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120-515: They are also known as Siberian or Eskimo ( Russian : эскимосы ). The name Yuit (юит, plural: юиты) was officially assigned to them in 1931, at the brief time of the campaign of support of Indigenous cultures in the Soviet Union . Their self-designation is Yupighyt (йупигыт) meaning "true people". Sirenik Eskimos also live in that area, but their extinct language , Sireniki Eskimo , shows many peculiarities among Eskimo languages and

240-858: A Yupik peoples , one of eight groups of Alaska Natives that inhabit the southern-central coast of the region. The Alutiiq language is relatively close to that spoken by the Yupik in the Bethel, Alaska area. But, it is considered a distinct language with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island , and the Chugach dialect, spoken on the southern Kenai Peninsula and in Prince William Sound . Residents of Nanwalek , located on southern part of

360-592: A non-governmental organization (NGO), claims to represent 180,000 people. In the Eskaleut language family , the Eskimo branch has an Inuit language sub-branch, and a sub-branch of four Yupik languages . Two Yupik languages are used in the Russian Far East as well as on St. Lawrence Island , and two in western Alaska, southwestern Alaska, and western Southcentral Alaska . The extinct Sirenik language

480-408: A wolf or vice versa. In winter, they appear in the form of wolf , in summer, in the form of orca . Orca was believed to help people in hunting on the sea — thus the boat represented the image of this animal, and the orca's wooden representation hang also from the hunter's belt. Also small sacrifices could be given to orcas: tobacco was thrown into the sea for them, because they were thought to help

600-972: A better chance of preventing their prey from escaping, which is killed by being thrown around, rammed and jumped on. Arctic orcas may attack beluga whales and narwhals stuck in pools enclosed by sea ice, the former are also driven into shallower water where juveniles are grabbed. By contrast, orcas appear to be wary of pilot whales , which have been recorded to mob and chase them. Nevertheless, possible predation on long-finned pilot whales has been recorded in Iceland , and one study suggests short-finned pilot whales are among Caribbean Orcas' prey. Killer whales have been recorded attacking short-finned pilot whales in Peru as well. Orcas also prey on larger species such as sperm whales , grey whales , humpback whales and minke whales . On three separate occasions in 2019 orcas were recorded to have killed blue whales off

720-510: A cage-like framework. But the household works were done in the room of the yaranga in front of this inner building, and also many household utensils were kept there. In winter storms, and at night also the dogs were there. This room for economical purposes was called /naˈtək/ . Other types of buildings among Chaplino Eskimos /aːwχtaq/ include a modernized type, and /pəˈɬʲuk/ that was used for summer. Many Indigenous Siberian cultures had persons working as mediator (between human and beings of

840-670: A consensus within the Alaskan context particularly is difficult, since Alaska Natives do not use the word Inuit to describe themselves nor is the term legally applicable only to Iñupiat and Yupik in Alaska, and as such, terms used in Canada like Paleo Inuit and Ancestral Inuit would not be acceptable. American linguist Lenore Grenoble has also explicitly deferred to the ICC resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to

960-448: A dead stranded animal in the Bay of Greifswald that had attracted a great deal of local interest. The orca is one of 35 species in the oceanic dolphin family , which first appeared about 11 million years ago. The orca lineage probably branched off shortly thereafter. Although it has morphological similarities with the false killer whale , the pygmy killer whale and the pilot whales ,

1080-508: A deceased person was affected, a certain rebirth was believed. Even before the birth of the baby, careful investigations took place: dreams, events were analyzed. After the birth, the baby's physical traits were compared to those of the deceased person. The name was important: if the baby died, it was thought that he/she has not given the "right" name. In case of sickness, it was hoped that giving additional names could result in healing. Amulets could be manifested in many forms, and could protect

1200-611: A designation for all circumpolar Native peoples, regardless of their local view on an appropriate term. They voted to replace the word Eskimo with Inuit . Even at that time, such a designation was not accepted by all. As a result, the Canadian government usage has replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit ( Inuk in singular). The ICC charter defines Inuit as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)". Despite

1320-501: A dramatic impact on prey species. However, whales in tropical areas appear to have more generalized diets due to lower food productivity. Orcas spend most of their time at shallow depths, but occasionally dive several hundred metres depending on their prey. Fish-eating orcas prey on around 30 species of fish. Some populations in the Norwegian and Greenland sea specialize in herring and follow that fish's autumnal migration to

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1440-407: A guest. Just like a polite host does not leave a recently arrived dear guest alone, thus similarly, the killed whale should not be left alone by the host (i.e. by the hunter who has killed it). Like a guest, it should not get hurt or feel sad. It must be entertained (e.g. by drum music, good foods). On the next whale migration (whales migrate twice a year, in spring to the north and in the autumn back),

1560-481: A historical, linguistic, archaeological, and cultural context. The governments in Canada and the United States have made moves to cease using the term Eskimo in official documents, but it has not been eliminated, as the word is in some places written into tribal, and therefore national, legal terminology. Canada officially uses the term Inuit to describe the indigenous Canadian people who are living in

1680-523: A matriline is 5.5 animals. Because females can reach age 90, as many as four generations travel together. These matrilineal groups are highly stable. Individuals separate for only a few hours at a time, to mate or forage. With one exception, an orca named Luna , no permanent separation of an individual from a resident matriline has been recorded. Closely related matrilines form loose aggregations called pods, usually consisting of one to four matrilines. Unlike matrilines, pods may separate for weeks or months at

1800-541: A mistranslation of the Spanish "asesino de ballenas" (literally "whale killer"), reflecting their historical predation on whales. Since the 1960s, the use of "orca" instead of "killer whale" has steadily grown in common use. The genus name Orcinus means "of the kingdom of the dead", or "belonging to Orcus ". Ancient Romans originally used orca (pl. orcae ) for these animals, possibly borrowing Ancient Greek ὄρυξ ( óryx ), which referred (among other things) to

