederick's oldest son Henry VII of Germany took the title of King of
10769-418: The situation did not look good to meet the target date. Hermann of Salza and Raoul of Mérencourt were sent to the pope to apprise him of the situation. That would be one of the patriarch's last official acts, as he died in late 1224, succeeded by the bishop of Valence, Gérold of Lausanne . Honorius III sent cardinal bishop Conrad of Porto as papal legate to Germany, urging the clergy there to continue to pursue
10890-505: The term crusade first referred to military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to the Holy Land. The conflicts to which the term is applied has been extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church against pagans, heretics or for alleged religious ends. This list first discusses the traditional numbered crusades, with
11011-508: The terms and accepted the ban in the event the Crusade did not happen. He had committed himself beyond all retreat. After agreeing with Honorius to launch a Crusade before 1228, Frederick summoned an imperial Diet at Cremona , the main pro-imperial city in Lombardy . The main arguments for holding the Diet would be to continue the struggle against heresy, to organize the crusade, and to restore
11132-503: The title King of the Romans, and had a noteworthy biography written by Noël Denholm-Young . Usually referred to as part of the Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 11 of the Holy Warre. Crusade to Tzurulum. The Crusade to Tzurulum (1239) led by future Latin emperor Baldwin of Courtenay was conducted concurrently with the Barons' Crusade. In the military action, Baldwin besieged and captured Tzurulum ,
11253-501: The traditional numbering of crusades: It was in the eighteenth century that historians evidently first allocated numbers to individual crusades, from the first to the ninth. However, these numbers are neither consistent nor accurate. Of the identity of the First Crusade (1096—1099) there can be no doubt, but there is no consensus about numbering after the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204). The Crusade of Emperor Frederick II (1227–1229)
11374-621: The treaty signing in February 1229 with al-Kamil. As described above, the sultan al-Kamil was in a desperate civil conflict in 1226. Having unsuccessfully tried negotiations with the West beginning in 1219, he again tried this approach. The sultan sent the emir Fakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh to Frederick asking him to come to Acre for discussions, offering return of much of the Holy Land to Christian control in exchange for military support against his brother al-Mu'azzam at Damascus. Fakhr ad-Din reportedly
11495-783: The truce with the Muslims, refused to accompany Frederick as an excommunicate. He was replaced by Bertrand de Thessy , who embarked with the emperor. The route of Frederick's fleet can be traced day-by-day. On 29 June 1228 it stopped in Otranto , whence it crossed the Adriatic Sea to the island of Othonoi on 30 June. It was in Corfu on 1 July, Porto Guiscardo in Cephalonia on 2 July, Methoni on 4 July, Portocaglie near Cape Matapan on 5 July, Cerigo on 6 July and it reached Souda Bay on Crete on 7 July. The fleet moved slowly along
11616-572: The truce, and unsuccessfully attacked his cousin al-Nasir Kilij Arslan , emir of Hama , and later occupying Ma'arrat al-Numan and Salamiyah . Al-Mu'azzam was forced to halt his siege of Hama and to surrender his other conquests by order of al-Kamil. He then formed an alliance with Gökböri , a former general of Saladin's , possibly at the request of the sultan al-Nasir , against his brother al-Ashraf. Another brother, al-Muzaffar Ghazi , had been installed at Mayyafariqin and Akhlat , losing Akhlat to al-Ashraf after revolting against him. Ghazi joined
11737-643: The various lesser-known crusades interspersed. The later crusades in the Levant through the 16th century are then listed. This is followed by lists of the crusades against the Byzantine empire, crusades that may have been pilgrimages, popular crusades, crusades against heretics and schismatics, political crusades, the Northern Crusades, crusades in the Iberian peninsula, Italian crusades and planned crusades that were never executed. Comprehensive studies of
11858-574: The wedding, Isabella was kept in seclusion by her husband, in Palermo . Aged 14, in November 1226, she gave birth to her first child, a daughter (referred to by some sources as Margaret); the baby died in August 1227. On 25 April 1228 Isabella gave birth to her second child, a son, Conrad , in Andria , Bari , but a few days later, on 4 May, she died following childbirth complications. She was buried in
11979-764: The young Queen Isabella II as his wife (by this time, Frederick was a widower). This was planned by the Pope, who hoped by this bond to attach the Emperor firmly to the Sixth Crusade . The betrothal was confirmed, but the Emperor still delayed his departure until August 1225, when he and Isabella were married by proxy in the City of Acre . Days later, Isabella II was crowned as Queen of Jerusalem. Isabella arrived in Italy with twenty galleys sent by Frederick II to bring her to her father and married in person to Frederick II in