1920-540: A more limited repertoire. Individuals likely learn their dialect through contact with pod members. Family-specific calls have been observed more frequently in the days following a calf's birth, which may help the calf learn them. Dialects are probably an important means of maintaining group identity and cohesiveness. Similarity in dialects likely reflects the degree of relatedness between pods, with variation growing over time. When pods meet, dominant call types decrease and subset call types increase. The use of both call types

2040-539: A period of several centuries, its speakers migrated across northern Alaska, through Canada, and into Greenland. The distinct culture of the Thule people (drawing strongly from the Birnirk culture ) developed in northwestern Alaska. It very quickly spread over the entire area occupied by Eskimo peoples, though it was not necessarily adopted by all of them. The Eskimo–Aleut family of languages includes two cognate branches:

2160-456: A protective circle around their calves with their flukes facing outwards, using them to repel the attackers. There is also evidence that humpback whales will defend against or mob orcas who are attacking either humpback calves or juveniles as well as members of other species. Prior to the advent of industrial whaling , great whales may have been the major food source for orcas. The introduction of modern whaling techniques may have aided orcas by

2280-742: A small group, herring are often caught using carousel feeding : the orcas force the herring into a tight ball by releasing bursts of bubbles or flashing their white undersides. They then slap the ball with their tail flukes, stunning or killing up to 15 fish at a time, then eating them one by one. Carousel feeding has been documented only in the Norwegian orca population, as well as some oceanic dolphin species. In New Zealand, sharks and rays appear to be important prey, including eagle rays , long-tail and short-tail stingrays , common threshers , smooth hammerheads , blue sharks , basking sharks , and shortfin makos . With sharks, orcas may herd them to

2400-470: A snowshoe' in Innu, and Innu language speakers refer to the neighbouring Mi'kmaq people using words that sound like eskimo . This interpretation is generally confirmed by more recent academic sources. In 1978, José Mailhot , a Quebec anthropologist who speaks Innu-aimun (Montagnais), published a paper suggesting that Eskimo meant 'people who speak a different language'. French traders who encountered

2520-549: A study of cytochrome b gene sequences indicates that its closest extant relatives are the snubfin dolphins of the genus Orcaella . However, a more recent (2018) study places the orca as a sister taxon to the Lissodelphininae, a clade that includes Lagenorhynchus and Cephalorhynchus . In contrast, a 2019 phylogenetic study found the orca to be the second most basal member of the Delphinidae, with only

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2640-439: A threat to humans, and no fatal attack has ever been documented in their natural habitat. There have been cases of captive orcas killing or injuring their handlers at marine theme parks. Orcas also feature strongly in the mythologies of indigenous cultures, and their reputation in different cultures ranges from being the souls of humans to merciless killers. Orcas, despite being dolphins, are commonly called "killer whales" due to

2760-798: A time. DNA testing indicates resident males nearly always mate with females from other pods. Clans, the next level of resident social structure, are composed of pods with similar dialects, and common but older maternal heritage. Clan ranges overlap, mingling pods from different clans. The highest association layer is the community, which consists of pods that regularly associate with each other but share no maternal relations or dialects. Transient pods are smaller than resident pods, typically consisting of an adult female and one or two of her offspring. Males typically maintain stronger relationships with their mothers than other females. These bonds can extend well into adulthood. Unlike residents, extended or permanent separation of transient offspring from natal matrilines

2880-444: A tribe that lived on the far eastern side of Russia, believed that the spirit of smallpox could be seen as a Russian woman with red hair. A local shaman would be there to greet migrating reindeer herders (who sometimes brought the disease with them). If the shaman saw the spirit of the disease in the caravan, several shaman worked together to fight it off with a seance. Others in the tribe helped with this ritual. Tradition says that

3000-483: A variety of fish , sharks , rays , and marine mammals such as seals and other dolphins and whales . They are highly social ; some populations are composed of highly stable matrilineal family groups (pods). Their sophisticated hunting techniques and vocal behaviors, often specific to a particular group and passed along from generation to generation, are considered to be manifestations of animal culture . The International Union for Conservation of Nature assesses

3120-540: A variety of techniques designed to stop them, such as the use of unbaited lines as decoys. Once, fishermen placed their boats several miles apart, taking turns retrieving small amounts of their catch, in the hope that the whales would not have enough time to move between boats to steal the catch as it was being retrieved. The tactic worked initially, but the orcas figured it out quickly and split into groups. In other anecdotes, researchers describe incidents in which wild orcas playfully tease humans by repeatedly moving objects

3240-649: A voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is also present. The Eskimo sub-family consists of the Inuit language and Yupik language sub-groups. The Sirenikski language , which is virtually extinct, is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family. Other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch. Inuit languages comprise a dialect continuum , or dialect chain, that stretches from Unalakleet and Norton Sound in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east to Greenland. Changes from western (Iñupiaq) to eastern dialects are marked by

3360-458: A weight of over 10 t (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons). Calves at birth weigh about 180 kg (400 lb) and are about 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) long. The skeleton of the orca is typical for an oceanic dolphin, but more robust. With their distinctive pigmentation, adult orcas are seldom confused with any other species. When seen from a distance, juveniles can be confused with false killer whales or Risso's dolphins . The orca

3480-416: A whale species, perhaps a narwhal . As part of the family Delphinidae , the species is more closely related to other oceanic dolphins than to other whales. They are sometimes referred to as "blackfish", a name also used for other whale species. "Grampus" is a former name for the species, but is now seldom used. This meaning of "grampus" should not be confused with the genus Grampus , whose only member

3600-430: Is Risso's dolphin . Orcinus orca is the only recognized extant species in the genus Orcinus , and one of many animal species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae . Konrad Gessner wrote the first scientific description of an orca in his Piscium & aquatilium animantium natura of 1558, part of the larger Historia animalium , based on examination of

3720-540: Is Alutiiq, which is the southernmost of the Yupik languages. Although the grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically. Differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any one of the Yupik languages are greater than between any two Yupik languages. Even the dialectal differences within Alutiiq and Central Alaskan Yup'ik sometimes are relatively great for locations that are relatively close geographically. Despite

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3840-453: Is a toothed whale and the largest member of the oceanic dolphin family. It is the only extant species in the genus Orcinus and is recognizable by its black-and-white patterned body. A cosmopolitan species , they are found in diverse marine environments, from Arctic to Antarctic regions to tropical seas. Orcas are apex predators with a diverse diet. Individual populations often specialize in particular types of prey. This includes

3960-681: Is a behaviour in which a whale holds its head above water to view its surroundings. Resident orcas swim alongside porpoises and other dolphins . Orcas will engage in surplus killing , that is, killing that is not designed to be for food. As an example, a BBC film crew witnessed orca in British Columbia playing with a male Steller sea lion to exhaustion, but not eating it. Orcas are notable for their complex societies. Only elephants and higher primates live in comparably complex social structures . Due to orcas' complex social bonds, many marine experts have concerns about how humane it

4080-828: Is an exonym that refers to two closely related Indigenous peoples : Inuit (including the Alaska Native Iñupiat , the Canadian Inuit, and the Greenlandic Inuit ) and the Yupik (or Yuit ) of eastern Siberia and Alaska. A related third group, the Aleut , who inhabit the Aleutian Islands , are generally excluded from the definition of Eskimo . The three groups share a relatively recent common ancestor, and speak related languages belonging to

4200-871: Is called biphonation. The increased subset call types may be the distinguishing factor between pods and inter-pod relations. Dialects also distinguish types. Resident dialects contain seven to 17 (mean = 11) distinctive call types. All members of the North American west coast transient community express the same basic dialect, although minor regional variation in call types is evident. Preliminary research indicates offshore orcas have group-specific dialects unlike those of residents and transients. Norwegian and Icelandic herring -eating orcas appear to have different vocalizations for activities like hunting. A population that live in McMurdo Sound , Antarctica have 28 complex burst-pulse and whistle calls. Orcas have

4320-605: Is common, with juveniles and adults of both sexes participating. Some males become "rovers" and do not form long-term associations, occasionally joining groups that contain reproductive females. As in resident clans, transient community members share an acoustic repertoire, although regional differences in vocalizations have been noted. As with residents and transients, the lifestyle of these whales appears to reflect their diet; fish-eating orcas off Norway have resident-like social structures, while mammal-eating orcas in Argentina and

4440-591: Is difficult to estimate, but they clearly prefer higher latitudes and coastal areas over pelagic environments. Areas which serve as major study sites for the species include the coasts of Iceland , Norway, the Valdés Peninsula of Argentina, the Crozet Islands , New Zealand and parts of the west coast of North America, from California to Alaska . Systematic surveys indicate the highest densities of orcas (>0.40 individuals per 100 km ) in

4560-817: Is likely to be the result of scavenging remains dumped by whalers. One orca was also attacked by its companions after being shot. Although resident orcas have never been observed to eat other marine mammals, they occasionally harass and kill porpoises and seals for no apparent reason. Some dolphins recognize resident orcas as harmless and remain in the same area. Orcas do consume seabirds but are more likely to kill and leave them uneaten. Penguin species recorded as prey in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters include gentoo penguins , chinstrap penguins , king penguins and rockhopper penguins . Orcas in many areas may prey on cormorants and gulls . A captive orca at Marineland of Canada discovered it could regurgitate fish onto

4680-442: Is mainly limited to surfacing activities and milling (slow swimming with no apparent direction) after a kill. All members of a resident pod use similar calls, known collectively as a dialect . Dialects are composed of specific numbers and types of discrete, repetitive calls. They are complex and stable over time. Call patterns and structure are distinctive within matrilines. Newborns produce calls similar to their mothers, but have

4800-427: Is mostly black but with sharply bordered white areas. The entire lower jaw is white and from here, the colouration stretches across the underside to the genital area; narrowing and expanding some, and extending into lateral flank patches close to the end. The tail fluke (fin) is also white on the underside, while the eyes have white oval-shaped patches behind and above them, and a grey or white "saddle patch" exists behind

4920-484: Is mutually unintelligible with the neighboring Siberian Yupik languages. The Siberian Yupik on St. Lawrence Island live in the villages of Savoonga and Gambell , and are widely known for their skillful carvings of walrus ivory and whale bone, as well as the baleen of bowhead whales . These even include some "moving sculptures" with complicated pulleys animating scenes such as walrus hunting or traditional dances. The winter building of Chaplino Eskimos (Ungazighmiit)

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5040-423: Is present also in many tales of Sireniki Eskimos (as mentioned, their exact classification inside Eskimo peoples is not settled yet). It was thought that the prey of the marine hunt could return to the sea and become a complete animal again. That is why they did not break the bones, only cut them at the joints. In the tales and beliefs of this people, wolf and orca are thought to be identical: orca can become

5160-466: Is sometimes claimed to be related. A variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origin of the word Eskimo . According to Smithsonian linguist Ives Goddard , etymologically the word derives from the Innu-aimun (Montagnais) word ayas̆kimew , meaning 'a person who laces a snowshoe ', and is related to husky (a breed of dog). The word assime·w means 'she laces

5280-489: Is that, in multiple Eskimo languages, there are, or have been in simultaneous usage, indeed fifty plus words for snow. Historically, Inuit cuisine , which is taken here to include Greenlandic , Yupʼik and Aleut cuisine, consisted of a diet of animal source foods that were fished, hunted, and gathered locally. Inuit inhabit the Arctic and northern Bering Sea coasts of Alaska in the United States, and Arctic coasts of