12100-467: Was a devastating blow to Christendom. Of all the European sovereigns, only Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, was in a position to regain Jerusalem after the loss. Frederick was, like many of the 13th-century rulers, a serial crucesignatus . When he was formally crowned as King of Germany at Aachen on 15 July 1215, he astonished the crowd by taking the cross and calling upon the nobles present to do
12221-436: Was a naval success and Smyrna was taken. Zeno was killed by Umur Bey's forces in an ambush while he and other crusaderswere attempting to celebrate mass in the no-man's-land between the battle lines. Smyrna Crusade. The Smyrna Crusade (1344) was the first of the Smyrniote Crusades (1343–1351). The Smyrna Crusade began in 1344 with the naval victory of the battle of Pallene and ended with an assault on Smyrna, capturing
12342-415: Was a princess of French origin, the daughter of Maria , the queen-regnant of Jerusalem , and her husband, John of Brienne . She was reigning Queen of Jerusalem from 1212 until her death in 1228. By marriage to Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor , Isabella also became Holy Roman Empress and Queen of Sicily and Germany . Isabella II was born in Andria , in the southern Italian Kingdom of Sicily . She
12463-553: Was also known as the Crusade of 1197 or the German Crusade. A crusade led by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI as a follow-up to the Third Crusade. Although Henry died before the crusade began, it was modestly successful with the recapture of Beirut. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 6 of the Holy Warre. Fourth Crusade. The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) was also known as the Unholy Crusade. A major component of
12584-479: Was an expedition of Odo, Count of Nevers , who led 50 knights to protect Acre from Mamluk sultan Baibars . Crusade of 1267. The Crusade of 1267 was an expedition from the Upper Rhine to counter the threat posed by Baibars. Crusade of Charles of Anjou. The Crusade of Charles of Anjou against Lucera (1268) refers to the attack made by Charles I of Anjou on the Muslims at Lucera in conjunction with
12705-405: Was between Frederick II and Honorius III. A Dominican named Guala de Roniis was responsible for the negotiations. Frederick promised to depart on the Crusade by 15 August 1227 and remain for two years. During this period, he was to maintain 1000 knights in Syria, provide transport for additional forces, and provide Rome with 100,000 ounces in gold in the care of Hermann of Salza, John of Brienne and
12826-582: Was certainly in common use by the 18th century as seen in Voltaire's Histoire des Croisades (1750–1751) and Edward Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789). Thomas Asbridge's The First Crusade: A New History (2004) is among the standard references used today. People's Crusade. The People's Crusade (1096) was a prelude to the First Crusade led by Peter
12947-467: Was clear that the Sixth Crusade would, in fact, happen with an invasion of Syria and Palestine with the objective of conquering Jerusalem. Frederick II was to lead the Crusade, essentially boxed in by the terms of San Germano. After the death of Honorius III in 1227, the new pope Gregory IX entered the curia with determination to proceed and a long-held dislike for Frederick. The initial phase of
13068-464: Was crowned queen of Jerusalem a few days later at Tyre. Frederick sent fourteen galleys for her, under the command of admiral Henry of Malta , pardoned since his role at the disaster at Mansurah during the Fifth Crusade. They were formally married at Brindisi on 9 November 1227. John and Frederick's relationship became frayed, as Frederick claimed the kingship of Jerusalem. John had allegedly been given assurances that he would be king of Jerusalem for
13189-535: Was excommunicated on 29 September 1227. The pope did not know, or care, about Frederick's illness, just that he had not lived up to his agreement. His letter to the emperor of 10 October 1227 laying out conditions for his rehabilitation referred less to the crusade than to infractions in Sicily. In his circular letter announcing the excommunication, Frederick was branded a wanton violator of his sacred oath taken many times, at Aachen, Veroli, Ferentino, and San Germano, and
13310-492: Was from an account already allocated to the Holy Land. Henry III of England did eventually implement a levy but it is not clear that much was made from the voluntary contributions. The conciliar decree Ad Liberandam published at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 formed a system of public financing of Crusades. The disbursements from the papal camera formed essential aid to the crusade movement, although