5400-548: Is the preferred term, and in the eastern Canadian Arctic Inuit . The language is often called Inuktitut , though other local designations are also used. Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and section 35 of the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 recognized Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal peoples in Canada . Although Inuit can be applied to all of

5520-426: Is to keep them in captivity . Resident orcas in the eastern North Pacific live in particularly complex and stable social groups. Unlike any other known mammal social structure, resident whales live with their mothers for their entire lives. These family groups are based on matrilines consisting of the eldest female (matriarch) and her sons and daughters, and the descendants of her daughters, etc. The average size of

5640-560: Is understood that some or all of these ancient people migrated across the Chukchi Sea to North America during the pre-neolithic era, somewhere around 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. It is believed that ancestors of the Aleut people inhabited the Aleutian Chain 10,000 years ago. The earliest positively identified Paleo-Eskimo cultures ( Early Paleo-Eskimo ) date to 5,000 years ago. Several earlier indigenous peoples existed in

5760-411: The Aleut (Unangan) branch and the Eskimo branch. The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to those of the Eskimo subfamily. Eskimo–Aleut languages possess voiceless plosives at the bilabial , coronal , velar and uvular positions in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops but retained the nasal . In the Eskimo subfamily

5880-492: The Atlantic white-sided dolphin ( Leucopleurus acutus ) being more basal. The three to five types of orcas may be distinct enough to be considered different races , subspecies , or possibly even species (see Species problem ). The IUCN reported in 2008, "The taxonomy of this genus is clearly in need of review, and it is likely that O. orca will be split into a number of different species or at least subspecies over

6000-987: The Bering Straits region, including the Seward Peninsula. Utqiaġvik , the northernmost city in the United States, is above the Arctic Circle and in the Iñupiat region. Their language is known as Iñupiaq . Their current communities include 34 villages across Iñupiat Nunaŋat (Iñupiaq lands) including seven Alaskan villages in the North Slope Borough , affiliated with the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation ; eleven villages in Northwest Arctic Borough ; and sixteen villages affiliated with

6120-863: The Bering Straits Regional Corporation . The Yupik are indigenous or aboriginal peoples who live along the coast of western Alaska, especially on the Yukon - Kuskokwim delta and along the Kuskokwim River ( Central Alaskan Yup'ik ); in southern Alaska (the Alutiiq ); and along the eastern coast of Chukotka in the Russian Far East and St. Lawrence Island in western Alaska (the Siberian Yupik ). The Yupik economy has traditionally been strongly dominated by

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6240-540: The Crozet Islands behave more like transients. Orcas of the same sex and age group may engage in physical contact and synchronous surfacing. These behaviours do not occur randomly among individuals in a pod, providing evidence of "friendships". Like all cetaceans , orcas depend heavily on underwater sound for orientation, feeding, and communication. They produce three categories of sounds: clicks, whistles, and pulsed calls. Clicks are believed to be used primarily for navigation and discriminating prey and other objects in

6360-510: The Crozet Islands , mothers push their calves onto the beach, waiting to pull the youngster back if needed. In March 2023, a female orca was spotted with a newborn pilot whale in Snæfellsnes . People who have interacted closely with orcas offer numerous anecdotes demonstrating the whales' curiosity, playfulness, and ability to solve problems. Alaskan orcas have not only learned how to steal fish from longlines , but have also overcome

6480-400: The Crozet Islands , orcas feed on South American sea lions and southern elephant seals in shallow water, even beaching temporarily to grab prey before wriggling back to the sea. Beaching, usually fatal to cetaceans, is not an instinctive behaviour, and can require years of practice for the young. Orcas can then release the animal near juvenile whales, allowing the younger whales to practice

6600-587: The Faroe Islands . In the Antarctic, orcas range up to the edge of the pack ice and are believed to venture into the denser pack ice, finding open leads much like beluga whales in the Arctic. However, orcas are merely seasonal visitors to Arctic waters, and do not approach the pack ice in the summer. With the rapid Arctic sea ice decline in the Hudson Strait , their range now extends deep into

6720-623: The Greenlandic language and Danish. Greenlandic Inuit belong to three groups: the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut ; the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic"); and the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun . The word Eskimo is a racially charged term in Canada. In Canada's Central Arctic, Inuinnaq

6840-761: The Innu (Montagnais) in the eastern areas adopted their word for the more western peoples and spelled it as Esquimau or Esquimaux in a transliteration. Some people consider Eskimo offensive, because it is popularly perceived to mean 'eaters of raw meat' in Algonquian languages common to people along the Atlantic coast. An unnamed Cree speaker suggested the original word that became corrupted to Eskimo might have been askamiciw (meaning 'he eats it raw'); Inuit are referred to in some Cree texts as askipiw (meaning 'eats something raw). Regardless,

6960-697: The Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut ; the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic"), and the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun . The four Yupik languages , by contrast, including Alutiiq (Sugpiaq), Central Alaskan Yup'ik , Naukan (Naukanski), and Siberian Yupik , are distinct languages with phonological, morphological, and lexical differences. They demonstrate limited mutual intelligibility. Additionally, both Alutiiq and Central Yup'ik have considerable dialect diversity. The northernmost Yupik languages – Siberian Yupik and Naukan Yupik – are linguistically only slightly closer to Inuit than

7080-537: The Northwest Territories , Nunavut , Quebec , and Labrador in Canada, and Greenland (associated with Denmark). Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, marine mammals , and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, and tools. Their food sources primarily relied on seals, whales, whale blubber, walrus, and fish, all of which they hunted using harpoons on

7200-477: The nominate subspecies . Four types have been documented in the Antarctic , Types A–D. Two dwarf species, named Orcinus nanus and Orcinus glacialis , were described during the 1980s by Soviet researchers, but most cetacean researchers are skeptical about their status. Complete mitochondrial sequencing indicates the two Antarctic groups (types B and C) should be recognized as distinct species, as should

7320-513: The 1990s was controversially attributed by some scientists to orca predation, although with no direct evidence. The decline of sea otters followed a decline in seal populations, which in turn may be substitutes for their original prey, now decimated by industrial whaling. Orcas have been observed preying on terrestrial mammals , such as moose swimming between islands off the northwest coast of North America. Orca cannibalism has also been reported based on analysis of stomach contents, but this

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7440-401: The 2000s that 2,321 orcas were in the seas around Japan. Orcas are apex predators , meaning that they themselves have no natural predators. They are sometimes called "wolves of the sea", because they hunt in groups like wolf packs. Orcas hunt varied prey including fish, cephalopods , mammals, seabirds , and sea turtles . Different populations or ecotypes may specialize, and some can have

7560-681: The 21st century, usage in North America has declined. Linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences exist between Yupik and Inuit. In Canada and Greenland, and to a certain extent in Alaska, the term Eskimo is predominantly seen as offensive and has been widely replaced by the term Inuit   or terms specific to a particular group or community. This has resulted in a trend whereby some non-Indigenous people believe that they should use Inuit even for Yupik who are non- Inuit . Greenlandic Inuit generally refer to themselves as Greenlanders ( Kalaallit or Grønlændere ) and speak

7680-527: The Canadian context, continued use of any term that incorporates Eskimo is potentially harmful to the relationships between archaeologists and the Inuit and Inuvialuit communities who are our hosts and increasingly our research partners." Hodgetts and Wells suggested using more specific terms when possible (e.g., Dorset and Groswater ) and agreed with Frieson in using the Inuit tradition to replace Neo-Eskimo , although they noted replacement for Palaeoeskimo

7800-557: The Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island is nearly identical. About 1,050 of a total Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska speak the language. It is the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children. In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn and study the language, though it is no longer learned as a first language by children. About 70 of 400 Naukan people still speak Naukanski. The Naukan originate on

7920-601: The Chukot Peninsula in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in Siberia. Despite the relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates back to 1732. While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Central Yup'ik Eskimo. Orca The orca ( Orcinus orca ), or killer whale ,

8040-424: The Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia. In Alaska, the term Eskimo is still used because it includes both Iñupiat (singular: Iñupiaq), who are Inuit, and Yupik , who are not. The term Alaska Native is inclusive of (and under U.S. and Alaskan law, as well as the linguistic and cultural legacy of Alaska, refers to) all Indigenous peoples of Alaska, including not only

8160-520: The ICC's 1977 decision to adopt the term Inuit , this has not been accepted by all or even most Yupik people. In 2010, the ICC passed a resolution in which they implored scientists to use Inuit and Paleo-Inuit instead of Eskimo or Paleo-Eskimo . In a 2015 commentary in the journal Arctic , Canadian archaeologist Max Friesen argued fellow Arctic archaeologists should follow the ICC and use Paleo-Inuit instead of Paleo-Eskimo . In 2016, Lisa Hodgetts and Arctic editor Patricia Wells wrote: "In

8280-806: The Iñupiat (Alaskan Inuit) and the Yupik, but also groups such as the Aleut, who share a recent ancestor, as well as the largely unrelated indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and the Alaskan Athabaskans , such as the Eyak people . The term Alaska Native has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the United States as a result of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. It does not apply to Inuit or Yupik originating outside

8400-643: The Kenai Peninsula near Seldovia , speak what they call Sugpiaq. They are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel. With a population of approximately 3,000, and the number of speakers in the hundreds, Alutiiq communities are working to revitalize their language. Yup'ik , with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language , who live in western Alaska and southwestern Alaska from southern Norton Sound to

8520-769: The North Pacific transients, leaving the others as subspecies pending additional data. A 2019 study of Type D orcas also found them to be distinct from other populations and possibly even a unique species. Orcas are the largest extant members of the dolphin family. Males typically range from 6 to 8 m (20 to 26 ft) long and weigh in excess of 6 t (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons). Females are smaller, generally ranging from 5 to 7 m (16 to 23 ft) and weighing about 3 to 4 t (3.0 to 3.9 long tons; 3.3 to 4.4 short tons). Orcas may attain larger sizes as males have been recorded at 9.8 m (32 ft) and females at 8.5 m (28 ft). Large males can reach

8640-489: The Norwegian coast. Salmon account for 96% of northeast Pacific residents' diet, including 65% of large, fatty Chinook . Chum salmon are also eaten, but smaller sockeye and pink salmon are not a significant food item. Depletion of specific prey species in an area is, therefore, cause for concern for local populations, despite the high diversity of prey. On average, an orca eats 227 kilograms (500 lb) each day. While salmon are usually hunted by an individual whale or

8760-1144: The Yukon–Alaska border in the west across the Arctic to northern Labrador. The Inuvialuit live in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region , the northern part of Yukon and the Northwest Territories , which stretches to the Amundsen Gulf and the Nunavut border and includes the western Canadian Arctic Islands . The land was demarked in 1984 by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement. The majority of Inuit live in Nunavut (a territory of Canada ), Nunavik (the northern part of Quebec ) and in Nunatsiavut (Inuit settlement region in Labrador ). The Iñupiat are Inuit of Alaska's Northwest Arctic and North Slope boroughs and

8880-561: The Yupik branch. An overview of the Eskimo–Aleut languages family is given below: American linguist Lenore Grenoble has explicitly deferred to this resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to the language branch. There has been a long-running linguistic debate about whether or not the speakers of the Eskimo-Aleut language group have an unusually large number of words for snow. The general modern consensus

9000-470: The age of 10 and reach peak fertility around 20, experiencing periods of polyestrous cycling separated by non-cycling periods of three to 16 months. Females can often breed until age 40, followed by a rapid decrease in fertility. Orcas are among the few animals that undergo menopause and live for decades after they have finished breeding. The lifespans of wild females average 50 to 80 years. Some are claimed to have lived substantially longer: Granny (J2)