13431-457: Was held responsible for the deaths of Crusaders at Brindisi. He was accused of feigning his illness, relaxing at Pozzouli , rather than in the Holy Land. Frederick's response was more factual, and included an appeal for more to take the cross. In November 1227, the sultan's emissary Fakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh was again sent to meet with the emperor. It is here that it is believed the Fakhr ad-Din
13552-526: Was knighted by Frederick, as described by Jean de Joinville , chronicler of the Seventh Crusade. The negotiations were conducted in secret, causing concern among the German Crusaders. Even the amiable poet Freidank , positively disposed towards the emperor, expressed his sorrow. Shortly after Fakhr ad-Din had departed, the emperor's negotiator Thomas of Aquino sent word that al-Mu'azzam had suddenly died on 12 November 1227. This revelation changed
13673-470: Was named Frederick's regent in Sicily authorized to negotiate with Rome. But Gregory IX had already made up his mind, sending word to the Latin patriarch and masters of the military orders that the emperor's ban still held, despite his arrival. When Frederick and his companions arrived at Acre, John of Ibelin went immediately to Beirut to ensure that the city could withstand an imperial attack, returning to face
13794-407: Was only a few days old. Because her father John did not have a direct claim on the throne, he ruled as regent. During a meeting between John of Brienne, Pope Honorius III and Frederick II in the city of Ferentino in 1223, Isabella's fate was decided: Frederick accepted to finally go to the Crusade, but only as the legitimate King of Jerusalem, and this was only possible if he agreed to take
13915-631: Was quickly spent due to the delay of the crusade, and Frederick implemented a levy on Sicily beginning in 1228. He also gained financial support from Cyprus and as his new role as king of Jerusalem, but the lack of funds contributed to the small size of the Crusader army. The defeat of the Crusaders in the Fifth Crusade was a joint effort of the brothers al-Kamil , al-Mu'azzam and al-Ashraf . After 1221, al-Mu'azzam returned to Damascus, suspicious of his brothers and their motivations. In June 1222, he conducted an expedition against Guy I Embriaco to enforce
14036-443: Was recognized by al-Mu'azzam, who also held al-Ashraf at Damascus. At this point, al-Kamil began exploring peace with the West, dispatching the emir Fakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh to meet Frederick II (see below). By May 1227, al-Kamil was concerned for his sultanate, feeling increasingly boxed in. The arrival of the Crusaders began, and he was again considering his offer of Jerusalem made to Frederick II in 1226, that appearing to him as
14157-459: Was replaced by bishop Conrad of Hildesheim . The landgrave Louis of Thuringia took the cross in 1226 and with Walran of Limburg inspired hundreds of Thuringian and Austrian knights to join. They also drew significant support from Cologne, Lübeck and Worms. Many prelates and ministeriales also joined, including the poet Freidank . The numbers and prowess of the German crusades provided hope to
14278-717: Was solidified by the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, after which the crusaders were unable to dislodge him. Crusade against the Colonna Cardinals. The Crusade against the Colonna Cardinals (1298) was a crusade of Boniface VIII against the Colonna family . Expedition of the Almogavars. The Expedition of the Almogavars (1301–1311) consisted of campaigns of the Catalan Company , formed by veterans of
14399-406: Was somewhat amazed when he reached Palermo and discovered that Frederick spoke Arabic, had admiration for Muslim society and contempt for Rome. Frederick responded by sending his bailli and trusted advisor Thomas of Aquino and Berardus de Castacca , archbishop of Palermo , to meet with al-Kamil. Other than an exchange of gifts, nothing was accomplished. The bishop is reported to have continued on
14520-415: Was the only child of Maria of Montferrat , Queen of Jerusalem, and John of Brienne . Maria was the daughter of Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem by her second husband Conrad I , and heiress, on her mother's death, of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Maria died shortly after giving birth to Isabella II in 1212, possibly by puerperal fever . Because of this, Isabella II was proclaimed Queen of Jerusalem when she
14641-516: Was under the command of admiral Henry of Malta , and clergymen Berardus de Castacca, Nicolò dei Maltraversi, Marino Filangieri, and Giacomo of Patti, now archbishop of Capua , accompanied him. He had only a small force with him, since the main force had sailed in August 1227 and reinforcements in April 1228. Guérin de Montaigu , master of the Hospitallers who had helped convince the pope to break
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