9120-546: The belief system, among others) — usually termed as " shamans " in the literature. As Eskimo cultures were far from homogeneous (although had some similarities), thus also shamanism among Eskimo peoples had many variants. Siberian Yupiks had shamans as well. Compared to the variants found among Eskimo groups of America, shamanism among Siberian Yupiks stressed more the importance of maintaining good relationship with sea animals. Ungazighmiit people (the largest of Siberian Yupik variants) had /aˈliɣnalʁi/ s, who received presents for

9240-592: The country's northern sectors and are not First Nations or Métis . The United States government legally uses Alaska Native for enrolled tribal members of the Yupik, Inuit, and Aleut, and also for non-Eskimos including the Tlingit , the Haida , the Eyak , and the Tsimshian , in addition to at least nine northern Athabaskan/Dene peoples. Other non-enrolled individuals also claim Eskimo/Aleut descent, making it

9360-474: The decline of these as well. Other marine mammal prey includes seal species such as harbour seals , elephant seals , California sea lions , Steller sea lions , South American sea lions and walruses . Often, to avoid injury, orcas disable their prey before killing and eating it. This may involve throwing it in the air, slapping it with their tails, ramming it, or breaching and landing on it. In steeply banked beaches off Península Valdés , Argentina, and

9480-541: The dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another. Seward Peninsula dialects in western Alaska, where much of the Iñupiat culture has been in place for perhaps less than 500 years, are greatly affected by phonological influence from the Yupik languages. Eastern Greenlandic , at the opposite end of Inuit range, has had significant word replacement due to a unique form of ritual name avoidance. Ethnographically, Greenlandic Inuit belong to three groups:

9600-406: The difficult capture technique on the now-weakened prey. In the Antarctic, type B orcas hunt Weddell seals and other prey by "wave-hunting". They "spy-hop" to locate them on resting on ice floes, and then swim in groups to create waves that wash over the floe. This washes the prey into the water, where other orcas lie in wait. In the Aleutian Islands , a decline in sea otter populations in

9720-648: The dorsal fin and across the back. Males and females also have different patterns of black and white skin in their genital areas. In newborns, the white areas are yellow or orange coloured. Antarctic orcas may have pale grey to nearly white backs. Some Antarctic orcas are brown and yellow due to diatoms in the water. Both albino and melanistic orcas have been documented. Orca pectoral fins are large and rounded, resembling paddles, with those of males significantly larger than those of females. Dorsal fins also exhibit sexual dimorphism , with those of males about 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) high, more than twice

9840-492: The dorsal fin and the pattern of white or grey in the saddle patch are unique. Published directories contain identifying photographs and names for hundreds of North Pacific animals. Photographic identification has enabled the local population of orcas to be counted each year rather than estimated, and has enabled great insight into life cycles and social structures. Orcas are found in all oceans and most seas. Due to their enormous range , numbers, and density, relative distribution

9960-406: The dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features, increasing consonant assimilation (e.g., kumlu , meaning "thumb", changes to kuvlu , changes to kublu , changes to kulluk , changes to kulluq , ) and increased consonant lengthening, and lexical change. Thus, speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another, but speakers from dialects distant from each other on

10080-527: The elevation of Eastern North American resident and transient orcas as distinct species, O. ater and O. rectipinnus respectively. The Society for Marine Mammalogy declined to recognize the two species, citing uncertainty as to whether the types constituted unique species or subspecies. "Pending a more complete global review and revision", the Society provisionally recognized them as subspecies Orcinus orca ater and O. o. rectipinnus , with O. o. orca as

10200-440: The family of Eskaleut languages . These circumpolar peoples have traditionally inhabited the Arctic and subarctic regions from eastern Siberia (Russia) to Alaska (United States), Northern Canada , Nunavik , Nunatsiavut , and Greenland . Some Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and other individuals consider the term Eskimo , which is of a disputed etymology, to be pejorative or even offensive. Eskimo continues to be used within

10320-539: The harvest of marine mammals , especially seals , walrus , and whales . The Alutiiq (pronounced / ə ˈ l uː t ɪ k / ə- LOO -tik in English; from Promyshlenniki Russian Алеутъ, " Aleut "; plural often "Alutiit"), also called by their ancestral name Sugpiaq ( / ˈ s ʊ ɡ ˌ b j ɑː k / SUUG -byahk or / ˈ s ʊ ɡ p i ˌ æ k / SUUG -pee- AK ; plural often "Sugpiat"), as well as Pacific Eskimo or Pacific Yupik, are

10440-526: The humans are trying to reach, or suddenly start to toss around a chunk of ice after a human throws a snowball. The orca's use of dialects and the passing of other learned behaviours from generation to generation have been described as a form of animal culture . The complex and stable vocal and behavioural cultures of sympatric groups of killer whales ( Orcinus orca ) appear to have no parallel outside humans and represent an independent evolution of cultural faculties. Female orcas begin to mature at around

10560-527: The ice. Clothing consisted of robes made of wolfskin and reindeer skin to acclimate to the low temperatures. They maintain a unique Inuit culture . Greenlandic Inuit make up 90% of Greenland's population. They belong to three major groups: Canadian Inuit live primarily in Inuit Nunangat (lit. "lands, waters and ices of the [Inuit] people"), their traditional homeland although some people live in southern parts of Canada. Inuit Nunangat ranges from

10680-526: The language branch. Genetic evidence suggests that the Americas were populated from northeastern Asia in multiple waves. While the great majority of indigenous American peoples can be traced to a single early migration of Paleo-Indians , the Na-Dené , Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit admixture from distinct populations that migrated into America at a later date and are closely linked to

10800-656: The language. The five dialects of Central Alaskan Yup'ik include General Central Yup'ik, and the Egegik, Norton Sound, Hooper Bay-Chevak, and Nunivak dialects. In the latter two dialects, both the language and the people are called Cup'ik . Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia in the Russian Far East and in the villages of Gambell and Savoonga on St. Lawrence Island in Alaska. The Central Siberian Yupik spoken on

10920-603: The liver of sharks. In one case a single orca was observed killing and eating a great white shark on its own. Orcas are sophisticated and effective predators of marine mammals . They are recorded to prey on other cetacean species, usually smaller dolphins and porpoises such as common dolphins , bottlenose dolphins , Pacific white-sided dolphins , dusky dolphins , harbour porpoises and Dall's porpoises . While hunting these species, orcas usually have to chase them to exhaustion. For highly social species, orca pods try to separate an individual from its group. Larger groups have

11040-442: The lower teeth when the mouth is closed. The firm middle and back teeth hold prey in place, while the front teeth are inclined slightly forward and outward to protect them from powerful jerking movements. Orcas have good eyesight above and below the water, excellent hearing, and a good sense of touch. They have exceptionally sophisticated echolocation abilities, detecting the location and characteristics of prey and other objects in

11160-583: The next few years." Although large variation in the ecological distinctiveness of different orca groups complicate simple differentiation into types, research off the west coast of North America has identified fish-eating "residents", mammal-eating "transients" and "offshores". Other populations have not been as well studied, although specialized fish and mammal eating orcas have been distinguished elsewhere. Mammal-eating orcas in different regions were long thought likely to be closely related, but genetic testing has refuted this hypothesis. A 2024 study supported

11280-545: The north side of Bristol Bay , on the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta , and on Nelson Island . The use of the apostrophe in the name Yup'ik is a written convention to denote the long pronunciation of the p sound; but it is spoken the same in other Yupik languages . Of all the Alaska Native languages , Central Alaskan Yup'ik has the most speakers, with about 10,000 of a total Yup'ik population of 21,000 still speaking

11400-585: The northeast Atlantic around the Norwegian coast, in the north Pacific along the Aleutian Islands , the Gulf of Alaska and in the Southern Ocean off much of the coast of Antarctica . They are considered "common" (0.20–0.40 individuals per 100 km ) in the eastern Pacific along the coasts of British Columbia , Washington and Oregon , in the North Atlantic Ocean around Iceland and

11520-467: The northern circumpolar regions of eastern Siberia, Alaska, and Canada (although probably not in Greenland). The Paleo-Eskimo peoples appear to have developed in Alaska from people related to the Arctic small tool tradition in eastern Asia, whose ancestors had probably migrated to Alaska at least 3,000 to 5,000 years earlier. The Yupik languages and cultures in Alaska evolved in place, beginning with

11640-697: The northwest Atlantic. Occasionally, orcas swim into freshwater rivers. They have been documented 100 mi (160 km) up the Columbia River in the United States. They have also been found in the Fraser River in Canada and the Horikawa River in Japan. Migration patterns are poorly understood. Each summer, the same individuals appear off the coasts of British Columbia and Washington. Despite decades of research, where these animals go for

11760-451: The orca's conservation status as data deficient because of the likelihood that two or more orca types are separate species . Some local populations are considered threatened or endangered due to prey depletion, habitat loss , pollution (by PCBs ), capture for marine mammal parks , and conflicts with human fisheries . In late 2005, the southern resident orcas were placed on the U.S. Endangered Species list . Orcas are not usually

11880-603: The original pre-Dorset Indigenous culture developed in Alaska. At least 4,000 years ago, the Unangan culture of the Aleut became distinct. It is not generally considered an Eskimo culture. However, there is some possibility of an Aleutian origin of the Dorset people, who in turn are a likely ancestor of today's Inuit and Yupik. Approximately 1,500 to 2,000 years ago, apparently in northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared. Inuit language became distinct and, over

12000-403: The peoples of far northeastern Asia (e.g. Chukchi ), and only more remotely to the majority indigenous American type. For modern Eskimo–Aleut speakers, this later ancestral component makes up almost half of their genomes. The ancient Paleo-Eskimo population was genetically distinct from the modern circumpolar populations, but eventually derives from the same far northeastern Asian cluster. It

12120-401: The person wearing them or the entire family, and there were also hunting amulets. Some examples: The orca , wolf , raven , spider , whale , were revered animals. Also folklore (e.g. tale) examples demonstrate this. For example, a spider saves the life of a girl. The motif of spider as a benevolent personage, saving people from peril with its cobweb, lifting them up to the sky in danger,

12240-486: The previously killed whale is sent off back to the sea in the course of a farewell ritual. If the killed whale was pleased to (during its being a guest for a half year), then it can be hoped that it will return later, too: thus, also the future whale hunts will succeed. In a tale, the sky seems to be imagined arching as a vault. Celestial bodies form holes in it: beyond this vault, there is an especially light space. Eskimo Eskimo ( / ˈ ɛ s k ɪ m oʊ / )

12360-408: The relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates back to 1732. While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Central Yup'ik Eskimo. The Sirenikski language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to

12480-422: The rest of the year remains unknown. Transient pods have been sighted from southern Alaska to central California. Worldwide population estimates are uncertain, but recent consensus suggests a minimum of 50,000 (2006). Local estimates include roughly 25,000 in the Antarctic, 8,500 in the tropical Pacific, 2,250–2,700 off the cooler northeast Pacific and 500–1,500 off Norway. Japan's Fisheries Agency estimated in

12600-405: The sea hunter in driving walrus. It was believed that the orca was a help of the hunters even if it was in the guise of wolf: this wolf was thought to force the reindeer to allow itself to be killed by the hunters. It is thought that during the hunt only those people who have been selected by the spirit of the sea could kill the whale. The hunter has to please the killed whale: it must be treated as

12720-524: The second-heaviest brains among marine mammals (after sperm whales , which have the largest brain of any animal). Orcas have more gray matter and more cortical neurons than any mammal, including humans. They can be trained in captivity and are often described as intelligent, although defining and measuring "intelligence" is difficult in a species whose environment and behavioural strategies are very different from those of humans. Orcas imitate others, and seem to deliberately teach skills to their kin. Off

12840-511: The shamanizing, healing. This payment had a special name, /aˈkiliːɕaq/ — in their language, there were many words for the different kinds of presents and payments and this was one of them. (The many kinds of presents and the words designating them were related to the culture: fests, marriage etc.; or made such fine distinctions like "thing, given to someone who has none", "thing, given, not begged for", "thing, given to someone as to anybody else", "thing, given for exchange" etc.). The Even people,

12960-400: The size of the female's, with the male's fin more like an elongated isosceles triangle , whereas the female's is more curved. In the skull, adult males have longer lower jaws than females, as well as larger occipital crests . The snout is blunt and lacks the beak of other species. The orca's teeth are very strong, and its jaws exert a powerful grip; the upper teeth fall into the gaps between

13080-441: The smallpox spirit changed from a woman to a red bull when she was attacked. The spirit of smallpox was supposed to be very powerful, and if the shaman's ritual failed, all the local people would die. The spirit would only spare two people to bury all the rest. But if the ritual worked, the spirit would be forced to leave. Similarly to several other Indigenous cultures, the name-giving of a newborn baby among Siberian Yupik meant that

13200-404: The sound of exploding harpoons indicating the availability of prey to scavenge, and compressed air inflation of whale carcasses causing them to float, thus exposing them to scavenging. However, the devastation of great whale populations by unfettered whaling has possibly reduced their availability for orcas, and caused them to expand their consumption of smaller marine mammals, thus contributing to

13320-405: The south coast of Western Australia, including an estimated 18–22-meter (59–72 ft) individual. Large whales require much effort and coordination to kill and orcas often target calves. A hunt begins with a chase followed by a violent attack on the exhausted prey. Large whales often show signs of orca attack via tooth rake marks. Pods of female sperm whales sometimes protect themselves by forming

13440-708: The state. As a result, the term Eskimo is still in use in Alaska. Alternative terms, such as Inuit-Yupik , have been proposed, but none has gained widespread acceptance. Early 21st century population estimates registered more than 135,000 individuals of Eskimo descent, with approximately 85,000 living in North America, 50,000 in Greenland, and the rest residing in Siberia. In 1977, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) meeting in Barrow, Alaska (now Utqiaġvik, Alaska ), officially adopted Inuit as

13560-481: The surface and strike them with their tail flukes, while bottom-dwelling rays are cornered, pinned to the ground and taken to the surface. In other parts of the world, orcas have preyed on broadnose sevengill sharks , small whale sharks and even great white sharks . Competition between orcas and white sharks is probable in regions where their diets overlap. The arrival of orcas in an area can cause white sharks to flee and forage elsewhere. Orcas appear to target

13680-458: The surface, attracting sea gulls, and then eat the birds. Four others then learned to copy the behaviour. Day-to-day orca behaviour generally consists of foraging , travelling, resting and socializing. Orcas frequently engage in surface behaviour such as breaching (jumping completely out of the water) and tail-slapping. These activities may have a variety of purposes, such as courtship, communication, dislodging parasites , or play . Spyhopping

13800-483: The surrounding environment, but are also commonly heard during social interactions. Northeast Pacific resident groups tend to be much more vocal than transient groups in the same waters. Residents feed primarily on Chinook and chum salmon, which are insensitive to orca calls (inferred from the audiogram of Atlantic salmon). In contrast, the marine mammal prey of transients hear whale calls well and thus transients are typically silent. Vocal behaviour in these whales

13920-681: The term still carries a derogatory connotation for many Inuit and Yupik. One of the first printed uses of the French word Esquimaux comes from Samuel Hearne 's A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 first published in 1795. The term Eskimo is still used by people to encompass Inuit and Yupik, as well as other Indigenous or Alaska Native and Siberian peoples. In

14040-577: The water by emitting clicks and listening for echoes, as do other members of the dolphin family. The mean body temperature of the orca is 36 to 38 °C (97 to 100 °F). Like most marine mammals, orcas have a layer of insulating blubber ranging from 7.6 to 10 cm (3.0 to 3.9 in) thick beneath the skin. The pulse is about 60 heartbeats per minute when the orca is at the surface, dropping to 30 beats/min when submerged. An individual orca can often be identified from its dorsal fin and saddle patch. Variations such as nicks, scratches, and tears on

14160-531: The world's "most widespread aboriginal group". There are between 171,000 and 187,000 Inuit and Yupik, the majority of whom live in or near their traditional circumpolar homeland. Of these, 53,785 (2010) live in the United States, 70,545 (2021) in Canada, 51,730 (2021) in Greenland and 1,657 (2021) in Russia. In addition, 16,730 people living in Denmark were born in Greenland. The Inuit Circumpolar Council ,

14280-477: Was a round, dome-shaped building. It is called yaranga in the literature, the same word referring also to the similar building of the Chukchi. In the language of Chaplino Eskimos, its name was /məŋtˈtəʁaq/ . There was a smaller cabin inside it at its back part, the /aːɣra/ , used for sleeping and living. It was separated from the outer, cooler parts of the yaranga with haired reindeer skins and grass, supported by

14400-473: Was still an open question and discussed Paleo-Inuit , Arctic Small Tool Tradition , and pre-Inuit , as well as Inuktitut loanwords like Tuniit and Sivullirmiut , as possibilities. In 2020, Katelyn Braymer-Hayes and colleagues argued in the Journal of Anthropological Archaeology that there is a "clear need" to replace the terms Neo-Eskimo and Paleo-Eskimo , citing the ICC resolution, but finding

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